Year of foundation of the Egyptian state. The emergence and development of the state in ancient Egypt. Questions and tasks

In Egypt, earlier than in other countries, a class slave-owning society arose and for the first time in the world a state arose. It is not known for certain when the first state formations appeared there, but already by the 3rd millennium BC. e. there was a state in Egypt.

The disintegration of communal orders occurred slowly in this country, and thereby the development of private property relations and the slave system was hampered.

By the time of the formation of the unified Egyptian kingdom, there were approximately 40 separate regions (nomes) on its territory, headed by rulers - nomarchs. The nomarchs tried to spread their power over the entire country, waging fierce wars with their neighbors.

Initially, the nomes united into two independent states - Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. The first unification of Egypt occurred during the Early Kingdom and was carried out by Pharaoh Menes.

The history of the ancient Egyptian state is divided into several periods: Early, Ancient, Middle, New and Late Kingdoms.

Early kingdom

The history of the Early Kingdom is known quite little. The Egyptian state of this period still resembles an ancient rather primitive tribal union. The communities actually owned the land on the basis of communal land tenure, but the state government considered itself the supreme owner of all the land and collected part of the income of the free population of the communities for its benefit. The population consisted mainly of free communal peasants.

Along with the royal vast economy, there were other large farms. The king, although he was at the very top of the social ladder, did not yet stand out among the powerful nobles. As a result of numerous wars that were fought during the Early Kingdom, captive slaves were supplied and used in large farms.

During the Early Kingdom period, Lower Egypt was conquered by Upper Egypt, and as a result, a dual kingdom was formed. However, this unity was fragile, and the entire history of the Early Kingdom was permeated by the struggle between the Upper Egyptian conquerors and Lower Egypt.

The king was at the head of the state. He was surrounded by a large court, consisting of many court officials and various servants. The importance of royal power was emphasized by the complete deification of its bearers. The slave-owning nobility held important positions in the royal household itself. This period is characterized by the formation of the state apparatus.

One of the main tasks of the state during this period was the organization of irrigation in the Nile Valley. The supreme management of irrigation work was in the hands of the state

A permanent army was just being formed, although the state waged numerous wars with neighboring tribes.

Ancient kingdom

The Old Kingdom covers the period around 2700-2400. BC e. At this time, the first strong centralized slave state was formed in Egypt. The ancient kingdom was distinguished by a high level of economic development. A well-organized army of workers provided the country's population with everything they needed. The standard of living of the various segments of the population was already clearly defined. At the top of the social ladder stood the large slave-owning nobility, which had vast land holdings. Large landowners occupied important positions at court and in government.

Priests played a special role in Egyptian society. They were surrounded by universal reverence, since it was believed that the priests had knowledge of the afterlife. The most important of this knowledge was recorded in the Book of the Dead, sacred to the Egyptians. In addition, the importance of priests increased due to the fact that they mastered the art of healing, erecting complex architectural structures, and were able to calculate the area of ​​land. The priests served as a support for royal power, glorifying the pharaohs; the latter, in turn, exempted temple farms from taxes and labor for the state.

The main labor force in the state were communal peasants. They united in “working detachments”, which were used not only for work in agriculture, but also in the construction of various structures, when laying roads, and digging canals. The pharaoh controlled the “working detachments” through his officials.

During the era of the Old Kingdom, there were still few slaves, although there was a slave market, people were bought and sold. Slavery was widespread not only among the upper classes, but also among the middle strata of the population. Slaves were used, as a rule, to work in the household.

The government system of the Old Kingdom is characterized by centralization of government. With the help of the religious ideology of deification of the king and his deeds, the authority of the pharaoh was strengthened. All legislative, executive and judicial powers were concentrated in his hands. The attention of the pharaohs was drawn to all important affairs of the state. Irrigation measures, courts, appointments and awards, imposition of duties and exemption from them, military campaigns, shipping measures, state building and development of the earth's bowels - everything was carried out according to the orders of the king.

The most important positions in the state - supreme dignitaries, military leaders, treasure keepers, work supervisors, high priests - were, as a rule, occupied by members of the royal house.

The first person in government after the king was the supreme dignitary (jati). He directed the activities of the supreme judicial bodies, was in charge of local administration, managed various state workshops, supervised all the works of the king, and was in charge of various state repositories. Sometimes the highest dignitaries transferred some of the functions to other dignitaries.

Military affairs achieved significant development in the Old Kingdom. A number of military commander ranks are known. The Egyptian army consisted of two parts: a small detachment of specially trained and well-prepared soldiers and a large militia of peasants, who were recruited into the army for several months and were temporarily released from field work. Police functions were performed by special detachments.

During this period, the most important departments of the state were created: the military, the department of public works, the financial and tax department, and the judicial department.

Ancient communal courts were increasingly replaced by representatives of royal jurisdiction. The highest court - the "six great houses" - was located in the capital. The pharaoh was considered the bearer of supreme jurisdiction, who in emergency cases appointed special judges from among the most trusted persons to examine secret cases related to crimes of national importance. The royal courts also included the college of thirty, the courts of nomes, and the courts of cities. Temple courts are famous.

The nomarchs who stood at the head of the regions carried out economic management of the region and gave orders to prepare fields for sowing, erect new dams, lay canals, monitor the harvest and distribute it among the population.

This form of socio-political structure, in which the head of state, who has full power, is deified, governance is carried out with the help of a bureaucratic apparatus, and the free population of the country is burdened with various state duties, is called eastern despotism.

Towards the end of the Old Kingdom era, the power of the pharaohs began to weaken. Nominally, all the land of the country was considered the property of the pharaoh. In reality, the royal estates were reduced due to donations distributed as rewards for court and other services. The army of profiteers surrounding the pharaoh increased, which led to the devastation of the royal treasury. The nobles sought exemption from paying taxes and from maintaining those passing through them. the land of persons who were in the service of Pharaoh, from the parcel; their people for public works. In many places, the rule of the nomes was inherited from father to son.

The decline of royal power leads to the onset of the “Time of Troubles” in Egypt. Numerous palace coups indicate a political crisis, followed by an economic crisis. The ancient kingdom collapsed. But after a transitional period of unrest, a new kingdom arises on its ruins - the Middle. The country emerged from chaos, and Egypt again found itself entirely, as before, under the rule of one pharaoh. He bore the title "divine".

Middle Kingdom

From the end of the 3rd millennium to 1600 BC e. The era of the Middle Kingdom continues.

In the second half of the era of the Old Kingdom, new ruling families began to emerge in the localities. Towards the end of this era, the importance of the local nobility increased. It is supported by wide circles of the population. As a result, the country breaks up into semi-independent regions. The pan-Egyptian power of the pharaohs is in decline.

The liberation of the regions from the central government caused a revival of local economic activity.

