Radekan astronomical tower is a unique building of the medieval architecture of Iran. Aspects influencing the formation of student interuniversity centers Architectural structures with an astronomical aspect

The unity of architecture is achieved by a number of compositional and artistic means.

¾ The simplest artistic means - geometric shape.

Determined the ratio of the dimensions of the form according to three coordinates(height width depth). If all the three dimensions are relatively equal – shape is voluminous(developed in all three coordinates. On the perception of this form affects: the type of surface, the position and angle of the form relative to the viewer, the height of the horizon. If one dimension less- the shape is flat. If one dimension more- linear character. In a complex ensemble unity is achieved by subordination: main volume secondary buildings and orientation towards the compositional center are subordinate.

¾ Symmetry- elements of the form are considered symmetrical about the center.

¾ Asymmetry- a means of creating unity in asymmetric compositions is the visual balance of parts in terms of mass, texture, color. (Savior Transfiguration Cathedral of the Mirozhsky Monastery). Role- revealing the dynamics of the artistic image of the work.

¾ Proportions- the ratio of architectural forms in height, width, length. Equal proportions (pyramids), abscesses - the golden ratio. Proportions determine the proportionality and harmony of the elements of architectural forms.

¾ scale- the proportionality of forms and elements in relation to the person, the surrounding space. Determines the relative ratio of perceived forms in relation to the size of a person

¾ Rhythm– with its help proportionality and expressiveness of architecture is achieved. Rhythm is created by uniform repetition of forms and intervals (ornament, columns, windows)

¾ The position of the form in space– frontal, profile, horizontal, closer, farther from the viewer

¾ Weight in the building in visual perception depends on visual assessment of the amount of material. Cubic or spherical shapes have the greatest mass.

¾ Material texture- reflects the volumetric nature of the surface, texture– linear structure of the material on the surface.

¾ Color The property of a surface to reflect or emit light. It is characterized by color tone. Saturation. Lightness.

¾ Chiaroscuro- reveals the distribution of light and dark areas of the surface of the form. Facilitates the visual perception of the architectural form. Most reveals the volume and texture of light at an angle of 45 degrees.

The role of natural and artificial light is very important. The characteristics of the light are related to the orientation of the building − direct can illuminate southern, eastern, western facades, penetrating into the interior as a side or top light. Natural light enhances illumination . artificial light used at the level of street lighting of architecture volumes.

Architecture refers not only to the organs of vision, but to the totality of the sensory and spiritual perception of man. Visual perception alone is not enough to evaluate architecture, because we cannot look at the whole building with one glance, from one point of view. If we look at the building from the outside, we can only see one side of it completely, or, if we look from an angle, two sides in great reduction. A wider scope of space is available to the eye inside the building, when several walls and a ceiling or floor can be seen at a time from one point of view. But we are able to perceive the interior space of the building only in the form of separate, partial pictures. How, then, can we get a complete, exhaustive idea of ​​the entire architectural organism, if our impression of a building is inevitably made up of only disparate, fragmentary optical aspects?

Architecture, as I have already pointed out, appeals not only to visual sensations, but also to touch, and even to the hearing of the viewer. The hand imperceptibly touches the wall, feels the column, slides along the railing. We pay little attention to this often unconscious manifestation of our tactile energy, especially to the movements of our body, to the rhythm of our step, and yet tactile and motor sensations play a very important role in our experience of architecture, in that peculiar mood in which we plunges this or that architectural space. And, finally, and most importantly, the complete perception of architecture is possible only in continuous movement, in sequential movement in the space of the building: we approach the building along the street, along the square or along the steps of the stairs, go around it, penetrate into its interior, move along it. the main axes, now bypassing whole suites of rooms, now wandering in the forest of columns. (VIPPER).

25. Synthesis of arts in architecture.

SYNTHESIS OF THE ARTS(Greek synthesis - connection, combination) - the organic unity of artistic means and figurative elements of various arts, which embodies the universal ability of a person to aesthetically master the world. The synthesis of arts is realized in a single artistic image or system of images, united by the unity of conception, style, performance, but created according to the laws of various types of art.

Big Synthesis reaches its heyday in ancient Egypt, ancient Greece and Rome. In ancient Russian artistic culture, examples of Synthesis are many monastic ensembles, kremlins, churches, and civil buildings.

