Achievements of ancient Russian culture table. Achievements of Rus' in the field of culture. Writing. Education. Book business

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Culture of Kievan Rus in the X-XII centuries Completed by: teacher of history and social studies MBOU "Secondary School No. 10" of Kaluga Gusarova O.N.

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CULTURE is all transformative human activity, expressed in material and spiritual monuments and values.

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CULTURAL FEATURES: The monuments that have come down to us are associated mainly with the church and Christian ideology The presence of anonymity in the work (the artist should not leave his name on the creation, because this is selfish in relation to God) Influencing the ancient Russian culture of Byzantium and the adoption of Christianity But at the same time, a weak connection with the culture of Western Europe. Not the emergence of one thing, but many trends in the culture of Dr. Rus' (oral folk art, literature, architecture, painting, etc.)

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Form for filling out the table of cultural directions of Ancient Rus': (using the example of folklore) Direction of culture Name of the type of direction and its features Example Oral folk art or folklore Epics are poetic memories of the people about various eras of their history. The main character is BOGATYR and the main theme is the liberation of the Russian land and its protection. Ilya Muromets is a mighty warrior, Dobrynya Nikitich is a prudent warrior, Mikula Selyaninovich is a plowman and farmer.

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WRITING: The ABC is a great step for every nation. He needs his writing, books and literature. The birth of Slavic writing is the merit of the Greek missionaries Cyril and Methodius, who came up with the “Cyrillic alphabet” (A- “az”, B- “buki”, V- “vedi”, D- “good”, etc.)

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Cyril and Methodius. Cyril (in the world Constantine, nicknamed the Philosopher), and Mikhail (after becoming a monk - Methodius), brothers from the city of Thessaloniki, educators of the Slavs, creators of the Slavic alphabet, preachers of Christianity. Canonized and revered as saints in both the East and the West. In Orthodoxy they are revered as saints equal to the apostles.

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The first ancient Russian books were handwritten and expensive, just like in Europe. The books were decorated with MINIATURES - small elegant pictures. They wrote on PARCHMENT (cured calfskin) They usually wrote books with a quill pen and ink. The king had the privilege of writing with a swan and even a peacock feather. Large format manuscripts were written in two columns. Translations of Byzantine church books and biographies of Christian saints began to appear. Schools were opened at monasteries and churches. Example of 1 books 1056-1057. “Ostromir Gospel”, 1115 “Mstislav Gospel”, 1073 “Izbornik” - a collection of sayings.

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In the Ostromir Gospel there are three large illustrations depicting the apostles Mark, John and Luke (compilers of the Gospel). Evangelist John Evangelist Luke Evangelist Mark

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LITERATURE is represented by the Life, Chronicles, Word Life - a literary description of people canonized as saints (the life of Boris and Gleb, author Nestor) Chronicle - a legend with annual records of current events ("Code of Hegumen Nikon" 70s of the 11th century, “Initial Code” 1093-95, “The Tale of Bygone Years” 1113, author - monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra Nestor, “Instruction for Children”, author V. Monomakh) The word is one of the earliest (written between 1037-1050 .g.) and outstanding works of ancient Russian literature, a solemn or instructive address. The author of the Word is Hilarion, the first Russian metropolitan, appointed to the Kyiv metropolitanate from priests in 1051 (“The Sermon on Law and Grace.”

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THE WORD ABOUT IGOR'S SON, IGOR'S SON OF SVIATSLAVLICH, OLGOV'S GRANDSON Old Russian text Isn't it foolish for us, brethren, to begin with the old words of the difficult stories about Igor's pluk, Igor Svyatslavlich? Start your songs according to the epics of this time, and not according to Boyan’s plans! Boyan is prophetic, and if someone wants to create a song, his thoughts spread across the tree, like a gray wolf across the earth, like a crazy eagle under the clouds. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” - the most famous monument of ancient Russian literature - describes the unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsy of Novgorod-Seversk Prince Igor Svyatoslavich in alliance with Vsevolod, Vladimir and Svyatoslav Olgovich (1185). According to the time of writing, “The Lay” dates back to 1187-1188.

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Excerpt from the Tale of Bygone Years, XII century. About the settlement of the Slavs The Slavs came and settled along the Dnieper and were called glades, and others - Drevlyans, because they sat in the forests, and others settled between Pripyat and Dvina and were called Dregovichi, others sat along the Dvina and were called Polochans, after a river flowing into the Dvina, called Polota, from which the Polotsk people took their name. The same Slavs who settled near Lake Ilmen were called by their own name - Slavs, and built a city and called it Novgorod. And others sat along the Desna, and the Seim, and the Sula, and called themselves northerners. And so the Slavic people dispersed. The glades lived separately in those days. And there were three brothers: one named Kiy, the other - Shchek and the third - Khoriv, ​​and their sister - Lybid. And they built a city in honor of their elder brother, and named it Kyiv.

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A WORD ABOUT THE LAW AND GRACE OF METROPOLITAN HILARION And having seen all this, rejoice, and rejoice, and praise the Good God, the organizer of everything. You have already seen, if not in body, then in spirit: the Lord is showing you all this. Rejoice and be glad that the seeds of your faith were not dried up by the heat of unbelief, but with the rain of God's haste they bore abundant fruit. Rejoice, Apostle among rulers, who did not raise the dead with their bodies, but raised us with the soul of the dead, who died from the disease of idolatry. For by your will they came to life and came to know the life of Christ. They were twisted by demonic lies, but by your will they straightened up and entered the path of life. They were blind from demonic lies, but by your will (will) they stretched out the eyes of their hearts; blinded (were) by ignorance, but by your (will) they saw the light of the Trisolar Deity. They were dumb, but by your will they spoke. And now, small and great, we glorify the Consubstantial Trinity. Rejoice, our teacher and mentor of good faith! You were clothed with righteousness, girded with strength, shod with truth, crowned with intelligence, and flaunted with mercy, like a coin and golden utensils.

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From the “Teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh I, thin, by my grandfather Yaroslav, named Vasily in baptism, beloved father and blessed mother, from the family of Monomakhs... and Christians for the sake of people, for how many of them I kept by my grace and by my father’s prayer from everyone trouble! Sitting on the sleigh (i.e. before death - V.G.), I thought in my soul and gave praise to God, who saved me, a sinner, until these days. My children or anyone else, when listening to this letter, do not laugh, but whichever of my children loves it, let him accept it in his heart and not become lazy, but work. First of all, for the sake of God and your soul, have the fear of God in your heart and give generous alms, this is the beginning of all good…….. …..And then I collected these favorite words and arranged them in order and wrote them. If you don't like the last ones, at least take the first ones. For as Vasily taught, having gathered young men: to have a pure and immaculate soul, a thin body, a meek conversation and to observe the word of the Lord: “Eat and drink without great noise, be silent with the old, listen to the wise, submit to the elders, have love with equals and younger ones, without when talking slyly, but to understand more; do not rage with words, do not blaspheme in conversation, do not laugh a lot, be ashamed of your elders, do not talk with absurd women, keep your eyes down and your soul up, avoid vanity; do not shy away from teaching those who are carried away by power, to not care universal honor. If any of you can benefit others, let him hope for reward from God and enjoy eternal blessings." “Oh, Lady Mother of God! Take away pride and insolence from my poor heart, so that I will not be proud of the vanity of this world” in this insignificant life.

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THE LIFE AND WALKING OF DANIEL, THE IGUMENE OF THE RUSSIAN LAND “The Life and WALKING OF Daniil, the Igumen of the Russian Land” is not only the oldest description of the pilgrimage to the Holy Land, but also one of the first most remarkable creations of ancient Russian literature. Researchers suggest that Daniel was tonsured at the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, later became abbot of one of the monasteries of the Chernigov land and led the Russian pilgrims who made a “walk” to the Holy Land in 1104-1107. I, the unworthy abbot Daniel, the worst of all monks, humble, possessed by many sins, dissatisfied in every good deed, was forced by my thoughts and impatience, I wanted to see the holy city of Jerusalem and the Promised Land. And with God’s help, he visited Jerusalem and saw the Holy places, walked around the entire land of Galilee and the Holy places near the city of Jerusalem, where Christ walked with his feet and showed great miracles in those Holy places. And I saw everything with my sinful eyes that the good-natured God allowed me to see and that I had longed to see for a long time. Brothers and fathers, my lords, forgive me, a sinner, and do not blaspheme my thinness and rudeness, what I wrote about the holy city of Jerusalem and about that good and about your visits to holy places. He who travels with the fear of God and humility will never sin against the mercy of God. But I walked around holy places inappropriately, in all sorts of laziness and weakness, in drunkenness, and did all sorts of inappropriate things. However, hoping for the mercy of God and your prayer, I believe that Christ will forgive my countless sins. And so I described my path and holy places and I’m not proud and don’t boast about my journey, as if I had done a good deed: I didn’t do anything good on the journey, but only for the love of holy places I wrote about everything that I saw with my own eyes, so as not to forget what the unworthy me had to see.

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ARCHITECTURE Can be divided into two types: A) wooden (peasant huts, boyars' towers, characterized by multi-tiered buildings, the presence of extensions, artistic wood carvings) B) stone (temples, churches, cathedrals. The type of construction borrowed from Byzantium is often used - cruciform domed structure). For example, in Kiev the Church of the Tithes (25-domed church of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary), St. Sophia Cathedral 1037, in Novgorod the St. Sophia Cathedral, but simpler in construction, only 5 chapters, has survived to this day, in Chernigov the Spassky Cathedral, etc. .

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Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir 1158-1160 Church of the Intercession on the Nerl 1165 Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir 1194-1197 Golden Gate in Vladimir 1158-1164. Stone buildings

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St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, 1037. is the first significant monument of ancient Russian architecture, the temple was built on the site of the battle of the Kievans with the Pechenegs, which ended in the complete defeat of the nomads. The original Sophia of Kiev was wooden, and only a few years later Yaroslav the Wise began to erect a monumental stone temple in its place.

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Saint Sophie Cathedral. Novgorod The Hagia Sophia Cathedral is the main Orthodox church of Veliky Novgorod, built in 1045–1050. It is the oldest surviving temple in Russia, built by the Slavs.

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St. Cyril Church (mid-12th century) on the outskirts of ancient Kyiv - Dorogozhichi.

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PAINTING Presented in the form of: A) frescoes - painting with water paints on wet plaster. B) mosaics - a drawing or pattern made of multi-colored stones and pieces of glass. A) icons - a picturesque - less often a relief - image of gods and saints, which is the subject of religious worship.