Social relations during the heyday of the Middle Kingdom (XVIII century BC) are marked by two important features: on the one hand, there is a significant increase in slavery in private households and the position of landowners is changing, on the other hand, the stratification of rural communities leads to the formation of a layer of small owners - nedzhes (“small”). Among the Nejes, wealthy owners and small peasants stood out. Representatives of the middle class of the population who became rich penetrated the environment of the priesthood and bureaucrats, becoming scribes, traders and even landowners. They were called strong nedjes. They were opposed by the poor Nedjes, who in their position differed little from slaves. The importance of the average words of citizens in the life of society is growing. The city was a community that was a legal entity that owned slaves and land.

The beginning of the Middle Kingdom era was marked by the almost unlimited power of the nomarchs. During the heyday of the Middle Kingdom, the pharaohs, seeking to unify the state and strengthen the central government, tried to limit the power of the nomarchs, replacing the old, independent rulers of the regions with new ones, subordinate to the royal power. The main support of the king were the courtiers, the serving nobility, as well as the army that guarded the king.

During the reign of Ammenemhat III, the power of state power increased. He managed to weaken the power of the nomarchs, but this did not eliminate the contradictions that tore apart Egyptian society during the Middle Kingdom, which contributed to the conquest of Egypt at the end of the Middle Kingdom by the Hyksos.

New kingdom

With the defeat and expulsion of the Hyksos, the period of the New Kingdom begins, which lasts about 500 years (1575-1087 BC).

As a result of the wars, Egypt's territory increases, and it becomes a huge power. This was Egypt's second golden age.

Numerous wars contributed to the development of slavery. Slave relations in Egypt during the New Kingdom penetrated relatively deeply into society. Slaves were owned even by people of modest social status - shepherds, artisans, gardeners, etc. The development of slavery can be explained by the increased need of small farms for slave labor, which was no longer used only in the household. Among the slaves came stonemasons, stone carriers, blacksmiths, weavers, builders and other artisans.

Among the farmers, obviously, there were many community members. Only a few of them became rich, while the majority of communal farmers became poor. Farmers were forced to work on royal and temple lands. There were also farmers who were used by private individuals. Some wealthy farmers had their own draft animals and work equipment. Temple farmers could have slaves. Periodically, inspections of people, livestock, and poultry were carried out with the aim of imposing various burdens and assigning them to this or that work.

A feature of social relations in the New Kingdom is the rise of the priesthood. With the growth of the wealth of the high priesthood, its liberation from dependence on the central government occurs. The priesthood turns into a closed hereditary caste.

The political system is characterized by the strengthening of the system of centralized bureaucratic management. The country was divided into two administrative districts: Upper and Lower Egypt, which, in turn, were divided into regions (nomes). Each district was headed by a special governor of the pharaoh, which further contributed to the centralization of administration. All power in the nomes was concentrated in the hands of royal officials. Cities and fortresses were led by commanders appointed by the pharaoh.

A distinctive feature of the political system of this period is the fact that the pharaoh patronizes dignitaries who came from the bottom, as opposed to those who inherited rank and wealth from their ancestors. Thus, the serving nobility relegates the aristocratic nobility to the background.

The first and highest dignitary was the vizier. He was in charge of establishing the court ceremonial in the palace, all the offices, the administration of the capital, managed the entire land fund of the country and the entire water supply system; in his hands was the highest military power, the supreme judicial supervision and control over all tax and local administration were concentrated.

Important officials were the chief treasurer and the head of all royal works. Numerous scribes wrote down orders, supervised the work of farmers and artisans, and calculated income going to the treasury.

The aggressive policy of the pharaohs left a special imprint on the entire system of public administration in Egypt, giving it a military character and strengthening the role of military commanders in the sphere of economic management.

In the XII-XI centuries. BC e. The new kingdom is in decline. Opposing social forces, concentrated in the north and south, not being able to overcome each other, led the country to disintegrate into two parts. Under these conditions, a unified state power became nominal.

Later kingdom

The history of the Late Kingdom begins in VII century BC e. and continues until the 6th century. BC e.

At that time, the division of society into free and slaves became more pronounced than before. Transactions involving self-sale into slavery became widespread. The impoverishment of large sections of free people grew. A significant part of the population was still dependent on the treasury, temples, and nobility. The situation of artisans has worsened.

Along with the priesthood, the military became a privileged class. The military support of the pharaohs was made up of foreign mercenaries.

The backbone of the local nobility, as before, consisted of nomarchs and city rulers. Other representatives of the bureaucratic nobility were not much different from their predecessors: they were the supreme dignitary, the keeper of the treasury, the custodians of the treasury, the supervisors of works, judges, etc. Military leaders occupied a special place.

1 .1.2 Main features of the law of Ancient Egypt

The source of law in Ancient Egypt was originally custom. With the development of the state, the legislative activity of the pharaohs became active. There is information about the compilation of codifications, but none of them have reached the present day.

Ownership. There were several types of land holdings in Egypt. There were state, temple, private and communal lands. Large land ownership arose quite early. Temples and royal nobles acted as large landowners. They could make various kinds of transactions with land (donate, sell, inherit). In the village, the development of private property proceeded rather slowly. The community acted as a restraining factor here. However, sources show that already during the period of the Old Kingdom, communal lands changed hands.

Movable property - slaves, draft animals, equipment - passed into private hands much earlier and was the subject of various transactions.

Obligations. Ancient Egyptian law knew a number of contracts. Among them are agreements of loan, lease, purchase and sale, lease of land, luggage, and partnership.

Due to the great value of land in Egypt, a special procedure was created for its transfer from hand to hand. This procedure provided for the completion of three acts: the first was to reach an agreement between the seller and the buyer on the subject of the contract and the payment; the second act was of a religious nature and consisted of the seller giving an oath confirming the contract; the third act was the entry of the buyer into possession, which led to the transfer of ownership of the land. Gradually the second act ceased to take place.

Marriage and family relations. The marriage was concluded on the basis of a contract, on behalf of the husband and wife. The agreement also determined the legal regime of property brought by the wife in the form of a dowry: it remained the property of the wife. It was also possible to transfer all family property to the wife. In Egypt, remnants of matriarchy existed for quite a long time, which affected the relatively high position of women in the family. Over time, as the rights of the husband are strengthened, he becomes the head of the family, and the woman, despite the fact that in general her position was quite high, loses her previous equality with her husband. In Egypt, divorce was free for both parties.

Egyptian law knew inheritance by law and by will. Legal heirs were children of both sexes. Both husband and wife could make a will.

Criminal law and process. Egyptian law knew a fairly wide range of acts recognized as crimes. Encroachments on the state and social system were considered the most serious (such as treason, conspiracies, rebellions, and disclosure of state secrets). In such cases, responsibility along with the direct culprit was borne by all family members. Crimes of a religious nature were severely punished (killing sacred animals - cats, owls; witchcraft).

Among crimes against the person, sources name murder; Parricide was especially condemned and severely punished. Violations of the established rules of healing art in the event of the death of a patient were considered a serious crime.