Historical development Synthesis of Arts related with the desire to embody in art ideal of the whole person expressing the idea of ​​social progress.

Basis of synthesis is architecture – she defines the place, ideological orientation, scale b, technology performance and general principles compositions, supplemented work sculpture, painting, decorative arts, which correspond to a certain artistic and architectural solution.

Architecture organizes outdoor space. Sculpture, painting, decorative arts should have special qualities corresponding to their roles and location in the architectural ensemble (for example, painting, sculpture on facades buildings must have monumentality, decorativeness). compatible with architecture, sculpture, painting, decorative arts organize the interior space(interior) and help to establish a figurative unity between it and the external environment.

Rhythm, scale, color pictorial and sculptural elements are essential affect perception. architectural appearance of the building or complex as a whole and, consequently, to achieve unity, embodied in synthesis.

Synthesis achieved thanks to same concept and style. Style in architecture is called commonality of means and techniques of artistic expression are imbued X attitude dominant ideology in society.

In the modern era receives development of the "big synthesis" - creation with the help of architecture, color, monumental painting, arts and crafts subject environment most fully embodying and revealing the ideological and artistic content of the ensemble and his active influence on a person.

Synthesis does not always occur immediately, as a result of a one-time design and one-time work of an architect and an artist. We know examples when a building was built first, and then it was supplemented with painting.

The same could be said about the building of the Admiralty and the sculptures adorning it by F. Shchedrin, I. Terebenev, S. Pimenov, V. Demut-Malinovsky. It is difficult to imagine the central part of the Admiralty, crowning its tower, without a sculpture that contributes to the disclosure of the main idea of ​​the architect A. Zakharov - a demonstration of the sea power, the sea power of Russia. Without sculpture, the Admiralty will be different, while at the same time, any statue taken from the tower will look like a very large, well-made thing, and nothing more.

It is not possible to fight the threats inherent in the network environment using universal operating systems. The Universal OS is a huge program that, in addition to obvious bugs, probably contains some features that can be used to illegally obtain privileges. Modern programming technology does not allow such large programs to be made safe. In addition, an administrator dealing with a complex system is not always able to take into account all the consequences of the changes made. Finally, in a universal multi-user system, security holes are constantly created by the users themselves (weak and/or rarely changed passwords, poorly set access rights, an unattended terminal, etc.). The only promising path is associated with the development of specialized security services, which, due to their simplicity, allow formal or informal verification. The firewall is just such a tool that allows further decomposition associated with the maintenance of various network protocols.

The firewall is located between the protected (internal) network and the external environment (external networks or other segments of the corporate network). In the first case, one speaks of an external ME, in the second, an internal one. Depending on one's point of view, an external firewall can be considered the first or last (but by no means the only) line of defense. The first is if you look at the world through the eyes of an external intruder. The last - if you strive to protect all components of the corporate network and prevent illegal actions of internal users.

The firewall is an ideal place to embed active auditing tools. On the one hand, both at the first and at the last defensive line, the detection of suspicious activity is important in its own way. On the other hand, the ME is able to implement an arbitrarily powerful reaction to suspicious activity, up to breaking the connection with the external environment. True, one must be aware that the connection of two security services can, in principle, create a gap that facilitates accessibility attacks.

It is advisable to assign to the firewall the identification / authentication of external users who need access to corporate resources (with support for the single sign-on concept).

By virtue of the principles defense layering to protect external connections, two-piece shielding is usually used (see figure 12.3). Primary filtering (for example, blocking SNMP management protocol packets that are dangerous for accessibility attacks, or packets with certain IP addresses included in the "black list") is carried out border router(see also the next section), followed by the so-called demilitarized zone(a network with moderate security trust, where the organization's external information services are placed - Web, e-mail, etc.) and the main firewall, which protects the internal part of the corporate network.

Rice. 12.3. Two-component shielding with a demilitarized zone.

Theoretically a firewall (especially internal) must be multi-protocol, however, in practice, the dominance of the TCP / IP protocol family is so great that support for other protocols seems to be an excess that is harmful to security (the more complex the service, the more vulnerable it is).