The culture of which was a striking phenomenon in the development of the country, famous for its beautiful architectural monuments and literary creations. What influenced its development? How has your view of the world changed? All this needs to be sorted out.

Ancient Rus': culture and its features before and after

As you know, the ancient state was subordinated to pagan religion, as a result of which we can talk about several characteristic features of that society. Firstly, oral folk art predominated. It was then that epics, songs and fairy tales began to emerge. People passed on the most important information from generation to generation, which has survived to this day. Secondly, wooden architecture was developed. At that time there were no stone buildings in Rus', but there were strong wooden temples and huts known throughout the world. Thirdly, there were no written sources. Yes, before the adoption of the new faith there were no such monuments of art on the territory of our country. Fourthly, there were a lot of features that changed a lot after the adoption of Christianity:

Ancient Rus': culture and its embodiments

The entire culture of that time can be divided into three areas: writing, architecture and fine arts. So, let's start with literature. The first kind of messages to each other (and this can be called the origin were found in Novgorod, where they were nicknamed After the adoption of Christianity, Illarionov’s “Sermon on Law and Grace” appeared, as well as the “Ostromir Gospel” (the authorship is attributed to the scribe Gregory). In addition, it is impossible one cannot remember the fact that the alphabet was created by the great brothers, Cyril and Methodius, also at that time. The history of the culture of Ancient Russia, in particular, stone architecture, is the richest heritage of the entire country. What are the examples of the cross-domed style: both Kiev and " Our Lady of Oranta”, the icon “The Annunciation of Ustyug”, as well as the fresco “Prophet Zachary”.

Thus, Ancient Rus', whose culture laid the foundations for the development of the Russian soul, became an example for subsequent creators. We study her works and rejoice at the achievements of that time to this day, and this is one of the main reasons to be proud of our history.

§ 22. Old Russian culture

Conditions for the development of culture

For a long time, paganism was decisive in the spiritual life of the Slavs. After baptism, it was replaced by a different, largely opposite worldview. Paganism was based on the cult of nature and its phenomena, love for earthly life. In Christianity, earthly things were called mortal and transitory, and life after death was considered real life.

As a result of the interaction of paganism and Christianity, a unique culture developed in Rus'. It developed within the framework of Christianity, but absorbed many pagan motifs and rituals that have survived to this day, for example, such as the celebration of Maslenitsa.

Many achievements of ancient, especially ancient Greek culture were perceived through Christianity. The influence of the culture of the southern Slavs, especially the Bulgarians, was also great. The influence of nomadic peoples, both ancient (Scythians, Sarmatians) and modern Rus' (Khazars, Polovtsians), was also of considerable importance. Finally, Rus' had broad ties with Western Europe and embraced its culture.

Writing and literature

Rus' was characterized by widespread literacy. This was unusual for Europe at that time. It is no coincidence that the daughter of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, Queen Anna of France, in a letter to her father, expressed her surprise at the low level of education of the inhabitants of the kingdom compared to Russia. Catholicism considered writing important only in Latin, which was inaccessible to the majority of the population. Orthodoxy allowed reading the Bible in national languages. This made literacy much more accessible and widespread.

Writing existed in Rus' even before the adoption of Christianity. Evidence of this is the message in the chronicle about the text of the treaties between Oleg and Igor with Byzantium. Together with Christianity, writing came to Russia, created by the Slavic enlighteners Cyril and Methodius.

The level of education in the Russian lands is evidenced by birch bark letters - letters from people of very different social status, gender and age. The inscriptions on pottery and other products also speak about the literacy of the townspeople.

The most important work of ancient Russian literature is The Tale of Bygone Years. Traditionally, its author is considered to be the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor. However, this opinion, established in the Russian national consciousness, does not correspond to scientific data. Monk Nestor is the author of two works of ancient Russian literature - “Reading about Boris and Gleb” and “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk”. The description of the life and death of Russian saints in “Reading about Boris and Gleb” fundamentally diverges from the presentation of the same events in “The Tale of Bygone Years.” In fact, “The Tale of Bygone Years” is a complex work that incorporates fragments of various chronicles and literary works of many authors.

Metropolitan Hilarion is one of the outstanding Russian writers. In his philosophical and journalistic work “The Word of Law and Grace,” he substantiates the full place of Russia among other Christian countries and reveals the meaning of the Baptism of Russia.

Literary monuments are the works of Vladimir Monomakh, the author of many letters and messages and “Teachings” to children. The “Instruction” is filled with deep philosophical reflections on the meaning of life, the duties of a ruler, and the relationship between morality and politics. At the same time, this is the first autobiography in Russian.

Philosophical and religious quests were reflected in such works as “The Word” and “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik, etc.

All these works were written in line with the Christian tradition, but there were also works where pagan features prevailed over Christian ones. This is, first of all, the most famous monument of ancient Russian literature - “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”. It tells about the unsuccessful campaign of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsians in 1185. A broad panorama of the life of Russia at that time is given in poetic form. The unknown author of the Lay called on the princes to unite to fight a common enemy.

Architecture and fine arts

The first stone Christian churches were built in Russia by masters from Byzantium. But the original features of Russian architecture were already evident in them. The oldest surviving building is the 11th century St. Sophia Cathedral. in Kyiv, but later it was significantly rebuilt. Quite a bit inferior to it in antiquity

St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, preserved almost in its original form. This is a majestic and severe structure, typical of Northern Russia.

In the 12th century. A special Russian type of single-domed churches is being developed. Most of them have been preserved in Vladimir - Suzdal land. The most famous temple is the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, erected under Andrei Bogolyubsky. True, now it has also somewhat changed its appearance compared to the original. The temple amazes with its beauty and harmony. No less beautiful are the Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals of Vladimir, the churches of Suzdal, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, etc. Independent architectural schools have emerged in Novgorod and other lands.

Many cathedrals were decorated with stone carvings and reliefs. They revealed the desire of ancient Russian masters for beauty, which did not always coincide with the ascetic ideals of the church. Images of animals, plants, and people indicate the preservation of pagan motifs in fine art.

The artistic creativity of Ancient Rus' is also represented by frescoes, icons, and mosaics.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

What were the features of the development of ancient Russian culture?

Why did the overall literacy level in Ancient Rus' exceed the literacy level in Western Europe?

Give a brief description of the famous monuments of ancient Russian literature.

What architectural monuments of Ancient Rus' do you know? If you have ever seen any of these monuments, describe your impressions of them.

Fill the table.

A work of literature, its time. creation

Culture of Ancient Rus'(or Culture of Medieval Rus') - the culture of Rus' during the period of the Old Russian state from the moment of its formation until the Tatar-Mongol invasion.

Writing and enlightenment

The existence of writing among the Eastern Slavs in the pre-Christian period is evidenced by numerous written sources and archaeological finds. The creation of the Slavic alphabet is associated with the names of the Byzantine monks Cyril and Methodius. In the second half of the 9th century, Cyril created the Glagolitic alphabet (Glagolitic), in which the first translations of church books were written for the Slavic population of Moravia and Pannonia. At the turn of the 9th-10th centuries, on the territory of the First Bulgarian Kingdom, as a result of the synthesis of the Greek script, which had long been widespread here, and those elements of the Glagolitic alphabet that successfully conveyed the features of the Slavic languages, the alphabet arose, which was later called the Cyrillic alphabet. Subsequently, this easier and more convenient alphabet supplanted the Glagolitic alphabet and became the only one among the southern and eastern Slavs.

The Baptism of Rus' contributed to the widespread and rapid development of writing and written culture. Of significant importance was the fact that Christianity was accepted in its Eastern, Orthodox version, which, unlike Catholicism, allowed worship in national languages. This created favorable conditions for the development of writing in the native language.

The development of writing in the native language led to the fact that the Russian church from the very beginning did not become a monopolist in the field of literacy and education. The spread of literacy among layers of the urban population is evidenced by birch bark letters discovered during archaeological excavations in Novgorod, Tver, Smolensk, Torzhok, Staraya Russa, Pskov, Staraya Ryazan, etc. These are letters, memos, educational exercises, etc. Writing, therefore, was used not only to create books, state and legal acts, but also in everyday life. Inscriptions on handicraft products are often found. Ordinary townspeople left numerous notes on the walls of churches in Kyiv, Novgorod, Smolensk, Vladimir and other cities. The oldest surviving book in Rus' is the so-called. “Novgorod Psalter” of the first quarter of the 11th century: wooden tablets covered with wax with the texts of Psalms 75 and 76.

Most of the written monuments before the Mongol period were destroyed during numerous fires and foreign invasions. Only a small part of them has survived. The oldest of them are the “Ostromir Gospel”, written by Deacon Gregory for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir in 1057, and two “Izborniki” by Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich in 1073 and 1076. The high level of professional skill with which these books were made testifies to the well-established production of handwritten books already in the first half of the 11th century, as well as to the well-established skills of “book construction” by that time.

The correspondence of books was carried out mainly in monasteries. The situation changed in the 12th century, when the craft of “book describers” also arose in large cities. This speaks of the increasing literacy of the population and the increased need for books, which the monastery scribes could not satisfy. Many princes kept book scribes with them, and some of them copied books themselves.

At the same time, the main centers of book production continued to be monasteries and cathedral churches, where there were special workshops with permanent teams of copyists. They not only copied books, but also kept chronicles, created original literary works, and translated foreign books. One of the leading centers of this activity was the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, in which a special literary movement developed that had a great influence on the literature and culture of Ancient Rus'. As chronicles testify, already in the 11th century in Rus', libraries with up to several hundred books were created at monasteries and cathedral churches.

Needing literate people, Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich organized the first schools. Literacy was not a privilege only of the ruling class; it also penetrated among the townspeople. Discovered in significant quantities in Novgorod, letters written on birch bark (from the 11th century) contain correspondence of ordinary townspeople; Inscriptions were also made on handicraft products.

Education was highly valued in ancient Russian society. In the literature of that time one can find many eulogies to the book, statements about the benefits of books and “book teaching.”

Literature

With the adoption of Christianity, Ancient Rus' was introduced to book culture. The development of Russian writing gradually became the basis for the emergence of literature and was closely connected with Christianity. Despite the fact that writing was known in Russian lands earlier, it was only after the baptism of Rus' that it became widespread. It also received a basis in the form of a developed cultural tradition of Eastern Christianity. Extensive translated literature became the basis for the formation of an improper tradition.