Among property crimes, sources name theft, measuring, weighing.

Crimes against honor and dignity included adultery and rape.

Severe punishments served the purpose of deterrence. A very common punishment was the death penalty. In addition, self-mutilation was used - cutting off the nose and ears; beating with sticks; imprisonment, enslavement; monetary fines.

The process in criminal and civil cases was carried out in the same way and began upon the complaint of the victim.

Witness testimony and oaths served as evidence. Torture was used. The paperwork was written.

Based on facts obtained during archaeological excavations on Egyptian territory in recent decades, we can conclude that the process of state formation took place in Ancient Egypt from 3600 to 3100 BC. Modern Egyptologists call this era the “Predynastic period”383. In the ancient Egyptian society of that time, inequality already existed; stable groups of people were distinguished who had a higher status and material well-being: these were clan associations that monopolized in their hands and made administrative and religious-ritual functions hereditary. They constituted the upper class of ancient Egyptian society. The middle class was embodied by free farmers, skilled artisans, traders, and people who held low positions in the emerging administrative apparatus. The lower class included servants of the upper and middle classes, ordinary workers who for some reason had lost their personal freedom, prisoners of war who were turned into slaves. The Nile created exceptionally favorable conditions for farming, especially in the southern part of its valley. Periodic floods of this river fertilized and moistened the soil, making it possible to obtain abundant harvests using simple tools, primitive irrigation systems and with minimal human resources. On the other hand, the area adjacent to the Nile was rich in clay, which made it possible to develop pottery production. At the same time, the space of Ancient Egypt was convenient for the development of trade: there were many points where trade routes from one country to another converged. The first ancient Egyptian urban settlements arose in these places, which became the political and religious centers of the initial state formations. The nature, climate and geographical location of Ancient Egypt made it possible to obtain a surplus product at a rather primitive level of economic development. Therefore, here, earlier than in other countries, the opportunity arose for the liberation of numerous groups of people from productive labor and their transition to the ranks of professional managers and religious ministers. Materials from archaeological excavations show that the formation of the initial statehood on the territory of Ancient Egypt was a complex process, the content of which was fundamental changes not only in the social structure and in the mechanisms of governing society, but also in its spiritual culture: in religious beliefs, ideology and psychology. The new social system, which presupposed noticeable differences in the property status and status of various groups of people, as well as the monopolization of the managerial function by a certain clan, could become stable only if it was recognized by the majority of members of society. To ensure such recognition, an ideology had to arise that would justify social inequality, giving the holders of public power qualities that elevate them above ordinary people. The formation of mechanisms for the exercise of public power in Ancient Egypt stimulated the appearance of writing here. According to Egyptologists who study ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, many of these signs were used in pre-dynastic times. The earliest ancient Egyptian written documents that have come down to us describe the solemn ceremonies of the rulers and the most significant events of their reigns, record the volumes of grown grain crops, olives and other products produced in one way or another1. Writing becomes necessary for the exercise of public power, especially when one of its most important functions is control over the production, distribution and consumption of material products. The appearance and rapid spread of writing in one or another ancient society therefore serves as clear evidence that a state apparatus has begun to form in it. The natural and climatic features of Ancient Egypt determined the unevenness of the processes of class formation and state formation on its territory. In the southern part of this country - in the so-called Upper Egypt - these processes began earlier and proceeded more rapidly than in its northern part - in Lower Egypt. It was on the territory of Upper Egypt that they appeared in the middle of the 4th millennium BC. the first state formations. Among them, the most influential were those who had as their political and religious centers urban settlements called Nekhen (Hierakonpolis)384 385, located in the south, closest to the source of the Nile, Naqada, located further along the Nile, and Thinis - the northernmost of the capital's settlements. In the Nile Delta, similar centers were the urban settlements of Maadi386 and Buto. Around 3200 BC. There was a merger of the two main state formations of Upper Egypt - Naqada and Nekhen (Ierankonpolis) into one political community. At its head was a ruler who began to wear a double crown: a red one for the leader of Nakada and a white one for the leader of Nekhen. The god Nekhena Horus was declared the supreme deity of the new state unification. Whether this merger was the result of Nekhen's conquest of Naqada or the consequence of a political agreement between the two communities is difficult to say. Be that as it may, from this moment the process of uniting small ancient Egyptian state entities into one large state began. Nekhen (Hierakonpolis) was located at the intersection of trade routes connecting the Nile Valley with its delta and the territory adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea, with Nubia, Palestine, Syria, Lebanon, the Red Sea coast, and Mesopotamia. The advantageous geographical position of this city contributed to the rapid enrichment of the ruling clans and strengthened their power. Most likely, it was for this reason that Nekhen became the first political and religious center of the unified state that was being formed on the territory of Ancient Egypt. Until recently, the historical literature was dominated by the opinion that the main factor that forced the small ancient Egyptian state entities to unite into one large state headed by the monarch was the need to create and maintain a unified irrigation system for the entire country. This opinion was repeatedly expressed in their works and letters by K. Marx and F. Engels. Many historians based their explanations of the process of formation of a single state in Ancient Egypt on it. Thus, S. F. Kechekyan wrote, for example, in 1944 in the first part of a textbook on the general history of state and law, citing K. Marx’s article “British Raj in India”: “Thus, the organization of irrigation “imperatively required the intervention of the centralizing power of the government " The ruling class, in order to extract surplus product, had to organize public works, that is, create a system of irrigation structures”387. A similar view was expressed by the historian I.V. Vinogradov: “With the efforts of individual nomes, and even larger associations, it was extremely difficult to maintain at the proper level the entire irrigation economy of the country, which consisted of small, unconnected or weakly connected irrigation systems. The merger of several nomes, and then all of Egypt into a single whole (achieved as a result of long, bloody wars) made it possible to improve irrigation systems, constantly and in an organized manner to repair them, expand canals and strengthen dams, jointly fight for the development of the swampy Delta and, in general, rationally use water Nila. Absolutely necessary for the further development of Egypt, these measures could only be carried out through the joint efforts of the entire country after the creation of a single centralized administrative department"1. The opinion that the main factor in the emergence of a single state with an extensive administrative apparatus in Ancient Egypt was the need to centrally manage an extensive irrigation system is also widespread among foreign historians. Karl Wittfogel put it this way: “If irrigation agriculture depends on the efficient management of large water resources, the distinctive quality of water - its tendency to accumulate in a mass - becomes initially decisive. Large quantities of water can be placed in canals and kept within boundaries only through the application of mass work, and this mass work must be coordinated, disciplined and directed. Thus, many farmers, eager to develop the arid lower reaches and plains, are forced to create organizational tools that, based on home-machine technology, give them success only in one case: if they work in cooperation with their comrades and subordinate themselves to the governing power. the statements have one thing in common: they are based not on facts, but on a speculative idea of ​​​​ancient Egyptian agriculture. Their authors proceed from the fact that it required the creation of a centralized and large-scale system of irrigation structures. It is assumed that ancient Egyptian society could not do without such a system, and from this the conclusion is drawn that it was indeed created and existed. But who could create a centralized and large-scale irrigation system other than a centralized state with a strong supreme power and an extensive administrative apparatus? A similar state actually existed in Ancient Egypt, but this is the only reliable fact in the statements of those who consider the main reason for its emergence to be the need to create and maintain a unified irrigation system for the entire country. There is