Generally speaking, both the external and internal firewall can become a bottleneck as the amount of network traffic tends to grow rapidly. One of the approaches to solving this problem involves dividing the ME into several hardware parts and organizing specialized proxy servers. The main firewall can roughly classify incoming traffic by type and delegate filtering to the appropriate intermediaries (for example, an intermediary that analyzes HTTP traffic). Outgoing traffic is first processed by an intermediary server, which can also perform functionally useful actions, such as caching pages of external Web servers, which reduces the load on the network in general and the main firewall in particular.

Situations where the corporate network contains only one external channel are the exception rather than the rule. On the contrary, a typical situation is when a corporate network consists of several geographically dispersed segments, each of which is connected to the Internet. In this case, each connection must be protected by its own shield. More precisely, we can consider that the corporate external firewall is a composite one, and it is required to solve the problem of coordinated administration (management and audit) of all components.

The opposite of composite corporate firewalls (or their components) are personal firewalls and personal shielding devices. The former are software products that are installed on personal computers and protect only them. The latter are implemented on individual devices and protect a small local area network, such as a home office network.

When deploying firewalls, you should follow the principles we discussed earlier architectural security taking care of the first simplicity and manageability, on the defense layering, as well as on inability to transition to an unsafe state. Moreover, it is necessary to take into account not only external, but also internal threats.

Firewall classification

When considering any issue related to networking, the seven-layer ISO/OSI reference model serves as the basis. It is also expedient to classify firewalls according to the level of filtering - channel, network, transport or application. Accordingly, one can speak of shielding hubs(bridges, switches) (layer 2), routers(level 3), transport screening (level 4) and application screens (level 7). There are also screens that analyze information at several levels.

Filtering of information flows is carried out by firewalls based on set of rules, which are an expression of the network aspects of an organization's security policy. These rules, in addition to the information contained in the filtered streams, may include data received from the environment, for example, the current time, the number of active connections, port, through which the network request was received, etc. Thus, firewalls use a very powerful logical approach to access control.

The capabilities of a firewall are directly determined by what information can be used in filtering rules and how powerful rule sets can be. Generally speaking, the higher the level in the ISO/OSI model at which the ME operates, the more meaningful information is available to it and, consequently, the finer and more reliable it can be configured.

Screening routers (and hubs) deal with individual packets of data, which is why they are sometimes referred to as packet filters. Decisions about whether to skip or delay data are made for each packet independently, based on the analysis of addresses and other header fields of the network (link) and, possibly, transport layers. Another important component of the analyzed information is the port through which the packet arrived.

Shielding hubs are a means not so much of access control, but of optimizing the operation of a local network through the organization of so-called virtual local networks. The latter can be considered an important result of the application of internal firewalling.

Modern routers allow you to associate several dozen rules with each port and filter packets both in and out. In principle, a universal computer equipped with several network cards can also be used as a packet filter.

The main advantages of shielding routers are an affordable price (a router is almost always needed at the edge of networks, the only question is how to use its shielding capabilities) and transparency for higher levels of the OSI model. The main drawback is the limited information being analyzed and, as a result, the relative weakness of the protection provided.

Transport screening allows you to control the process of establishing virtual connections and the transfer of information over them. From an implementation point of view, the shield transport is a fairly simple and therefore reliable program.

Compared to packet filters, transport screening has more information, so the corresponding firewall can exercise finer control over virtual connections (for example, it is able to track the amount of information transmitted and close connections after exceeding a certain threshold, thereby preventing unauthorized export of information). Similarly, the accumulation of more meaningful registration information is possible. The main disadvantage is the narrowing of the scope, since datagram protocols remain out of control. Typically, transport shielding is used in combination with other approaches as an important additional element.

A firewall operating at the application layer is able to provide the most reliable protection. As a rule, such a ME is a universal computer on which shielding agents, which interpret application layer protocols (HTTP, FTP, SMTP, telnet, etc.) to the extent necessary for security.

When using applied MEs, in addition to filtering, one more important aspect of screening is implemented. Subjects from the external network see only the gateway computer; accordingly, they have access to only that information about the internal network that he considers necessary to export. Applied ME actually shields, that is, obscures, the internal network from the outside world. At the same time, it seems to the subjects of the internal network that they directly communicate with the objects of the outside world. The disadvantage of applied MEs is the lack of full transparency, requiring special actions to support each application protocol.