The original literature of Ancient Rus' is characterized by great ideological richness and high artistic perfection. Its prominent representative was Metropolitan Hilarion, the author of the famous “Sermon on Law and Grace,” dating back to the mid-11th century. This work clearly demonstrates the idea of ​​the need for the unity of Rus'. Using the form of a church sermon, Hilarion created a political treatise, which reflected the pressing problems of Russian reality. Contrasting “grace” (Christianity) with “law” (Judaism), Hilarion rejects the concept of God’s chosenness inherent in Judaism and affirms the idea of ​​​​transferring heavenly attention and favor from one chosen people to all humanity, the equality of all peoples.

An outstanding writer and historian was the monk of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery Nestor. His “Reading” about the princes Boris and Gleb and the “Life of Theodosius,” valuable for the history of everyday life, have been preserved. “Reading” is written in a somewhat abstract style; edifying and ecclesiastical elements are strengthened in it. An outstanding monument of ancient Russian chronicle writing, “The Tale of Bygone Years,” dates back to approximately 1113, preserved as part of later chronicle collections of the 14th-15th centuries. This work is compiled on the basis of earlier chronicles - historical works dedicated to the past of the Russian land. The author of the Tale, monk Nestor, managed to vividly and imaginatively tell about the emergence of Rus' and connect its history with the history of other countries. The main attention in the “Tale” is paid to the events of political history, the actions of princes and other representatives of the nobility. The economic life and way of life of the people are described in less detail. The religious worldview of its compiler was also clearly evident in the chronicle: he sees the final cause of all events and people’s actions in the action of divine forces, “providence.” However, religious differences and references to the will of God often hide a practical approach to reality, the desire to identify real cause-and-effect relationships between events.

In turn, Theodosius, abbot of the Pechersk Monastery about whom Nestor also wrote, wrote several teachings and messages to Prince Izyaslav.

An outstanding writer was Vladimir Monomakh. His “Instruction” painted an ideal image of a prince - a just feudal ruler, and touched upon pressing issues of our time: the need for strong princely power, unity in repelling the raids of nomads, etc. “Instruction” is a work of a secular nature. It is imbued with the spontaneity of human experiences, alien to abstraction and filled with real images and examples taken from life.

The question of princely power in the life of the state, its responsibilities and methods of implementation becomes one of the central ones in literature. The idea arises of the need for strong power as a condition for successfully fighting external enemies and overcoming internal contradictions. These reflections are embodied in one of the most talented works of the 12th-13th centuries, which has come down to us in two main editions, “The Lay” and “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik. A staunch supporter of strong princely power, Daniil writes with humor and sarcasm about the sad reality around him.

A special place in the literature of Ancient Rus' is occupied by “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” dating back to the end of the 12th century. It tells about the unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsians in 1185 by the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich. The description of this campaign serves the author only as a reason for thinking about the fate of the Russian land. The author sees the reasons for the defeats in the fight against the nomads, the reasons for the disasters of Rus' in princely civil strife, in the selfish policies of princes thirsting for personal glory. Central to the Lay is the image of the Russian land. The author belonged to the druzhina environment. He constantly used the inherent concepts of “honor” and “glory,” but filled them with broader, patriotic content. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” embodied the characteristic features of ancient Russian literature of that time: a living connection with historical reality, citizenship and patriotism.

Batu's invasion had a great influence on Russian culture. The first work dedicated to the invasion is “The Word of the Destruction of the Russian Land.” This word has not reached us completely. Also dedicated to Batu’s invasion is “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu” - an integral part of a cycle of stories about the “miraculous” icon of St. Nicholas of Zaraisky.

Architecture

Until the end of the 10th century, there was no monumental stone architecture in Rus', but there were rich traditions of wooden construction, some forms of which subsequently influenced stone architecture. Significant skills in the field of wooden architecture led to the rapid development of stone architecture and its originality. After the adoption of Christianity, the construction of stone churches began, the construction principles of which were borrowed from Byzantium. The Byzantine architects summoned to Kyiv passed on to the Russian craftsmen their extensive experience in the building culture of Byzantium.

The large churches of Kievan Rus, built after the adoption of Christianity in 988, were the first examples of monumental architecture in East Slavic lands. The architectural style of Kievan Rus was established under the influence of Byzantine. Early Orthodox churches were mainly made of wood.

The first stone church of Kievan Rus was the Tithe Church in Kyiv, the construction of which dates back to 989. The church was built as a cathedral not far from the prince's tower. In the first half of the 12th century. The church has undergone significant renovations. At this time, the southwestern corner of the temple was completely rebuilt; a powerful pylon supporting the wall appeared in front of the western facade. These activities most likely represented the restoration of the temple after a partial collapse due to an earthquake.

St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, built in the 11th century, is one of the most significant architectural structures of this period. Initially, St. Sophia Cathedral was a five-nave cross-domed church with 13 chapters. It was surrounded on three sides by a two-tier gallery, and outside by an even wider single-tier one. The cathedral was built by Constantinople builders, with the participation of Kyiv craftsmen. At the turn of the 17th-18th centuries, it was externally rebuilt in the Ukrainian Baroque style. The temple is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Painting

After the baptism of Rus', new types of monumental painting came from Byzantium - mosaics and frescoes, as well as easel painting (icon painting). Also, the iconographic canon was adopted from Byzantium, the immutability of which was strictly protected by the church. This predetermined a longer and more stable Byzantine influence in painting than in architecture.

The earliest surviving works of ancient Russian painting were created in Kyiv. According to the chronicles, the first temples were decorated by visiting Greek masters, who added to the existing iconography a system for arranging subjects in the interior of the temple, as well as a style of planar writing. The mosaics and frescoes of the St. Sophia Cathedral are known for their special beauty. They are executed in a strict and solemn manner, characteristic of Byzantine monumental painting. Their creators skillfully used a variety of smalt shades and skillfully combined mosaics with frescoes. Of the mosaic works, the images of Christ Pantocrator in the central dome are especially significant. All images are permeated with the idea of ​​greatness, triumph and inviolability of the Orthodox Church and earthly power.

Another unique monument of secular painting of Ancient Rus' is the painting of the walls of the two towers of the Kyiv Sophia. They depict scenes of princely hunting, circus competitions, musicians, buffoons, acrobats, fantastic animals and birds, which somewhat distinguishes them from ordinary church paintings. Among the frescoes of Sofia are two group portraits of the family of Yaroslav the Wise.

In the XII-XIII centuries, local characteristics began to appear in the painting of individual cultural centers. This is typical for the Novgorod land and the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Since the 12th century, a specific Novgorod style of monumental painting has been formed, which reaches a more complete expression in the paintings of the churches of St. George in Staraya Ladoga, the Annunciation in Arkazhi and especially Spas-Nereditsa. In these fresco cycles, in contrast to the Kyiv ones, there is a noticeable desire to simplify artistic techniques and expressive interpretation of iconographic types. In easel painting, Novgorod features were less pronounced.

In Vladimir-Suzdal Rus', fragments of frescoes from the Dmitrievsky and Assumption Cathedrals in Vladimir and the Church of Boris and Gleb in Kideksha, as well as several icons, were preserved before the Mongol period. Based on this material, researchers consider it possible to talk about the gradual formation of the Vladimir-Suzdal school of painting. The best preserved fresco of the Demetrius Cathedral depicting the Last Judgment. It was created by two masters - a Greek and a Russian. Several large icons of the 12th - early 13th centuries belong to the Vladimir-Suzdal school. The earliest of them is the “Our Lady of Bogolyubsk”, dating from the mid-12th century, stylistically close to the famous “Our Lady of Vladimir”, which is of Byzantine origin.

Folklore

Written sources testify to the richness and diversity of the folklore of Ancient Rus'. A significant place in it was occupied by calendar ritual poetry: incantations, spells, songs that were an integral part of the agrarian cult. Ritual folklore also included pre-wedding songs, funeral laments, songs at feasts and funeral feasts. Mythological tales reflecting the pagan ideas of the ancient Slavs also became widespread. For many years, the church, trying to eradicate the remnants of paganism, waged a stubborn struggle against “filthy” customs, “demonic games” and “blasphemous things”. However, these types of folklore survived in folk life until the 19th-20th centuries, losing their initial religious meaning over time, and the rituals turned into folk games.

There were also forms of folklore that were not associated with the pagan cult. These include proverbs, sayings, riddles, fairy tales, and work songs. Authors of literary works widely used them in their work. Written monuments have preserved numerous traditions and legends about the ancestors of tribes and princely dynasties, about the founders of cities, about the fight against foreigners. Thus, folk tales about the events of the 2nd-6th centuries were reflected in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”

In the 9th century, a new epic genre arose - the heroic epic, which became the pinnacle of oral folk art and a consequence of the growth of national self-awareness. Epics are oral poetic works about the past. The epics are based on real historical events; the prototypes of some epic heroes are real people. Thus, the prototype of the epic Dobrynya Nikitich was the uncle of Vladimir Svyatoslavich - governor Dobrynya, whose name is repeatedly mentioned in ancient Russian chronicles.

In turn, in the military class, in the princely-squad environment, there was its own oral poetry. The princes and their exploits were glorified in squad songs. The princely squads had their own “song makers” - professionals who composed “glory” songs in honor of the princes and their warriors.

Folklore continued to develop after the spread of written literature, remaining an important element of ancient Russian culture. In subsequent centuries, many writers and poets used the themes of oral poetry and its arsenal of artistic means and techniques. Also in Rus', the art of playing the harp, of which it is the birthplace, was widespread.

Arts and crafts

Kievan Rus was famous for its masters in applied and decorative arts, who were fluent in various techniques: filigree, enamel, granulation, niello, as evidenced by jewelry. It is no coincidence that the admiration of foreigners for the artistic creativity of our craftsmen was great. L. Lyubimov in his book “The Art of Ancient Rus'” gives a description of star-shaped silver colts from the Tver treasure of the 11th–12th centuries: “Six silver cones with balls are soldered to the ring with a semicircular shield. Each cone is soldered with 5000 tiny rings with a diameter of 0.06 cm from wire 0.02 cm thick! Only microphotography made it possible to establish these dimensions. But that's not all. The rings serve only as a pedestal for the grain, so each one has another silver grain with a diameter of 0.04 cm!” Jewelry was decorated with cloisonne enamel. The craftsmen used bright colors and skillfully selected colors. The drawings traced mythological pagan subjects and images, which were especially often used in applied art. They can be seen on carved wooden furniture, household utensils, gold-embroidered fabrics, and carved bone products, known in Western Europe as “Taurian carving”, “Rus carving”.