a lot of convincing evidence that the main method of irrigation of cultivated lands in Ancient Egypt was natural irrigation, which was carried out spontaneously during the Nile flood. Artificial irrigation with the help of constructed structures for irrigating soils was most often just a side one, supplementing natural irrigation where it was required. Only in times of drought, when the river became shallow and its floods were not enough to irrigate the soil, could artificial irrigation be the main one. However, the construction and maintenance of irrigation structures were, as facts show, the responsibility of local rulers. Accordingly, a common irrigation system for the entire country was not created in Ancient Egypt. Information about ancient Egyptian government that has survived to this day does not give reason to believe that it included bodies and officials specifically involved in organizing the construction of irrigation facilities and maintaining their functioning390. A modern researcher of ancient Egyptian agriculture, J. D. Hugh, points out in his article on the use of irrigation structures in it that a mask of the ruler of the first dynasty named “Scorpio” has survived, depicting him digging a canal, but recent research has discovered, in his words, that “most irrigation work was under the control of local officials"1. “There is no indication,” writes modern expert on the geography of ancient Egypt, Fekri Hassan, “that the main function of the centralized government in Egypt or its bureaucracy was the management of artificial irrigation. Despite references to occasional waterworks being carried out in response to droughts and the digging of local canals for drainage or irrigation of upland areas, the scale of waterworks in ancient Egypt hardly compares with those undertaken by Muhammad Ali in the nineteenth century. The centralized government in Egypt was more interested in collecting taxes and more concerned with the monumental display of royal power and religious institutions than with irrigation. Basin irrigation on a local scale was more than sufficient to meet the needs of the early population of Ancient Egypt... Although the creation of artificial canals may have been practiced locally from the Early Dynastic period (3000-2700 BC), if not before However, there are no signs of a state-controlled irrigation system. It is surprising that devices for raising water - such as the simple shaduf (based on the principle of a lever) used - were unknown until the New Kingdom, 1550-1070. BC. Irrigation work was thus undertaken on a local or regional scale, and could become especially important when the water level of the Nile fell.”391 392 393. “Large-scale cultivation of cereals was based in all periods on a relatively primitive but effective system of basin irrigation. It was organized at a local rather than a national level, but the ease and success of the process always depended on the high waters of the Nile, which varied considerably in antiquity,” notes A. B. Lloyd. In works on the economic history of Ancient Egypt published in recent years, the prevailing idea is that irrigation activity in Ancient Egypt was not associated with the existence of a single state. “The connection between the centralized state and land irrigation in Egypt was always not direct”394 395, - for example, the modern Egyptologist Joseph Manning came to this conclusion. Recent discoveries by archaeologists have made it obvious that the formation of a single state in Ancient Egypt was a process that was accomplished under the influence of many different factors. And which of them was the main one is hardly possible to establish. Only one thing can be confidently stated: the unification of small state entities occurred as a result of the emergence of needs that could only be satisfied within the framework of a large centralized state. The prevailing opinion in the historical literature is that the process of this unification led first to the emergence of two independent states - Upper Egyptian and Lower Egyptian396. The residence of the rulers of the first, southern, was Nekhen, the capital of the second, northern, - supposedly a settlement called “Pe”, located in the northwestern part of the Nile Delta1. The unified ancient Egyptian state arose as a result of the victory of Upper Egypt over Lower Egypt. There are some reasons for this idea, but all of them are hidden exclusively in ancient Egyptian mythology. The existence of an independent state in the Nile Delta is not confirmed by materials from archaeological excavations. These materials rather indicate that Lower Egypt, until its entry into the pan-Egyptian state, was not united under the auspices of any one ruler, remaining fragmented into several state entities, and, therefore, a single state arose in Ancient Egypt from one political and religious center - a city called Nekhen (Hierakonpolis). After the subjugation of Naqada, the ruler of Nekhen extended his power to Thinis. The new state association that was formed as a result of this continued its expansion to the north, annexing more and more new lands, as a rule, those through which trade routes passed. In this regard, it is natural that the residence of the supreme rulers of the state thus expanding was moved further and further to the north - first to Tinis, and then to Memphis. When and at what point this political union turned into the state of Upper and Lower Egypt is impossible to determine with accuracy. One can only assume that this happened back in the pre-dynastic period. Such a state, apparently, already existed in Ancient Egypt under a monarch whose name consisted of the sounds “n”, “m” and “r” (N’r-mr). Egyptologists called it by the code name "Narmer". Some of the materials that have come down to us (and above all the “Narmer palette”397 398) give reason to believe that it was he who united or reunited Upper and Lower Egypt. One of the symbols of monarchical power is, as a rule, the crown. Narmer had two crowns: a white one - the crown of Upper Egypt, in which he was depicted on the front side of the palette, and a red - the crown of Lower Egypt, in which he was depicted on the back side of the palette. A similar symbol has already been used before and also to express power over the united territories. True, at that time these were the territories of Upper Egypt - state entities with centers in Naqada and Nekhen (Hierakonpolis). It was in Naqada that the earliest image of a crown was discovered during archaeological excavations. The relief of this royal insignia appeared on a black ceramic fragment, and its appearance corresponded to the appearance of a red crown399. The white crown clearly appeared later. The earliest image of her found by archaeologists is on the Narmer palette. Since the red crown was ancient, it was considered more sacred by the Egyptians than the white one. This fact casts serious doubt on the fact that a single ancient Egyptian state arose through the victory of Upper Egypt over Lower Egypt. If we allow such a course of events, then how can we explain that the crown of the defeated ruler prevailed over the crown of the winner? All this suggests that the double crown of the ancient Egyptian ruler reflected not so much the real event of the conquest of the territory of Lower Egypt by the ruler of Upper Egypt, but rather the idea of ​​​​the wide space of his power, covering both parts of Ancient Egypt - the Nile Valley and the delta. From this point of view, Narmer's red and white crown is a clear sign that he was already the supreme ruler of a unified ancient Egyptian state. In any case, he was such at the moment when a skilled craftsman unknown to us was turning a palette with his image out of stone. The idea of ​​a double crown of a monarch and dualism in the space of his power was supported throughout the history of ancient Egyptian statehood. It became an integral element of the official political ideology and was embodied in a number of rituals and, above all, in the solemn ceremony of the monarch’s appearance in public. During it, the future bearer of supreme state power appeared first in a white, Upper Egyptian crown, then in a red, Lower Egyptian one, and this action was considered as an act expressing the unity of all of Egypt. Thus, according to the brief chronicle of the ancient Egyptian monarchs of the first five dynasties, inscribed on the “Palermo Stone”, the last monarch of the second dynasty1 made a public appearance in the first, second and fourth, penultimate year of his reign. His first appearance in public was most likely associated with the coronation. The recording of this event on the “Palermo Stone” indicated not only the ritual actions of the monarch, but also their meaning. “The appearance of the monarch of Upper Egypt. The appearance of the monarch of Lower Egypt. The unification of two lands”400 401 - this was its content. In relation to the second year of the reign, the appearance of the monarch in the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt was also spoken of, but after this was recorded, his entry into the double temple was reported. Similar ritual actions were performed by the last ruler of the fourth dynasty, named Shepseskaf402. And the formula that indicated these actions on the “Palermo Stone” was similar. “The appearance of the monarch of Upper Egypt. The appearance of the monarch of Lower Egypt. The unification of two lands”403, it read. After this, it was reported that the monarch walked around the “Wall”1. The ruler of the fifth dynasty, named Neferirkar, was styled “monarch of Upper and Lower Egypt, favorite of two goddesses” (their names were later given in the title). The solemn ceremony, which he performed on the seventh day of the second month of the first year of his reign (apparently, it was the ceremony of accession to the throne), was designated on the “Palermo Stone” with the formula: “Birth of the gods. The unification of two lands”404 405. Such