If an organization has the source texts of the applied ME and is able to modify these texts, it opens up extremely wide opportunities for customizing the screen to suit its own needs. The fact is that when developing systems client/server in multi-tier architecture there are specific application protocols that need to be protected no less than standard ones. The shielding agent approach allows you to build such protection without compromising the security and effectiveness of other applications and without complicating the structure of communications in the firewall.

Integrated firewalls, covering levels from network to application, combine the best properties of "single-level" firewalls of different types. Protective functions are performed by complex MEs in a transparent manner for applications, without requiring any changes to either the existing software or the actions that have become familiar to users.

The complexity of the ME can be achieved in different ways: "bottom up", from the network layer through the accumulation of context to the application layer, or "top down", by supplementing the applied ME with mechanisms of the transport and network layers.

In addition to expressive capabilities and the allowable number of rules, the quality of the firewall is determined by two more very important characteristics - ease of use and self-protection. In terms of ease of use, a visual interface for defining filtering rules and the ability to centralized administration composite configurations. In turn, in the last aspect, I would like to highlight the means of centralized loading of filtering rules and checking the ruleset for consistency. Also important is the centralized collection and analysis of registration information, as well as receiving signals about attempts to perform actions prohibited by the security policy.

The inherent security of the firewall is provided by the same means as the security of universal systems. This refers to physical protection, identification and authentication, access control, integrity control, logging and auditing. When performing centralized administration, you should also take care of protecting information from passive and active listening to the network, that is, ensure its (information) integrity and confidentiality. It is extremely important to promptly apply patches that eliminate the identified vulnerabilities of the DOE.

I would like to emphasize that the nature of shielding as a security service is very deep. In addition to blocking data streams that violate security policy, a firewall can hide information about the protected network, thereby making it more difficult for potential attackers to act. A powerful method of hiding information is broadcast"internal" network addresses, which simultaneously solves the problem of expanding the address space allocated to the organization.

We also note the following additional features of firewalls:

Content control (anti-virus control on the fly, verification of Java applets, detection of keywords in electronic messages, etc.);

Execution of functions middleware.

The last of these aspects is of particular importance. Middleware, like traditional application layer firewalls, hides information about the services provided. Due to this, it can perform functions such as request routing and load balancing. It seems quite natural for these features to be implemented within the framework of the firewall. This greatly simplifies the high availability of exported services and allows switching to redundant capacity in a transparent way for external users. As a result, services traditionally provided by firewalls are being augmented with support for high availability of network services.

An example of a modern firewall is presented in the article "Z-2 - a universal firewall of the highest level of protection" (Jet Info, 2002, 5).

Scroll back in history a little over 7 centuries and imagine that it is now the 13th century A.D., the 7th century AH, during the reign of the Ismailis. The time when Khadzhe Nasir, also known as "Khoja Nasreddin Tusi", a young scientist from the city of Tus, engaged in science and philosophy, conceived the construction of the world's largest astronomical tower.
The height of the future astronomical tower, named Radekan, will be 25 meters; astronomers of that time will use it to determine the most important aspects of the solar calendar...

A few years ago it was believed that the Radekan Tower was the tomb of one of the Ilkhanids. However, further research and research by scientists showed that this high tower with its special dome on top is the only one capable of defining the boundaries of the four seasons, leap years and the beginning of Nouruz. This tower was built according to the project of Muhammad ibn Hassan Jahrudi Tusi and is located in the city of Chenaran in the Iranian province of Khorasan-Razavi. Radekan is a great work of engineering and architectural art. It rises above 12 external adobe walls, dividing it into 12 parts, with each part of the wall measuring 30 degrees along the horizon. In the wall surrounding the tower there are two doors located opposite each other, in the upper part of the wall there are 365 vertical notches that divide the tower into 36 sectors, each of which is 10 degrees. The choice of places for doors and openings was not accidental. The doors of the tower are built just opposite the points of sunrise during the winter solstice (the beginning of winter) and sunset during the beginning of summer. The Radekan Tower is unique and has a number of characteristic features that make the Iranians feel proud.

According to the research, today only the astronomical purpose of this tower is obvious. The shape of the tower is very simple, it is built of ordinary brick and is also decorated with brickwork on the outside, and in some places it is plastered. In order to strengthen the brickwork in the process of its creation, the seams between the rows of bricks were pressed with fingers, which greatly increased the strength of the masonry. On the tower you can see holes located at a certain distance from each other - these are traces of scaffolding erected during its construction.