Cloth

Modern researchers have numerous evidence about how princes and boyars dressed. Verbal descriptions, images on icons, frescoes and miniatures, as well as fragments of fabrics from sarcophagi have been preserved. Various researchers in their works compared these materials with mentions of clothing in written documentary and narrative sources - chronicles, lives and various acts.

Culture of Rus' in the 10th and early 13th centuries.

Before political fragmentation, the culture of Rus' was oriented towards the West; much was received from Byzantium. Culture developed both within Rus' itself and under the influence of neighboring states. As today, villages and villages have had the hardest time developing culturally.

The adoption of Christianity had a great influence on the change in the culture of Rus', but paganism did not completely disappear for many years. We remember that even today we celebrate holidays that are essentially pagan.

Peculiarities

Writing, literacy, schools

11th century, translated works become widespread

"Alexandria" - the life of Alexander the Great

“The Deed of Devgenis” - about the exploits of the warrior Digenis

Izbornik Svyatoslav 1073 - a collection of folk moralizing discussions.

Baking trays – copies of documents.

Tolmach is a translator.

Parchment is processed calf or lamb skin for writing.

Writing - 10th century

Archaeologist D.V. Avdusin in 1949 found a clay vessel of the 10th century with the inscription “gorushna” - spice

The find makes it clear that writing in Rus' existed already in the 10th century. In the 9th century, the Cyrillic alphabet was compiled - the first Russian alphabet (Cyril and Methodius).

Literacy – 11th century

Schools were opened at churches and monasteries already under Vladimir I and Yaroslav the Wise.

Vladimir Monomakh's sister, Yanka, opened a school for girls from wealthy families at the convent.

Schools were common only in cities, but at that time all segments of the population could study in them.

Graffiti is inscriptions scratched on the walls of churches. These were reflections on life, complaints and prayers.

Chronicles

End of the 10th century

The first chronicle (from Rurik to St. Vladimir, not preserved)

The chronicle is a weather account of events.

The chronicle is a state matter, appeared immediately after the introduction of Christianity in Rus'. Chronicles were written and rewritten, as a rule, by clergy.

The era of Yaroslav the Wise and Sofia in Kyiv

Second chronicle (included the first + some new materials, not preserved)

60-70s XI century - Hilarion

He wrote it under the name of the monk Nikon

90s of the 11th century

The next vault appeared during the time of Svyatopolk

XII century (1113) – monk Nestor

“The Tale of Bygone Years” is the first chronicle that has come down to us, which is why it is considered to be the first in Rus'.

It was an unusual chronicle; it acquired a philosophical and religious overtones and included, in addition to a colorful description of events, the chronicler’s reasoning

Architecture

Tithe Church

Built by Greek craftsmen, the first Russian church. wooden

Church of Hagia Sophia in Kyiv

Church of Hagia Sophia in Novgorod

Church of St. Sophia in Polotsk

Spaso-Preobrazhensky Cathedral in Chernigov

Golden Gate in Kyiv

All buildings have a cross-dome shape, which came to Rus' from Byzantium after baptism, as well as the stone construction itself.

Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1160)

White stone palace in Bogolyubovo

Golden Gate in Vladimir

Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (1165, single-dome)

St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery (1119)

Church of the Savior Nereditsa near Novgorod (1198)

Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir (1197)

St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky

Church of Paraskeva Friday in Chernigov

Spaso-Preobrazhensky Cathedral of the St. Euphrosyne Monastery in Polotsk (1159, architect John)

Pagan (wooden construction):

1) multi-tiered buildings;

2) the buildings are crowned with turrets and towers;

3) artistic wood carving;

4) the presence of extensions (cages).

Scheme of a single-domed, single-tier temple.

Christian (stone construction) – cross-domed churches:

1) the base is a square divided by 4 pillars;

2) rectangular cells adjacent to the under-dome space form an architectural cross.

Another feature of Russian architecture of that time was the combination of structures with the natural landscape.

Architecture - architecture.

Literature

40th XI century, Hilarion

"A Word on Law and Grace"

The place of Rus' in world history is outlined. The first literary author.

Folklore

The word “About Igor’s Campaign” is the unsuccessful campaign of Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsians in 1185.

"The Tale of Boris and Gleb"

"The Legend of the Initial Spread of Christianity in Rus'"

Folklore is oral folk art.

11th century, monk Jacob

“Memory and praise to Vladimir”

It is necessary to understand that the Story, Walking, Reading, and Life are genres of Old Russian literature.

XI century, monk Nestor

"Reading about the life of Boris and Gleb"

XII century, Vladimir Monomakh

“Teachings for Children” is a book about what a real prince should be.

12th century, Abbot Daniel

"Hegumen Daniel's Walk to Holy Places"

Daniil Sharpener

"Word" and "Prayer"

12th century, Metropolitan Klimenty Smolyatich

"Message" to Priest Thomas

12th century, Bishop Kirill

"The Parable of the Human Soul"

Early 13th century

Kiev-Pechersk Patericon

The history of the foundation of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery and the first monks

Painting

Fresco and mosaic painting

St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv

St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery - mosaic

Fresco – carving on wet plaster.

Mosaic is an image assembled from colored glass pieces.

Iconography XII-XIII

"Angel with golden hair"

"Savior not made by hands"

"Assumption of the Virgin Mary"

"Yaroslavl Oranta"

The icon painter Alimpiy was famous

K. P. Bryullov (1799-1852)

"The last day of Pompeii"

"The Appearance of the Messiah" - Theotokos

folklore

Lutes, harps - instruments

Buffoons, singers, dancers

Pagan traditions

Songs, tales, epics, proverbs, sayings

Life of the people.

Jewelry techniques for gold and silver were widespread (bracelets, earrings, buckles, tiaras, even dishes were decorated with precious stones and metals). The wood carving was most beautiful. Feasts with honey and wine among princes and warriors. Falconry, hawk hunting, and hound hunting were considered fun. Races were held.

Russians loved the bathhouse very much.

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Table. Culture of Rus' from ancient times to the end of the 17th century.

CULTURE OF Rus' FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE 17TH CENTURY.

Ancient RussiaXIII-XV centuries.XVI centuries.XVII centuries.

Literacy, writingCreation of the Slavic alphabet (missionary monks Cyril and Methodius), monasteries - educational and scientific centers, library and school of Yaroslav the Wise1073 - Ostromir Gospel1076 - Mstislav Gospel

Literacy was quite widespread in medieval Rus'. 14th century – the appearance of paper (from Europe). The solemn “charter” letter was replaced by a quicker half-charter. Late 15th century - cursive writing.1) Growing need for literate people2) education was primary, of a church character, inaccessible (obtained in monasteries, at home, theological disciplines were studied in religious works)3) Writing - on paper in “cursive writing” 1553 - printing, 1563 - 1st printing house of Ivan Fedorov, 1564 – the first printed book – “Apostle”, 1565 – “Book of Hours”, 1574 – 1st primer (in Lviv)

Rapid development of the education system6 primary schools, special schools. School in the German settlement; growth of printed products, creation of state (Polish order) and private (Ordina-Nashchokin, Golitsyn) libraries, Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow (1687)1634 - V. Burtsev’s primer1682 - multiplication table printed1665 - school in the Spassky Monastery1649 - school at St. Andrew's Monastery

ChronicleKievo-Pechersk Monastery - the center of the origin of chronicle1073 - ancient code1060 - Chronicle of the monk Nikon193 - initial code (abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra Ivan)1113- Tale of Bygone Years (Nestor)Centers of chronicle writing - Novgorod, Moscow (began under Ivan Kaliit), Tver.Feature -all-Russian character, patriotism, the idea of ​​the unity of Rus'. Trinity Chronicle (early 15th century), Moscow Chronicle Code (late 15th century)

“Front chronicle code” (Nikon Chronicle), “Chronicle of the beginning of the kingdom, chronographs. 30s - “New Chronicler” (last chronicle)

Literature “The Tale of Law and Grace” (Metropolitan Hilarion, 10th century), “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” (1015), The Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh (12th century), “The Tale of Igor’s Host” (·1185), The Prayer of Daniil Zatochnik (12th century), Life of Theodosius of Pechersk (1074), Russian Truth (1016,-1072) Stories: “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”, “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”, “The Tale of Shavkal”, “Zadonshchina”, The Legend of the Massacre of Mamaev", "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia" "Walking across the Three Seas" Lives of: Alexander Nevsky, Metropolitan Peter, Sergius of Radonezh and others. 1st Russian chronograph (mid 15th century) 40s - Great Fourths - Menaion (Metropolitan Macarius) Ivan Peresvetov – “The Tale of Tsar Constantine”, “The Tale of Mohammed-Saltan”, program

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Culture of Rus' X–XIII centuries: architecture, literature, architecture

Sections: History and Social Studies

The formation and development of ancient Russian culture was inextricably linked with the same historical factors and conditions that influenced the formation of statehood, the development of the economy of Rus', and the political and spiritual life of society. The rich cultural heritage of the Eastern Slavs, their beliefs, experience, customs and traditions - all this was organically combined with elements of the culture of neighboring countries, tribes and peoples. Rus' did not copy or recklessly borrow someone else's heritage; it synthesized it with its own cultural traditions. The openness and synthetic nature of Russian culture largely determined its originality and uniqueness.

Oral folk art continued to develop even after the appearance of written literature. Russian epic of the 11th – early 12th centuries. enriched with stories dedicated to the fight against the Polovtsians. The image of Vladimir Monomakh, the initiator of the fight against the nomads, merged with the image of Vladimir Svyatoslavich. By the middle of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. This includes the appearance of Novgorod epics about the “guest” Sadko, a wealthy merchant descended from an ancient boyar family, as well as a cycle of tales about Prince Roman, the prototype of which was the famous Roman Mstislavich Galitsky.

Ancient Rus' knew writing even before the official adoption of Christianity. This is evidenced by numerous written sources, such as the agreement between Prince Oleg and Byzantium, and archaeological finds. Around the first half of the 1st millennium AD. e. primitive pictographic writing (“traits” and “cuts”) arose. Later, the Slavs used the so-called Proto-Cyrillic alphabet to write complex texts. The creation of the Slavic alphabet is associated with the names of the Christian missionaries brothers Cyril (Constantine) and Methodius. In the second half of the 9th century. Kirill created the Glagolitic alphabet - the Glagolitic alphabet, and at the turn of the 9th-10th centuries. Based on the Greek letter and elements of the Glagolitic alphabet, the Cyrillic alphabet arose - an easier and more convenient alphabet, which became the only one among the Eastern Slavs.