examples (and there are many of them) clearly indicate that the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt into one state was considered by the Egyptians as a ritual function of the supreme ruler, carried out by each of them throughout his reign. This idea reflected the merging of various parts of Ancient Egypt into a single political community that actually happened in the past, but it did not contain information about how and when this unification happened, which of the ancient Egyptian rulers carried it out. The memory of a real historical event was erased by an abstract political ritual. The fact that the political unification of Ancient Egypt took place under the auspices of the Upper Egyptian ruler was quite natural. Upper Egypt was ahead of Lower Egypt in economic, political and cultural development - this is evidenced by many data. And the main center of economic growth was Nekhen (Hierakonpolis). In the middle of the 4th millennium BC. The main branch of its economy was agriculture, based on the use of the Nile waters. Local communities were so wealthy and well organized that they could build river dams and construct and maintain irrigation structures. The managerial function here therefore received increased importance early on, and the people who carried it out quickly acquired a privileged social status. The agricultural idyll ended around 3200 BC. The Nile became shallow and stopped feeding the soil of Nekhen with its floods406. Construction and maintenance of irrigation structures has become very difficult and costly. Rains could not provide water for agriculture. The sharp deterioration in conditions for successful farming forced the residents of Nekhen to turn to crafts. Here workshops began to appear for the production of various vessels from clay, other household utensils, earthenware vases, figurines, ceremonial palettes, etc. This change in the nature of the economy entailed a change in the policies of the ruling elite of Nekhen. The favorable conditions for farming that previously existed on the territory of this state entity tied its rulers and population to it. The main functions of the ruling elite were also associated with this territory: plots of cultivated land were located on it, and irrigation structures were built to supply them with water. Protecting a given territory from foreign invasions, maintaining order within communities, ensuring the proper operation of the irrigation system - these and other similar public functions contained too few incentives for the expansion of a state entity centered in Nekhen to other lands. The decline of agriculture sharply weakened the connection of its rulers and population with a certain territory. The promotion of handicraft production to the forefront in the Nekhen economy gave this state entity extreme mobility. For the development of crafts, at least three conditions are always necessary: ​​skilled craftsmen, raw materials and markets for the products produced. There were skilled craftsmen in Nekhen - this is evidenced by the “Narmer palette”, which is not just a product, but a real work of art. This is also indicated by many other objects made by Nekhen craftsmen, which were discovered by archaeologists during excavations in the named area. But the other two conditions were missing. The orientation of the state education centered in Nekhen (Hierakonpolis) towards external expansion was embedded in its economy and in the structure of society that corresponded to its character. This economy, however, assumed a peaceful rather than a military expansion. Moreover, Nekhen had more opportunities for peaceful expansion. Therefore, even if the conquest of Upper Egypt by Lower Egypt actually took place during the formation of a unified ancient Egyptian state, it could not be the main factor in this process. Materials from archaeological excavations in recent years show: the Nile Valley and its delta were not lands isolated from one another. Before both of these parts of Ancient Egypt merged into one political community, there was an intensive exchange of material and spiritual values ​​between the Upper Egyptian and Lower Egyptian communities, and as a result there was a rapid process of interpenetration of their cultures. Under these conditions, the emergence of a single state on the territory of Ancient Egypt was only the political formalization of a social, economic and cultural community that had developed naturally. On the other hand, the political unification of the Nile Valley and Delta contributed to the further strengthening of the social, economic and cultural foundations of this community. * * * The formation of the social foundation and organizational framework of a unified state was completed on the territory of Ancient Egypt during the era of the “Early Kingdom”, when the main institutions of state power and the fundamental tenets of state ideology were formed. The beginning of this era coincides with the beginning of the chronicle dynastic history of Ancient Egypt. The reigns of the first two dynasties of ancient Egyptian monarchs constitute the time frame of this era. Of course, the concept of “dynasty” in this case is very conditional - the groups of monarchs called dynasties consisted not only of blood relatives, but the hereditary principle of transferring supreme state power within one consanguineous association was still the rule, and it was it that was used most often when changing one monarch to another. According to the papyrus “Turin List” and the Abydos table of cartouches with the names of ancient Egyptian monarchs carved on the wall of the temple of the 19th dynasty pharaoh Seti I,1, the first ruler of all Egypt was Menes. He was also called the founder of the first dynasty of ancient Egyptian rulers by the “History” of Herodotus and the “Egyptiac” of Manetho. “Min, the first Egyptian king, according to the priests, built a protective dam near Memphis,”407 408 wrote Herodotus. “The first dynasty,” noted Manetho, “consisted of eight monarchs, the first of whom was Menes of Thinis; He reigned for 62 years and died from a wound received from a hippopotamus.”409 Modern Egyptologists are inclined to believe that Menes was a real historical person. In 1896, the French archaeologist Jacques Jean Marie de Morgan (1857-1924) discovered a large tomb during excavations in the area of ​​Negada, located south of Abydos. It contained an ivory tablet on which the name “Hor-Aha (Hor-fighter)” was carved along with the name “Menes”410. This tomb belonged to a woman named Neithotep, who, apparently, was the wife of Narmer and the mother of Menes. According to ancient Egyptian legend, Hor-Akha, having become a ruler, moved his residence to a new place, located on the western bank of the Nile, north of Tinis. The walls of this city were built of white stone, which is why the city received the name Ineb Hedj (“White Walls”). Its second name was a word that sounded approximately like “Ankhtardi,” that is, “linking two lands.” During the reign of the sixth dynasty, a Temple was erected here in honor of Ptah, and the city, as the center of this god, began to be called the “House of the Soul of Ptah.” In the language of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs it sounded approximately like “Hat-kyu-Ptah.” In ancient Greek it was written as “Ai ui nroq” (Ai-gyu-ptos): subsequently the name of the country in European languages ​​\u200b\u200bis derived from this - Egypt, Egypt. After the name of the pyramid of the ancient Egyptian ruler Pepi I, the city was also called Men-nefer or Menfi. The Greeks began to call it Metzf^ (Memphis), and this name later became generally accepted in Europe. Memphis was located approximately in the middle between Lower and Upper Egypt, and by establishing his residence in this place, Hor-Akha strengthened the unity of the Egyptian lands. In any case, we can assume that he played some very significant role in the formation of a unified ancient Egyptian state. This is also indicated by the choice of the second royal name for him: the word “Menes” meant “establisher.” The fact that the reign of Khor-Akha opened a new period in the development of Ancient Egypt is also evidenced by other facts. The ancient Egyptian official chronology began from this time. True, it was carried out then in a rather primitive way - each year of the monarch’s reign was named after the most remarkable event that happened during it. For example, one year could be designated as “the year when the troglodytes were killed”, another - as “the year of the second case of counting all large and small livestock of the North and South”, the third - “the year of the seventh case of counting gold and lands”411. Menes was in general not the first ruler in Ancient Egypt, but he became the first among those of whom information has been preserved in ancient Egyptian chronicles inscribed on papyrus or carved on stone. After Hor-Akha (Menes), the throne of the supreme ruler was inherited by his son named Jer. In Manetho's "Egyptiac" he is called Athotis. After Jer, his son became the supreme ruler of Egypt, whose name sounded something like “Jet” or “Zet.” Manetho named him Kenkenos. These facts indicate that in Ancient Egypt an orderly system of replacing one monarch with another developed. According to the “Egyptiac”, in the adaptation of Julius Africanus, the reign of the first and second dynasties took 555 years1, in the version of Eusebius Pamphilus - 549 years412 413. Modern Egyptologists assign the era of the “Early Kingdom” 400-450 years. The last ruler of the second dynasty, whose main royal name was the word that sounded like Khasekhemui, left behind such majestic monuments as no monarch who ruled in Ancient Egypt before him left behind. This fact serves as clear evidence that the ancient Egyptian state, during the reign of the first two dynasties, followed the path of becoming an organization capable of amassing substantial material resources at its disposal.