Unfortunately, in recent decades, action has been taken to search the tower for valuable antiques. As a result of such actions, some parts of the tower were destroyed, but the most destructive for it was that the land around it began to be used for growing crops, which caused significant damage to the structure. In recent years, attempts have been made by the Astronomical Society of Khorasan Province to change the current situation, and a certain improvement in its condition can be noted.

The registration of the movement of stars at the top of the tower is carried out around the Polar Star, it is believed that in the northern hemisphere it is constantly in a stationary state and indicates the north direction.

Here is a photograph taken using 95 frames, each frame has an illumination of 45 seconds.

As mentioned above, the Radekan tower has 12 wide and high clay walls, dividing it into 12 parts, each of which is equal to 30 degrees. That is, each wall spans a horizontal angle of 30 degrees. At the same time, all sections of the wall form parallel pairs with each other, in the upper part of which there are 365 vertical marks dividing the tower into 36 sectors of 10 degrees each.

Considering all this, it becomes clear that the choice of locations for doors and openings in the tower could not be accidental. The architects built two walls parallel to the 12 first walls of the tower, just opposite the celestial meridian, and the doors - opposite the points of winter sunrise and summer sunset. Thanks to this design, the tower allows you to determine the boundaries of the four seasons, leap years and the beginning of Nouruz. In fact, these doors are arranged in such a way that after the sun, moving along the horizon, reaches the point of 60 degrees, sunlight passes through two doors, and sunrise at the beginning of winter and sunset at the beginning of summer become visible on the horizon of the tower. If at any time you see the sunrise through two doors and it reaches its peak, then know that the longest night of the year has passed, and from that day winter begins. This day is the first day of the Iranian month of Day.
In the bottom two shots, you can see the sunrise during the winter solstice and the sunset during the summer solstice. The light of the sun passes through two doors, which precisely determines the time limits of these two seasons.

The photo on the left refers to the beginning of the winter period, the photo on the right - to the beginning of the summer period.

There are also 12 openings under the dome of the structure, with the help of which astronomers could find the place of the beginning of the 4 months that determine the seasons, that is, the months of Farvardin, Tyr, Mehr and Day.

The scientific possibilities of the Radekan Tower do not end there. Throughout the year, at the time when the sun reaches its highest point in the sky, on the two walls of the tower you can see the part illuminated by it and the shadow, and when they reach an equal size, this indicates that astronomical noon has come, or the time when it sounds call to midday prayer.

Scientific works of Tusi in the field of astronomy and botany became the most important sources widely used by scientists. In fact, his views directly or indirectly influenced all the books on astronomy of that time. Tusi also made discoveries in the field of trigonometry. He was the first to prove six theorems of a right triangle and considered them in his book Al-shekl-ol-geta.

Tusi was also engaged in research in the field of physics and, hundreds of years before Descartes and Huygens, argued that light consists of particles. He also wrote about the laws of reflection and refraction of light. So, in one of his works, Tusi writes: “Some scientists are of the opinion that light consists of small particles emitted by a light source and reflected from illuminated objects.” Nasir ad-Din at-Tusi had extensive knowledge in the field of philosophy, logic, ethics and wrote about two hundred works devoted to the above sciences. In addition to meaningful treatises, he left us verses in Persian, which also testify to the elegance of speech inherent in an outstanding scholar of the 13th century.

In the one he built in 1258 AD. A grandiose library was created at the Maraga observatory, consisting of valuable books brought from Baghdad, Mosul and Khorasan. The scientist sent proxies to different countries to acquire rare scientific manuscripts. According to the conclusions of some historians, thanks to his efforts, about 400,000 books were collected in the Maraga library. The existence of such a grandiose collection about 700 years ago (at a time when, according to Western scholars, there were no more than 1200 books in all of Europe) is a source of pride for Islamic history.

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This work is a very unexpected angle for such a topic as creativity in architecture. It is intended to highlight a number of aspects of essential knowledge about the Universe and man, thus revealing the ideological facets of architecture and opening a new angle of view on the imagery of this art and the criteria for its evaluation. And do not be embarrassed that intuition and elusive inspiration are subjected to dry rational analysis, and the objective laws of reality are extracted from under the religious and philosophical shell.