The Baptism of Rus' at the end of the 10th century. contributed to the rapid development of writing and the spread of literacy. The Slavic language, understandable to the entire population, was used as the language of church services, and as a result of this, its development as a literary language occurred. (In contrast to the Catholic countries of Western Europe, where the language of church services was Latin, and therefore early medieval literature was predominantly Latin.) Liturgical books and religious literature began to be brought to Rus' from Byzantium, Bulgaria, and Serbia. Translated Greek literature of ecclesiastical and secular content appeared - Byzantine historical works, descriptions of travel, biographies of saints, etc. The first handwritten Russian books that have reached us date back to the 11th century. The oldest of them are the “Ostromir Gospel”, written by Deacon Gregory for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir in 1057, and two “Izborniki” by Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich in 1073 and 1076. The highest level of craftsmanship with which these books were made testifies to the existence of traditions of making handwritten books by this time.

The Christianization of Rus' gave a powerful impetus to the spread of literacy. The “bookish men” were princes Yaroslav the Wise, Vsevolod Yaroslavich, Vladimir Monomakh, Yaroslav Osmomysl.

Highly educated people met among the clergy, among wealthy townspeople and merchants. Literacy was not uncommon among commoners. This is evidenced by inscriptions on handicrafts, church walls (graffiti), and finally, birch bark letters, first discovered during archaeological excavations in Novgorod in 1951, and then in other cities (Smolensk, Pskov, Tver, Moscow, Staraya Russa) . The wide distribution of letters and other documents on birch bark indicates a fairly high level of education of a significant layer of the ancient Russian population, especially in cities and their suburbs.

Old Russian literature arose on the basis of the rich traditions of oral folk art. One of its main genres was chronicle writing - weather reporting of events. Chronicles are the most valuable monuments of the entire spiritual culture of medieval society. The compilation of chronicles pursued very specific political goals and was a matter of state. The chronicler not only described historical events, he had to give them an assessment that met the interests of the prince-customer.

According to a number of scientists, the beginning of chronicle writing dates back to the end of the 10th century. But the oldest chronicle that has come down to us, based on earlier chronicle records, dates back to 1113. It went down in history under the name “The Tale of Bygone Years” and, as is commonly believed, was created by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor. Answering the questions posed at the very beginning of the story (“Where did the Russian land come from, who was the first prince in Kiev, and how did the Russian land begin to exist”), the author unfolds a wide canvas of Russian history, which is understood as an integral part of world history (under the world in those times Biblical and Roman-Byzantine history was implied). The “Tale” is distinguished by the complexity of its composition and the variety of materials included in it; it absorbed the texts of treaties, as if illustrating records of events, retellings of folk legends, historical stories, lives, theological treatises, etc. Later

The Tale of Bygone Years,” in turn, became part of other chronicle collections. From the 12th century a new period begins in the history of Russian chronicles. If earlier the centers of chronicle writing were Kyiv and Novgorod, now, after the fragmentation of the Russian land into many different-sized principalities, chronicles are created in Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk, Vladimir, Rostov, Galich, Ryazan and other cities, acquiring a more local, local character.

One of the oldest monuments of ancient Russian literature is the famous “Sermon on Law and Grace” by the princely priest in Berestovo and the future first Russian metropolitan of Kiev Hilarion (40s of the 11th century). The content of the “Word” was the substantiation of the state-ideological concept of Ancient Rus', the determination of the place of Rus' among other peoples and states, and its contribution to the spread of Christianity. The ideas of Hilarion’s work were developed in the literary and journalistic monument of the second half of the 11th century. “In memory and praise of Vladimir,” written by the monk Jacob, as well as in “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” - about the first Russian saints and patrons of Rus'.

At the beginning of the 12th century, new literary genres were formed in ancient Russian culture. These are the teachings of walking (travel notes). The most striking examples are the “Instructions for Children”, compiled in his declining years by the Kyiv Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh, as well as the famous “Walking” created by one of his associates, Abbot Daniel, which describes his journey to holy places through Constantinople and Fr. Crete to Jerusalem.

At the end of the 12th century. The most famous of the poetic works of ancient Russian literature was created - “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”. The basis of the plot of this small secular work was the description of the unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsians of Novgorod-Seversk Prince Igor Svyatoslavich (1185). The unknown author of the Lay apparently belonged to the druzhina nobility of one of the southern Russian appanage principalities. The main idea of ​​the “Tale” was the need for unity of Russian princes in the face of external danger. At the same time, the author was not a supporter of the state unification of the Russian land; his call was aimed at agreement in actions, to an end to civil strife and princely strife. Apparently, these ideas of the author of “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign” did not find a response in the society of that time. Indirect evidence of this is the fate of the manuscript of “The Lay” - it was preserved in the only copy (which was lost during the fire of 1812 in Moscow).

Much more widespread in Rus' was another remarkable work, preserved in two main editions - “The Word”, or “Prayer”, by Daniil Zatochnik (late 12th - first quarter of the 13th century). It was written in the form of an appeal to the prince on behalf of the author - an impoverished princely servant, perhaps a warrior who fell into disgrace. A staunch supporter of strong princely power, Daniel paints an ideal image of a prince - a defender of his subjects, capable of protecting them from the tyranny of “strong people”, overcoming internal strife and ensuring security from external enemies. The brightness of the language, masterful rhyming play on words, an abundance of proverbs, aphorism, and sharply satirical attacks against the boyars and clergy ensured this talented work great popularity for a long time.

Architecture has reached a high level in Rus'. Unfortunately, the monuments of ancient Russian wooden architecture have not survived to this day. Few stone structures survived, since a significant part of them was destroyed during Batu’s invasion. Monumental stone construction began in Rus' at the end of the twentieth century, after the adoption of Christianity. The principles of stone construction were borrowed by Russian architects from Byzantium. The first stone building - the Tithe Church in Kyiv (end of the 10th century, destroyed in 1240) was erected by Greek craftsmen. Excavations revealed that it was a powerful structure made of thin brick, decorated with carved marble, mosaics, glazed ceramic slabs, and frescoes.

Under Yaroslav the Wise (probably around 1037), Byzantine and Russian craftsmen built the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, which has survived to this day (though not in its original form, but significantly rebuilt from the outside). St. Sophia Cathedral is a wonderful monument not only of architecture, but also of fine art. Kiev Sophia is already significantly different from Byzantine examples in the stepped composition of the temple, the presence of thirteen domes crowning it, which was probably reflected in the traditions of Russian wooden architecture. The interior of the temple is decorated with mosaics and frescoes, some of which were apparently created by Russian masters, or, in any case, painted on Russian subjects.

Following the Kyiv Sophia, the St. Sophia Cathedral was built in Novgorod (1045–1050). And although there is a clear continuity between these two architectural monuments, the appearance of Novgorod Sophia already reveals the features of the future Novgorod architectural style. The temple in Novgorod is stricter than the one in Kyiv, it is crowned with five domes, there are no bright mosaics in the interior, but only frescoes, more severe and calm.

From the 12th century a new stage in the development of Russian architecture began. Architecture of the 12th–13th centuries. distinguished by less monumental buildings, the search for new simple and at the same time elegant forms, rigor, even stinginess of decoration. In addition, while maintaining the common features of architecture in different centers of Rus', local stylistic features are developed. In general, the architecture of this period is characterized by a combination of local traditions, forms and elements of the Western European Romanesque style borrowed from Byzantium. Particularly interesting buildings from this period have been preserved in Novgorod and in the cities of the Vladimir-Suzdal region.

In Novgorod, princely construction was reduced; boyars, merchants, and residents of this or that street began to act as customers for churches. The last of the princely Novgorod churches is the modest and elegant Church of the Savior on Nereditsa (1198), destroyed during the Great Patriotic War and then restored.

Russian medieval architecture is one of the most striking pages in the cultural history of Rus'. Architectural monuments fill our ideas about the development of culture with living, imaginative content and help us understand many aspects of history that are not reflected in written sources. This fully applies to the monumental architecture of the ancient, pre-Mongol period. As in the Western European Middle Ages, Russian architecture of the X-XIII centuries. was the main type of art, subordinating and including many other types, primarily painting and sculpture. From this time to the present day, brilliant monuments have been preserved, often not inferior in their artistic perfection to the best masterpieces of world architecture. The thunderstorms that swept over Russia, unfortunately, wiped out many architectural monuments from the face of the earth. More than three quarters of the ancient Russian monumental buildings of the pre-Mongol period have not survived and are known to us only from excavations, and sometimes even from their mere mention in written sources. Of course, this made it very difficult to study the history of ancient Russian architecture. Nevertheless, over the past three decades, great strides have been made in this area. They are due to several reasons. First of all, it is worth noting the methodological approach, which provides for an analysis of the development of architecture in inextricable connection with the socio-economic and political history of Rus', with the development of Russian culture. It is equally important that, thanks to the wide scope of architectural and archaeological research, the number of monuments involved in study has significantly increased.

Restoration work carried out on many of them made it possible to get closer to understanding the original appearance of the structures, which, as a rule, turned out to be distorted over the long years of existence and operation. It is also very important that architectural monuments are now considered comprehensively, taking into account equally the historical, artistic, and construction-technical aspects. As a result of the successes achieved, it became possible to understand the ways of development of ancient Russian architecture with much greater completeness than before. Not everything in this process is still completely clear, many monuments have not yet been studied, but the overall picture nevertheless emerges quite clearly now.