More on the topic CHAPTER FIVE THE EMERGENCE OF A UNITED ANCIENT EGYPTIAN STATE:

1. CHAPTER III FORMATION OF A UNITED GREAT RUSSIAN STATE. THE HORDE YOKE AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE FORMATION OF THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF THE RUSSIAN LANDS
2. The beginning of the formation of a unified Russian state and the apparatus of central power in the 15th century.
3. Part III. FORMATION OF A UNITED, CENTRALIZED STATE (second half of the 15th century - first half of the 16th century)
4. Chapter 39. Formation of a single insurance space within the EU
5. PROGRAM FOR FORMING A UNITED RUSSIAN STATE WITH AN EXTREMELY LARGE HOMELAND BASED ON THE MOSCOW SOCIO-CULTURAL STANDARD (FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE 16TH CENTURY TO THE END OF THE 17TH CENTURY)
6. Chapter 1. Europe and the Mediterranean: the problem of a single space, security and interregional interaction

Egypt was called "Gift of the Nile" in ancient times

Geographical position

Ancient Egypt is one of the world's oldest civilizations, which originated in Northeast Africa, in the Nile Valley. It is generally accepted that the word "Egypt" comes from the ancient Greek "Aigyptos". It probably arose from Het-ka-Ptah, a city that the Greeks later called. The Egyptians themselves called their country “Ta Kemet” - the Black Land - after the color of the local soil.

Egypt occupied an advantageous geographical position. The Mediterranean Sea connected it with the Western Asian coast, Cyprus, the islands of the Aegean Sea and mainland Greece. The Nile was the most important shipping artery connecting Upper and Lower Egypt and the entire country with Nubia, which ancient authors called Ethiopia.

Formation of a single state

We read in more detail about the first centuries of Ancient Egypt and the formation of the state in the article -.

In the era preceding the formation of the state, Egypt consisted of separate regions; as a result of their unification, two kingdoms arose - and. After a long war, the Upper Egyptian kingdom won, and the two parts merged. The exact date of this event is unknown, but it can be assumed that around 3000 BC. e. a single state already existed in the Nile Valley.

The kings waged constant wars. It is known, for example, that during the campaign to Nubia of the founder of the IV dynasty (XXVIII century BC), 7 thousand prisoners and 200 thousand heads of livestock were taken away, and during the campaign against the Libyans - 1,100 people. During the reign of the IV dynasty, Egypt became the sole owner of the copper mine region on the Sinai Peninsula. Trade expeditions were sent to Nubia for building stone, ivory, acacia and ebony (it was delivered to Nubia from the interior of Africa), for precious stones, incense, panther skins and exotic animals. They brought fragrant resins and “light gold” from them. Timber - cedar wood - came from Phoenician to Egypt.

Enormous power was concentrated in the hands of the king, the basis of which was an extensive land fund. large labor and food resources. The state acquired the features of relying on an extensive bureaucratic apparatus. The first person on the hierarchical ladder after the pharaoh was the supreme dignitary, who was also the chief judge, who combined a number of government positions and managed many sectors of the economy. In the presence of private farms, the decisive role in the country's economy, especially during the V-VI dynasties, was played by farms, where, apparently, the overwhelming majority of the working population was employed.

During the era of the Old Kingdom, gardening, horticulture, and viticulture received further development, especially in Lower Egypt. The Egyptians are credited with discovering beekeeping. The Delta's pastures provided ample opportunities for the development of livestock farming. Its characteristic feature is the keeping of fully or semi-domesticated desert animals in the herd together with livestock: antelopes, ibex and gazelles. The main wealth of Upper Egypt was grain, primarily barley and emmer wheat. Part of it was transported north along the Nile. Thus, Southern and Northern Egypt complemented each other.

The period of the Old Kingdom was characterized by rapid growth in stone construction, the culmination of which was the construction of royal tombs - huge pyramids with memorial temples and “cities” of noble tombs. With the construction of the King's Pyramid (III Dynasty), carried out mainly with the help of copper tools, Egypt finally entered the Copper Age. But stone tools continued to be used subsequently.

At the end of the V Dynasty, the power of the pharaohs began to weaken. At the same time, positions were strengthened. Exhausted by the construction of the pyramids, torn apart by social contradictions, by the end of the reign of the VI dynasty, Egypt began to disintegrate into semi-independent countries. The 70 kings of Memphis of the next, VII dynasty, according to legend preserved by, ruled for only 70 days. From the middle of the 23rd century. BC. The period of Egypt's decline and its internal fragmentation began.