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Culture of Ancient Rus'

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Ticket number 7. The struggle of the Russian people against German-Swedish aggression in the 12-13th century. Alexander Nevskiy. The Swedes were the first to try to take advantage of the weakening of Rus' during the Mongol-Tatar invasion; Novgorod was under threat of capture. In July 1240, a Swedish fleet under the command of Duke Birger entered the Neva. Having passed the Neva to the mouth of the Izhora River, the knightly cavalry landed on the shore. At that time, 19-year-old Alexander Yaroslavich reigned in Novgorod. Russian intelligence reported to the prince about the movements of the Swedes, and he acted quickly and decisively. The prince did not wait for the regiments of Grand Duke Yaroslav, but with a small squad and Novgorod warriors moved to the landing site of the Swedes. On the way, they were joined by Ladoga residents, and later by a detachment of Izhorians. The most combat-ready part of the Swedish troops landed on the shore and stood in camp, the rest remained on the ships. On July 15, 1240, secretly approaching the Swedish camp, Alexander's cavalry squad attacked the center of the Swedish army. And the foot army of the Novgorodians struck the flank, cutting off the knights’ retreat to the ships. The remnants of the defeated Swedish army went down the Neva into the sea. The number of Russian losses was small - 20 people. The brilliant victory of Alexander, nicknamed Nevsky, was of great historical significance: 1) it eliminated the threat from the North; 2), Rus' preserved the shores of the Gulf of Finland, access to the Baltic Sea, trade routes to Western countries; 3) this was the first military success of Rus' since the invasion of Batu. But soon German and Danish crusading knights appeared in the North-West of Rus'. They captured the important Pskov fortress of Izborsk, and then, with the help of a traitorous mayor, captured Pskov. In 1241, enemies approached Novgorod, built a fortress in Koporye, blocked Rus''s path to the sea, and robbed merchants and peasants. At this time, due to a quarrel with the Novgorod boyars, who refused to make large expenses necessary to prepare for war, Alexander Nevsky left the city with his family. The fences of the Livonian knights continued to seize new Russian lands. Residents fled to Novgorod. At the request of the Novgorod veche, Alexander returned, recaptured Koporye and Pskov from the Germans, and took many prisoners. At the end of March 1242, Nevsky received news from intelligence that the forces of the Livonian Order, led by the master, were approaching him. The prince pulled his forces to Lake Peipsi and took a position on the ice, since the ice made it difficult for the knightly cavalry to maneuver. Archers were placed in front of the Russian battle formation, in the center - the people's militia (middle regiment), and on the flanks - strong regiments of the right and left hands. Behind the left flank there was a reserve - part of the cavalry. The Germans lined up in a wedge shape (“pig”), at the tip of which was a detachment of armored warriors. The Germans intended to dismember the prince's troops with a blow to the center and destroy them piece by piece. The battle took place on April 5, 1242 and developed according to Alexander's plan. The Germans crashed into the center of the Russians, but were sandwiched by the prince's flanking troops and surrounded by cavalry. Under the weight of the knights, the ice began to break, many drowned, others began to retreat. The Russians pursued the enemy for 7 miles. The Novgorod Chronicle reports that 400 knights died, thousands of ordinary soldiers, 50 noble knights were captured. The battle was called the “Battle of the Ice.” The significance of the victory was that: > firstly, the expansion of the order to the East was stopped here; > secondly, the Germans were unable to enslave the most developed part of Rus' - the Novgorod-Pskov land, and impose Catholicism on its people; > thirdly, the dominance of the German feudal lords over the peoples of the Baltic states was undermined; > fourthly, the victory of Alexander Nevsky strengthened the morale and self-awareness of the Russian people. Alexander Nevsky acted as a defender of Orthodox Rus' from the Catholic West. This made him one of the main heroes of Russian history. Culture of Ancient Rus'. The Eastern Slavs received from the primitive era a folk, basically pagan, culture, the art of buffoons, rich folklore - epics, fairy tales, ritual and lyrical songs. The culture of Kievan Rus was formed in the era of the formation of a single ancient Russian nationality and the formation of a single Russian literary language. It was created on the basis of ancient Slavic culture, reflected the life and way of life of the Slavic peoples, it was associated with the flourishing of trade and crafts, the development of interstate relations and trade ties. Christianity had a huge influence on culture as a whole - on literature, architecture, painting. At the same time, the existing dual faith determined that pagan spiritual traditions were preserved for a long time in the culture of medieval Rus'. The harsh canons of church Byzantine art in Rus' underwent changes, images of saints became more worldly and humane. For a long time there was an opinion that writing came to Rus' along with Christianity. However, the facts irrefutably indicate that Slavic writing existed at the beginning of the 10th century: Cyril and Methodius created their alphabet based on the Slavic writing (9th century). After the adoption of Christianity in the 11th century. In Rus', literacy begins to spread among princes, boyars, merchants, and wealthy townspeople. In rural areas the population was illiterate. The first books appeared; they were expensive and made from parchment. They were written by hand with goose or swan feathers and decorated with colored miniatures. Most of them were church. The first schools were opened in churches, monasteries, and cities. The most important monument of ancient Russian culture are chronicles - weather reports of historical events. Chroniclers, as a rule, were literate, literary gifted monks who knew literature, legends, epics, and described events and facts related mainly to the life of princes and the affairs of monasteries. Many legends were included in the chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years,” which became the main work on the history of Rus'. It was written by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor in 1113. Archaeological excavations show that up to the 10th century. in Rus' they built exclusively from wood. The wooden buildings of pagan Rus' have not survived, but the architectural style - turrets, towers, tiers, passages, carvings - passed into the stone architecture of Christian times. In Rus' they began to build stone churches according to the Byzantine model: squares formed an architectural cross. Under Yaroslav the Wise, the Kiev St. Sophia Cathedral was built, the architecture of which organically combines Slavic and Byzantine traditions: on the basis of the cross-domed church there are 13 domes. St. Sophia Cathedral became a symbol of the power of Kievan Rus. The walls of the cathedral are made of pink brick; the inside walls and ceiling were decorated with frescoes and mosaics. In the 12th century. single-domed churches were built, new fortresses and stone palaces were founded. Icon painting also became widespread. The oldest monument of icon painting that has come down to us is the icon of the “Vladimir Mother of God”. The art of wood and stone carving reached a high level; it was used to decorate the palaces of princes and the homes of boyars. Russian jewelers and gunsmiths were famous. Folk art is reflected in Russian folklore: conspiracies, spells, proverbs, riddles that were associated with agriculture and the life of the Slavs, wedding songs and funeral lamentations. The oldest genre of Russian music is ritual and labor songs, epics. Musical instruments - tambourines, harps, trumpets, horns. Buffoons performed in the squares - singers, dancers, acrobats, and there was a folk puppet theater. Storytellers and singers of epics were highly respected. The culture of a people is inextricably linked with its way of life and morals. People lived in cities, towns, villages. The main type of Slavic dwelling was a manor, a log house, often two-story. The favorite pastime of the rich is hunting. For the common people, horse races and fist fights were organized. The bathhouse was very popular. Clothes were made from homespun canvas or cloth. The basis of the costume was a shirt, men's trousers were tucked into boots, women's shirt was floor-length, with embroidery and long sleeves. Headdresses: the prince had a hat framed with bright material, women covered their heads with a scarf and decorated them with pendants, peasants and townspeople wore fur or wicker hats. Outerwear is a raincoat made of thick linen fabric. The princes wore barmas around their necks - chains of silver or gold medallions with enamel decorations. They ate bread, meat, fish, and vegetables. They drank kvass, honey, wine. The chronicle notes the Kievites' addiction to wine drinking. Newborns were given names according to the church calendar. Most of them are of Jewish or Greek origin. For ordinary people, a name often became a nickname. Ticket number 9. The Moscow state in the era of Ivan the Terrible. Law code 1550 After the death of Vasily III, his son Ivan, who was only 3 years old, became the heir to the throne. Under the young tsar, a long and painful period of boyar rule began. Two groups of boyars, the Belskys and the Shuiskys, fought for power, forgetting about state interests, and ruined the country. The boyars also hated the young prince, with whom they had almost ignored for a long time. In January 1547 Ivan IV accepted the title of Tsar, new for Rus', emphasizing the exclusivity of his position in the state. In the summer of the same year, a terrible fire broke out in Moscow, which ended in a spontaneous revolt of the townspeople against the boyars. These events forced the king to think about the need for serious reforms. In 1549 The first Zemsky Sobor in the history of Rus' gathers - an estate-representative body of an advisory nature. This council was attended by representatives of the boyars, nobles and clergy. In the person of the last two categories, Ivan IV found reliable support for his reform plans. At the same time, the king creates a semblance of government, the Elected Rada. It was the Elected Rada that prepared and carried out reforms in the 1550s. Covering all aspects of Russian life. At this time, further enslavement of the peasants took place. The new code of law (1550) not only confirmed the rules for the transition to St. George’s Day, but also significantly increased the amount that the peasant had to pay before the transition to his former owner for the use of the land. The elected council continued to distribute estates in order to increase and strengthen the nobility. Serious changes have been made in the field of public administration. The Rada limited and streamlined localism - a procedure for appointment to higher positions that was beneficial for the boyars, in which not personal merits and abilities were taken into account, but the nobility of the family and the antiquity of its service. Reference books were compiled for local disputes. During hostilities, localism was abolished. Orders were created - bodies with the help of which individual territories were controlled from the center. In the middle of 1550 The Rada carries out a provincial reform, during which the governors sent from the center were replaced by provincial elders - an administration from among local nobles elected by the population. A Streltsy army is being created. The reforms allowed Ivan IV to conduct a successful foreign policy; he struck at the remnants of the Golden Horde. The Kazan and Astrakhan Khanates were annexed to Rus', and the way to Siberia was opened. The Tsar begins to make his way to the Baltic Sea, Rus' enters into a war with Livonia. In 1560 Grozny began to change his system of government. He dissolved the Chosen Rada, placing disgrace on its leaders. Possessing talents and a keen understanding of people, he was at the same time distinguished by his exorbitant lust for power and cruelty. During a difficult time of boyar enmity and popular unrest, he took refuge behind the Elected Rada, but when its reforms stabilized the situation in the country and made it possible to achieve success in foreign policy, the advisers began to weigh on him. Two representatives of the rad were announced in the sorcery. The tsar perceived the failures in the Livonian War as the result of betrayal in his circle. Several boyars were executed. In 1565 Grozny introduces oprichnina. The essence of the new policy is to divide the entire country into two unequal parts. The majority of the population, the zemstvos, came under the supervision of the guardsmen. The power of the guardsmen over the zemstvos was complete, the lands were distributed to the guardsmen for use, and the old owners were expelled. Relying on specially selected guardsmen, Grozny unleashed the most severe terror in the country, from which all segments of the population suffered. The apogee of terror was the pogrom of Novgorod: the Novgorodians, without any reason, were accused of wanting to overthrow Grozny and elevate his cousin, Prince Vladimir Andreevich of Staritsky, to the throne. The unfortunate prince was poisoned, and Novgorod was practically wiped off the face of the earth. The arbitrary division of the population into the tortured and the torturers, constant executions and pogroms, ruin - all this weakened Rus'. In addition, the guardsmen, who in addition to fighting the enemies of the tsar within the country, also had to defend him from external enemies, turned out to be useless warriors. In 1571 Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey reached Moscow and burned it. The next year, the khan again went to Rus', but was stopped by the zemstvo troops. After these events in 1572. The oprichnina was abolished, the lands and service people were united, and most of the estates were returned to the old owners. However, repressions continued later, until the death of Ivan IV (1584). Only now the former guardsmen suffered from them no less than everyone else. The protracted (25 years) war, which cost enormous costs and losses, did not bring Russia the slightest success.

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Culture of Ancient Rus'

Culture of Ancient Rus'.

(9th - first third of the 13th centuries)

The concept of culture is one of the most fundamental in the sciences of man and society. Culture does not exist outside of man, it forms his environment of living and communication, it is formed by human society and at the same time shapes and develops this society. The history of culture is not just the sum of the histories of literature, painting, architecture, music, theater and other types of artistic creativity. This is not a separate part of the history of society, but its entire history from the point of view of cultural development.

1. CULTURE AS A SOCIAL PHENOMENON,

ITS STRUCTURE AND FORMS

1.1. The concept of culture is extremely polysemantic. Currently, there are about a thousand of its definitions, reflecting various concepts. The basic elements of culture exist in two forms - material and spiritual.

1.1.1 Material culture is the totality of material elements created by the labor and genius of man.

1.1.2. The totality of intangible elements forms a spiritual culture, which includes cognitive (intellectual), moral, artistic, legal, religious and other cultures.

1.1.3. Some types of culture cannot be unambiguously attributed only to the material or spiritual realm. Types of culture such as economic, political, ecological or aesthetic permeate its entire system.

1.2. The synthesis of cultures of various peoples inhabiting our planet constitutes world culture. The synthesis of cultures of various social strata and groups of any national society forms a national culture.

1.3. Since any society is not homogeneous, but consists of many groups (national, age, social, professional, etc.), small cultural worlds arise - subcultures (youth subculture, professional, urban, rural, etc. subcultures).

1.4. Being a social phenomenon, culture reflects the problems and contradictions of society.

Marxist-Leninist philosophy, in accordance with the class theory of society, distinguished the culture of the ruling class (feudal, bourgeois) and the culture of the oppressed classes (folk).

The culture of a particular society is differentiated, but the division is not at all along the lines of protecting class interests. Depending on who creates the culture and what its level is, its three forms are distinguished - elite, folk and mass.

1.4.1. Elite, or high, culture is created by representatives of the most educated strata of society or professional creators close to them. It reflects the tastes, interests and ideas of such layers and is created primarily for their consumption.

The perception of high culture, as a rule, requires a certain educational level, but broad social strata can also be its consumers after they have achieved the appropriate level of education. Such a culture is often influenced by the elite culture of other countries, but, at the same time, one of its sources is folk culture and may have a unique folk character (works of A.S. Pushkin, L.N. Tolstoy, etc.).

The development of high culture is significantly influenced by the state, which sometimes tries to regulate its development in its own interests, which is almost impossible in relation to folk culture.

1.4.2. Folk culture (folklore) is democratic, it is created by anonymous creators who do not have professional training, with the participation of everyone, is based on the traditions of a given area and reflects the basic spiritual values ​​of the people. It includes myths, legends, fairy tales, songs, dances, etc.

1.4.3. Folk culture should not be confused with mass culture. Mass culture products are also intended for the general public and take into account some of their tastes and needs. Like folk culture, mass culture is publicly available, but unlike it, it is always copyrighted. As a rule, it has less artistic value than elitist and folk art, since it is designed to satisfy the immediate needs of people. In most cases, the creators of such works pursue only commercial or propaganda goals. The final formation of mass culture took place in the middle of the 20th century and is associated with the development of the media.

2. Features of Old Russian culture

2.1. General features. Old Russian culture did not develop in isolation, but in constant interaction with the cultures of surrounding peoples and was subject to the general patterns of development of the medieval culture of the Eurasian civilization.

2.1.1. Religion, which determined the morality of society, the entire picture of the world of that era, including people’s ideas about power, time, etc., had a significant influence on the cultural life of all peoples.

2.1.3. This period was characterized by the process of accumulation of knowledge, in the absence of scientific analysis.

2.2. The culture of Kievan Rus was based on the centuries-old history of the development of the culture of the Eastern Slavs. It was in the era of Slavic antiquity that the beginnings of Russian spirituality, language, and culture as a whole were laid.

2.3. Foreign influences (Scandinavian, Byzantine, and later Tatar-Mongolian) had a significant influence on the development of ancient Russian culture, which does not detract from its originality and independence.

2.4. The culture of Kievan Rus was formed not as a result of a mechanical combination of elements of different cultures, but as a result of their synthesis.

2.4.1. The basis of this synthesis was the pagan culture of the East Slavic tribes.

2.4.2. The second most important component was the Christian culture of Byzantium. The adoption of Orthodoxy in 988 from Byzantium predetermined its influence on all areas of Russian culture and at the same time opened up broader prospects for the development of contacts with Europe, thus giving a powerful impetus to the development of culture as a whole.

3. WRITING AND EDUCATION

3.1. Writing in Rus' appeared long before the adoption of Christianity. There are references to the fact that the ancient Slavs used knotted and knotted hieroglyphic writing, but due to its complexity it was accessible only to a select few.

3.2. The widespread spread of literacy is associated with the activities in the second half of the 9th century of the brothers Constantine (who took monasticism under the name Cyril before their death) and Methodius, who created the first Slavic alphabet for the dissemination of Christian sacred texts. The first examples of the use of this letter that have survived to this day date back to the beginning of the 10th century. The 911 treaty between Oleg and Byzantium was written in two languages ​​- Greek and Slavic. The adoption of Christianity contributed to the further development of writing and education.

The oldest Slavic texts are written in two alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic.

3.2.1. Glagolitic, according to most scientists, has an earlier origin. It was probably created by Cyril the Philosopher, who used not only Byzantine (Greek) cursive writing, but also Hebrew and other eastern alphabets, as well as letters of his own invention. Monuments where the Glagolitic alphabet is used are written in a more archaic language. Cyrillic insertions into them were made later. On scratched Glagolitic tests (lambskin parchment was expensive and often used several times) there are inscriptions in Cyrillic, but never vice versa.

3.2.2. The Cyrillic alphabet was based only on the Greek solemn (statutory) letter. Sounds that were absent in the Greek language are indicated by signs stylized as Greek letters, similar to the Glagolitic alphabet, from which they were probably borrowed. The Cyrillic alphabet contains a number of letters denoting sound combinations that appeared among the Slavs from the end of the 9th century. and strangers to Kirill. According to scientists, the Cyrillic alphabet was created by the students of Cyril and Methodius in Bulgaria, where the Greek alphabet had previously been used to record Slavic speech, and the Glagolitic alphabet never took root.

Name of St. Kirill remained in the memory of the Slavs as the name of the creator of the Slavic alphabet in general and later switched to the rapidly spreading letter created after the death of the brothers. The forgotten Glagolitic alphabet went down in history under the name that the ancient Slavs used to call any alphabet.

3.3. The spread of literacy among various layers of ancient Russian society is evidenced by Novgorod birch bark letters of the 11th century, containing household records of character, letters, etc., as well as numerous inscriptions on handicraft products and on the walls of stone buildings - graffiti.

3.4. The first schools. Despite the fairly widespread spread of literacy (birch bark letters and graffiti came from the hands of artisans, merchants, and women), education was a privilege of the upper classes of society, for whose children the first schools were opened in the 11th century. More than three hundred children studied at the Kyiv school opened by Yaroslav the Wise. The sister of Vladimir Monomakh created a convent in Kyiv, in which girls were taught to read and write. Higher-type schools also appeared, preparing for state and church service. The princes and part of the clergy spoke foreign languages. Monasteries and princes collected libraries that were significant for those times.

4. Oral folk art and the formation of ancient Russian writing

4.1. The appearance of written literature in Rus' was preceded by the development of oral folk art, which largely predetermined its ideological orientation and artistic features. Particularly widespread were conspiracies and spells, calendar ritual songs, epics (antiques), proverbs, sayings, and riddles. The Old Russian epic reflects the spiritual values ​​of the people, their traditions, peculiarities of life, and real historical events. The affectionate Prince Vladimir the Red Sun became the hero of many epics.

4.2. Old Russian written literature was born among the upper strata of society. The books were handwritten. Until the 15th century, the material for writing was parchment, made from specially dressed calfskin. They wrote in ink or cinnabar until the 19th century. used goose feathers. Many books were decorated with miniatures, and the binding of the most valuable ones was bound in gold and decorated with precious stones and enamel (Ostromir Gospel of the 11th century and Mstislav Gospel of the 12th century). The books were very expensive and were available only to a select few.

All ancient Russian literature is divided into translated and original.

4.2.1. Translation occupied an important place in the literature of Kievan Rus and was considered as part of national literature. The choice of translated works was determined by the influence of the church on ancient Russian literature: the Holy Scriptures, the works of John Chrysostom, Cyril of Jerusalem and other early Christian authors.

Historical works and chronicles were also translated.

4.2.2. Original ancient Russian literature is represented by the following main genres: chronicles, hagiography, words (teachings), walks and historical stories.

Chronicle writing occupies a central place among the genres of ancient Russian literature. Chronicles are weather (by summer) records created on the basis of historical legends and songs, official sources, and eyewitness memories. Monks who underwent special training were engaged in chronicle writing. Chronicles were usually compiled on behalf of a prince or bishop, sometimes on the personal initiative of the chronicler.

The oldest Russian chronicle is the Tale of Bygone Years, compiled on the basis of no longer preserved earlier chronicles and oral traditions. Its author is considered to be the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor and dates back to 1113. The Tale of Bygone Years has reached us in handwritten copies no older than the 14th century. The most famous of them are the Laurentian and Ipatiev Chronicles. The main idea of ​​the work is the unity and greatness of the Russian land. From the 12th century Chronicles of local feudal centers flourished.

The life (hagiography) is a biography of famous clergy and secular figures canonized by the Christian Church (the life of Princes Boris and Gleb, etc.)