By the end of the 3rd millennium BC. the economic situation of Egypt required the unification of the country; During the troubles, the irrigation network fell into disrepair, and the population often suffered from severe hunger. At this time, two unifying centers laid claim to the Egyptian throne. One of them was located in the north of the country, in a fertile lowland near, on the west bank of the Nile. The Nomarch of Heracleopolis (Akhtoi) subjugated the rulers of nearby regions to his power, while simultaneously fighting the Asian nomads. Nomarchs also sought to become rulers of all of Egypt. The Theban rulers emerged victorious, and the country was united. On one of the reliefs that have survived to this day, this ruler is depicted as the conqueror of the Egyptians, Nubians, Asians and Libyans. But the achieved unity was not yet durable.

Middle Kingdom

After the reign of his heir, the throne was seized by Hatshepsut, who initially retained the child king, her stepson, Thutmose III, as the nominal ruler, but later openly declared herself a pharaoh. Having come to power, Thutmose III sought to eradicate any reminder of Hatshepsut, destroying her images and even her name. He made many campaigns in Syria and Palestine, and his empire began to extend from the fourth cataract of the Nile to the northern outskirts of Syria.

For the first half of the 14th century. BC e. comes the reign of (Akhenaton), whose name is associated with the most important religious reform. Under Amenhotep IV's two successors, a departure from his policies began. Semnekh-kere restored the cult of Amun; under the next pharaoh, Tutankhamun, the cult of Aten, approved by the reformer king, lost state support.

Under Ramses I (XIX Dynasty), long wars began with the Hittites for dominance in Syria. During the reign of Ramesses II, it took place under the walls of the Syrian city of Kadesh, in which up to 20 thousand people participated on each side. In his description of this battle, Ramesses claims that it was he who won the victory. But it is known that the Egyptians were unable to take Kadesh and the Hittites, led by the king, pursued them during their retreat. The long war ended in the 21st year of the reign of Ramesses II with a peace treaty with the Hittite king Hattusilis III. The original treaty was written on silver tablets, but only copies in Egyptian and Hittite languages ​​survive. Despite the strength of Egyptian weapons, Ramesses II failed to restore the borders of the empire of the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty.

Under the heir of Ramesses II, his thirteenth son, and under Ramesses III, the son of the founder of the 20th dynasty Setnakht, waves of conquerors - the “peoples of the sea” and Libyan tribes - fell on Egypt. Having with difficulty repelled the onslaught of the enemy, the country found itself on the verge of serious upheavals, which in internal political life were manifested in frequent changes of rulers, rebellions and conspiracies, in the strengthening of the positions of the new nobility (especially in Thebaid, in the south of Egypt), closely associated with priestly circles, and in in the sphere of foreign policy - in the gradual decline in Egypt's military prestige and in the loss of its foreign possessions.

The era of the New Kingdom was for Egypt a time not only of territorial expansion, but also of rapid economic development, stimulated by the influx into the country of a huge amount of raw materials, livestock, gold, all kinds of tribute and labor in the form of captives.

From the 18th dynasty, bronze tools began to be widely used. But due to the high cost of copper, stone tools are still used. A number of iron products have survived from this era. Iron was known in Egypt before. But even at the end of the 18th dynasty it continued to be considered almost a treasure. And only in the VII-VI centuries. BC. tools in Egypt began to be widely made from iron, which was extremely important for economic progress.

During the era of the New Kingdom, improved plows, foot bellows in metallurgy, and a vertical loom began to be widely used. Horse breeding, previously unknown to the Egyptians, is developing, serving the Egyptian army with its military. From the reign of Amenhotep IV, the first image of a water-lifting structure - the shaduf - has reached us. His invention was of great importance for the development of horticulture and gardening in high fields. Attempts are being made to grow new varieties of trees exported from Asia (pomegranate, olive, peach, apple, almond, cherry, etc.) or from Punt (myrrh tree). Glass production is developing intensively. Art achieves unsurpassed perfection. Domestic trade is becoming increasingly important. International trade, for the development of which in Egypt during the era of conquest there was no incentive, because it received everything it needed for itself in the form of booty and tribute, acquires a certain significance only in the second half of the New Kingdom.

During the New Kingdom, the widespread use of slave labor was noted, primarily in the royal and temple households (although slaves also served private estates). Thus, during his 30-year reign, Ramses III donated to the temples over 100 thousand captives from Syria, Palestine and more than 1 million sections (Greek “arur”; 1 arur - 0.28 hectares) of arable land. But the main producer of material goods was still the working population of Egypt, entangled in all kinds of duties.

By the beginning of the 11th century. BC. Two kingdoms were formed in Egypt: Lower Egyptian with its center in Tanis, in the northeast of the Delta, and Upper Egyptian with its capital in Thebes. By this time, Syria, Phenicia and Palestine had already left Egyptian influence, and the northern half of Egypt was flooded with Libyan military settlers led by leaders allied with the local Egyptian authorities. One of the Libyan military leaders, Shoshenq I (950-920 BC), founded the XXII Dynasty. But his power, like that of his successors, was not strong, and under the Libyan pharaohs (IX-VIII centuries BC) Lower Egypt fell into a number of separate regions.

At the end of the 8th century. BC. The Nubian king Piankhi captured a significant part of Upper Egypt, including Thebes. The local influential priesthood supported the conquerors, hoping with their help to regain their dominant position. But the ruler of Sais in Lower Egypt, Tefnakht, who relied on the Libyans, managed to lead the fight against the invasion. Memphis also opposed the Nubians.

However, in three battles they defeated Tefnakht’s army and, moving north, reached Memphis, taking the city by storm. Tefnakht was forced to surrender to the mercy of the victors. The next Nubian king to rule Egypt was Shabaka. According to the legend preserved by Manetho, he captured the Lower Egyptian pharaoh Bokhoris and burned him alive. In 671 BC. The Assyrian king Esarhaddon defeated the army of the Nubian pharaoh Taharqa and captured Memphis.

The liberation of Egypt and its unification was carried out by the founder of the XXVI (Sais) dynasty, Psammetichus I. The next pharaoh, Necho II, sought to establish his dominance in Syria. In 608 BC. The Jewish king Josiah blocked the Egyptian army's road at Megiddo (a city in northern Palestine), but was mortally wounded. After this, Judea began to pay a large tribute in gold and silver to the Egyptian king. Egyptian rule over Syria and Palestine lasted three years, and in 605 BC. The Egyptian army was pushed back to its border by the Babylonians. Under Apria (589-570 BC), one of the successors of Psammetichus I, Egypt supported Judea in the fight against Babylonia. Apries defeated the fleet of Sidon, one of the largest Phoenician cities. In 586 BC. The Egyptian army appeared under the walls of Jerusalem, but was soon defeated by the Babylonians.