A word (teaching, speech) is a work belonging to the genre of eloquence. Two varieties of this genre have become widespread in Rus' - solemn eloquence and moralizing eloquence. The oldest monument of solemn eloquence is the Sermon on Law and Grace, which is attributed to the first Metropolitan of Kyiv Hilarion (second quarter of the 11th century). The Word is the first known original work created by a Russian author - it is an ecclesiastical and political treatise that substantiates the significance of the adoption of Christianity for Rus' and glorifies the Russian land and its princes.

A striking example of moralizing eloquence is the Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh (1096 or 1117), which is a kind of political and moral testament of the Grand Duke of Kyiv with elements of autobiography.

A special group of monuments of ancient Russian literature consists of walking (walking) - a type of travel literature. Their main purpose is to tell about Christian shrines and attractions, but they also contain information about nature, climate, and customs of other countries. One of the most famous works of this genre is the Walk of Abbot Daniel to Palestine.

The most famous literary monument of pre-Mongol Rus' is the Lay of Igor's Campaign (late 12th century) calling for the unity of the Russian lands, opposing strife, contrasting two states of humanity - peace and war. The originality of the Tale of Igor's Campaign made it difficult to identify as a genre. It is called an epic or lyrical poem, a historical story, a political treatise. According to UNESCO, the 800th anniversary of this monument of ancient Russian literature was celebrated throughout the world as a significant date in the history of world culture.

By the beginning of the 13th century. As a result of the creative development of the achievements of Byzantine literature and their rethinking in accordance with the national traditions of oral creativity, a unique ancient Russian literature emerged. In almost every genre, original works were created that were not inferior to Byzantine models and did not copy them. The presence of works that stand outside genre systems (Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh, The Lay of Igor's Campaign) indicates an intensive creative search of domestic authors.

5. ARCHITECTURE

The surviving architectural monuments testify to the high level of construction technology, the skill of painters, subtle artistic taste and the personal architectural style of folk craftsmen.

5.1. Wooden architecture. Excavations and studies have shown that until the end of the 10th century. There was no monumental stone architecture in Rus'. The buildings were wooden or wooden-earth.

From the end of the 10th century. widespread construction of religious buildings, churches and monasteries begins. Initially, all these buildings were wooden: the 13-domed Sophia of Novgorod, built in 989, the temple of Boris and Gleb from the beginning of the 11th century. in Vyshgorod.

5.2. Stone construction begins at the end of the 10th century.

5.2.1. The first stone structures were built under the guidance of Byzantine craftsmen, which largely determined the choice of the type of religious buildings and the principles of temple construction. The cross-domed church that developed in the architecture of Byzantium (see diagram) became the predominant type of Orthodox church in Rus': four, six or more pillars (pillars, 2 in the diagram) in the plan formed a cross, above which a dome rose (1). In the eastern part of the building (altar, 3)) services were performed. The altar was separated from the church hall, where the believers were, by a low barrier (5), decorated with fabrics and icons. Subsequently, the number of icons in the altar barrier increased, and an iconostasis took its place. In the western part there was a balcony - choir (4), where the prince and his family and his entourage were present during the service.

The composition of the interior of an Orthodox church organically includes a strictly developed, canonical system of paintings and mosaics, subordinate to the structure of the building and the symbolism of its parts.

At the beginning of the 11th century. Byzantine and Russian builders at the same time erected the largest cross-domed churches: St. Sophia Cathedrals in Kyiv (1037), and Novgorod (1052) and the Transfiguration Cathedral in Chernigov (1036).

5.2.2. Secular buildings. Simultaneously with the temples, princely palaces, boyar chambers and fortresses were built from stone, but to a much smaller extent. The Golden Gate in Kyiv (11th century) became an outstanding monument of civil engineering.

5.3. Features of Russian architecture. Russian masters, having borrowed the principles of Byzantine stone construction and taking the cross-dome composition as a basis, introduced elements of Russian wooden architecture into it, giving the temples multi-domed and pyramidal, towerlike appearance. The trends of creative rethinking of the Byzantine temple system and independent architectural search intensified at the end of the 12th century. in connection with the rapid development of ancient Russian cities. Around the temples they began to build one-story tomb galleries and create public meeting places.

5.4. In the 12th century. In accordance with local conditions (construction and artistic traditions, peculiarities of building materials), local architectural schools emerged, opening the way for folk craftsmanship.

5.4.1. Vladimir-Suzdal architecture is distinguished by pronounced decorative trends, which intensified by the 13th century. Its distinctive feature is the openwork stone carvings on the facades of churches. The most significant buildings include the Assumption Cathedral on the river. Klyazma, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, Dmitrievsky Cathedral in Vladimir and St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky, which contemporaries compared to a precious carved ivory casket. A remarkable monument of military-defensive architecture is the Golden Gate in Vladimir.

5.4.2. The distinctive features of the Novgorod and Pskov architectural style were severity, simplicity of forms, and sparingness of decorative ornaments. Particular attention was paid to the construction of fortresses on these lands. The most striking monuments of Novgorod include St. George's Cathedral in the Yuryev Monastery and the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa. One of the earliest stone structures in Pskov is the Transfiguration Cathedral of the Mirozhsky Monastery.

5.4.3. At the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries. The most intensive construction was in Smolensk, which ranks third in terms of the number of monuments of the pre-Mongol period after Kyiv and Novgorod. The development of Smolensk architecture is associated with the invitation to the Smolensk region of Chernigov craftsmen, who organized a local construction artel. Smolensk buildings are distinguished by high quality brickwork. Better than other monuments of the 12th century. The Church of Peter and Paul has been preserved.

6. Fine arts

6.1. Old Russian fine art developed under the significant influence of the Christian religion and was closely connected with religious construction. The interior walls of the temples were richly decorated with frescoes, mosaics, and icons.

6.1.1. Fresco - painting with water paints on wet plaster. The first frescoes were painted by Greek masters. The study of surviving fragments of frescoes of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv leads to the conclusion about the influence of Russian masters on their Byzantine teachers. The main theme of the frescoes is images of saints and gospel scenes, but there are also frescoes depicting secular persons (sons and daughters of Yaroslav the Wise) and everyday scenes (hunting, performances of buffoons).

6.1.2. Mosaic (shimmering painting) as a form of fine art was known in Kyiv in the 10th-11th centuries. The mosaic technique was also brought to Rus' by Byzantine masters. The image was typed from smalt - a special glassy material. In the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, a mosaic depicting a huge figure of Our Lady Oranta has been preserved. Unlike Byzantium, where mosaic images took a dominant position in the system of pictorial decoration of churches, in Rus' mosaics were used mainly to decorate works of decorative and applied art, but were not widely used as a type of monumental art. After the 12th century mosaic technology was almost never used in Russian churches.

6.1.3. Icons were a necessary attribute of temples. The first icons in Rus' appear in the 10th century. They were brought to Rus' by the Greeks from Byzantium, and Russian icon painting was influenced by the Byzantine school. The most revered icon in Rus' was the image of the Mother of God with a baby in her arms (Our Lady of Vladimir), made by an unknown Greek painter at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries. But already in the 11th century. Russian master icon painters are achieving great success: Alimpiy, Olisey, George, etc., and in the 12th century. Local icon painting schools are emerging, differing from each other in the manner of execution. The most famous were the Novgorod, Pskov, Yaroslavl, and Kiev schools. The characteristic features of icon painting, regardless of local traditions, are a flat image, reverse perspective, symbolism of gestures and colors. The main attention was paid to the image of the face and hands. All this was supposed to contribute to the perception of the icon as a divine image.

6.2. The appearance of written monuments led to the emergence of book miniatures. In Ancient Rus', a miniature was understood as a colorful illustration and was called a front manuscript. The oldest Russian miniatures are preserved in the Ostromir Gospel, Izbornik Svyatoslav.

Book miniatures and ornaments had many similarities with mosaics, frescoes and jewelry.

6.3. Monumental sculpture did not receive significant development in medieval Rus'. Individual wooden sculptural images of saints were random in nature and were persecuted by the Orthodox Church, as they were reminiscent of pagan idols. Only wood and stone carvings, used to decorate the walls of temples, became widespread. The first secular sculptural monuments were erected in Russia only in the 18th century.

Russian artistic craft received outstanding development in pre-Mongol times. According to calculations by B.A. Rybakov, artisans of more than 60 specialties worked in Russian cities.

Jewelry art reached an exceptional blossoming. Jewelry made using the techniques of embossing, filigree, engraving, silver niello, granulation, and cloisonne enamel was in great demand on the world market. Blacksmithing is one of the most developed crafts. In Western Europe, self-sharpening knives and complex locks made by Russian blacksmiths, consisting of more than 40 parts, were especially famous. The production of weapons received significant development: chain mail, sabers, stabbing swords. In the XII-XIII centuries. Crossbows and faceted arrows for them appeared. From the middle of the 10th century. The production of bricks, multi-colored ceramics, leather and wood processing items was widely developed.

The development of folk applied art created the basis for the further development of architecture and painting.

9. MUSIC.

In medieval Rus', three musical directions developed: folk music, liturgical singing and secular singing.

9.1. Folk music. Song folklore and pagan ritual singing, accompanied by playing pipes and tambourines, became widespread in Rus'. harp. In secular music, the emergence of elite forms has not yet occurred, which was facilitated by the love of folk games and festivals. The feasts of the princes, as a rule, were accompanied by dancing, singing, and playing musical instruments. At many princely courts, buffoons appeared - the first ancient Russian professional actors, combining a singer and a musician. dancer, storyteller, acrobat. The buffoons played the harp, trumpets, horns, pipes, bagpipes, and tambourines. They took part in funerals, weddings, and seasonal festivities of the peasant calendar. The art of buffoons is inextricably linked with ritual song folklore.

9.2. Liturgical singing spread after the adoption of Christianity and immediately became a professional activity. The Orthodox religion does not know how to play musical instruments. At first, Greek and South Slavic singers took part in church services. Gradually, in singing, the distinctive properties inherent only to the ancient Russian peoples became more and more apparent.

10.1. The synthesis of the pagan culture of the Eastern Slavs and the Christian tradition of Byzantium determined the originality of Russian national culture and contributed to its development.

10.2. Despite the fact that Rus' entered the path of historical development later than other European countries, by the 12th century it had become one of the most culturally developed states of that time.

10.3. XII-XIII centuries are characterized by the flourishing of local styles of chronicle writing, architecture, fine and applied arts, on the basis of which the process of forming a unified national culture began.