By that time, to the west of Egypt, on the Libyan shore of the Mediterranean Sea, the Hellenes had created their own state - Cyrene. Apries decided to subjugate him and sent significant military forces against him, but they were defeated by the Greeks. A rebellion broke out in the Egyptian army against Aprus, and Amasis (570-526 BC) was elevated to the throne.

Persian rule

In 525 BC. In the battle of Pelusium, the Persian army led by King Cambyses defeated the Egyptians. Then Cambyses was proclaimed king of Egypt (XXVII dynasty). To give the seizure of Egypt a legal character, legends were created about the matrimonial ties of the Persian kings with the Egyptian princesses and about the birth of Cambyses from the marriage of his father Cyrus with Nitetis, the daughter of Pharaoh Apria.

Capture of Egypt by Alexander the Great

Egypt achieved independence from the Persian overlords several times (Dynasties XXVIII-XXX) until it was conquered in 332 BC. Alexander the Great, in whom the Egyptians initially saw a liberator from Persian oppression. The time of Pharaonic Egypt is up. An era has begun.

The Egyptian civilization, which arose almost 40 centuries ago in Africa, is one of the oldest and most mysterious on our planet. Even then, on the banks of the Nile, there was a state with its own religion, culture and structure. Further in the article you will learn the history and year of formation of a unified state in Egypt and the features of the state.

Proto-states

The name Ancient Egypt is used to refer to the historical region within which the Egyptian civilization was located. The exact year of formation of a unified state in Egypt is unknown. An ancient civilization arose 6 thousand years BC on the banks of the sacred Nile River. On both sides of the river there were settlements or proto-states that gave impetus to the further development of Upper and Lower Egypt. Scientists refer to this period as predynastic.

In the 5th century, there were more than forty separate settlements formed in the river delta. Even before the formation of a single state in Egypt, the population of the proto-states was active. Each settlement was independent. The population was engaged in cultivating the land and growing cereal crops. The favorable location made it possible to engage in trade. At that time, the slave system arose. Captives who were captured as a result of military raids became slaves.

Year of formation of a unified state in Egypt

The development of agriculture and the creation of irrigation systems made it possible to centrally control the irrigation of territories and significantly simplified life for the local population, accelerating the formation of the state. Ancient Egypt then consisted of nomes - separate independent settlements that united into larger entities. The southern region was Upper Egypt, and the northern region was Lower Egypt.

The period from which the beginning of the Egyptian state is counted is called dynastic, since it was the period that began the centuries-old dynasty of the pharaohs. It is generally accepted among researchers that a single state in Egypt was formed about 3 thousand years BC. Upper and Lower Egypt were united, and the capital became the city of Cheni or Thinis (in ancient Greek). There is an assumption that both parts of Egypt were united and divided again before. Various sources give different information about the name of the ruler who created the Egyptian Kingdom, presumably it was Menes, sometimes the name Min is given.

Hierarchy of society

In Ancient Egypt, the pharaoh was an absolute monarch. His power was unlimited, he was considered the main ruler and military leader of the Egyptian lands. There was a special cult of the pharaoh, for he was identified with God. Only the pharaoh could appoint people to positions, choose priests, and impose the death penalty. Each ruler had attributes: an artificial beard, bracelets on his arms, a lion skin.

The pharaoh's family occupied the highest social level. The right hand of the pharaoh was the chati. He managed funds, property, archives. Chatis, officials and scribes stood on the second level - these were the cream of Egyptian society. After them in the social hierarchy stood the priests - advisers to the pharaohs and managers of temples and religious cults. All of them constituted the ruling class of society.

Next in the hierarchy were the soldiers, followed by the artisans. Craftsmen were under state control and received wages directly from the treasury. They were assigned certain jobs. Next came the peasants, working mainly on the irrigation canals. The bottom level was represented by slaves.

Culture of Ancient Egypt

The cultural heritage of Ancient Egypt is quite large. Basically, art developed as a religious cult. Mostly the works were created for the deceased. The world-famous pyramids were the tombs, or post-mortem homes, of pharaohs and their families.

The architectural heritage consists of temple complexes and palaces, such as the Luxor Temple. Fine art was symbolic. Paintings on temples, tombs, and inside palaces often included not only drawings, but also hieroglyphs. Even then, the Egyptians used paints similar in principle to modern ones. These were natural dyes such as soot, coal, copper and iron ores, mixed with a special substance that provided their viscosity. The mixture was dried and separated into pieces, and moistened with water before use.

There was a developed system of beliefs and rituals that accompanied them. The Egyptians did not have one specific religion. Instead, there were many separate cults. For each god there was his own temple, where people did not come every day, but visited the temple only on holidays. Priests conducted and controlled rituals and religious holidays.

Conclusion

Thanks to good adaptation and development of the Nile River Valley and good organization of human resources, the ancient Egyptians were able to form a powerful state. Scientists still do not know exactly the year of formation of a unified state in Egypt. However, it is safe to say that the ancient Egyptian civilization left a significant mark on human history.

Ancient Egypt

STATE AND LAW OF THE ANCIENT EAST

SLAVE STATE AND LAW

The name “Egypt” comes from the local name of the city of Memphis (“Hetkaptah” - “Fortress of the Spirit of Ptah”) and in ancient Greek pronunciation sounds like “Hikupta”. The Egyptians themselves called their country “Kemet” - “Black”, contrasting it with the “Red” desert.

The state of Ancient Egypt was formed in the North-Eastern part of Africa, in the lower reaches of the Nile. In ancient times, only the valley of this river itself was considered Egypt. The most important productive force of the country was the Nile. No wonder the ancient Greek historian Herodotus
(V century BC) Egypt called “the gift of the Nile.” The river was flooding
in mid-July, when its waters flooded the adjacent plain. The ancient population used this for their own purposes: the spilled water irrigated a vast flat area. Grandiose dams and canals were built to retain water. After settling the silt, the water was released into the river. Irrigation work required a lot of labor. There was not enough local population, and therefore prisoners of war began to be turned into slaves, using them to work on the construction of hydraulic structures. The need for artificial irrigation led to the long-term preservation of communal ownership of land, since private ownership of land made it difficult to rationally construct irrigation systems. Hence the early centralism in the creation of state power, the predominant role of the bureaucracy and priests as organizers and leaders of numerous public works.

The unified state took shape gradually: first, several dozen small and primitive states were formed, called by the Greeks nomi(in Egyptian "sepat" or hesp).
Their formation was accompanied by the unification of several rural communities around one religious cult for joint cultivation of the land. It was not for nothing that the hieroglyph noma represented the image of land cut by canals. Nome had its own religious cult, patron gods. The religion bore traces of ancient totemic origin, that is, the cult of sacred animals was preserved - lion, jackal, bull, cow, falcon, ibis, etc. It was headed by a ruler - adz, who was the successor to the tribal leaders and had full power.

Nomes were often at enmity with each other. Civil wars and new fragmentation prevented the expansion of irrigation. It was necessary to create associations larger than the nome. Therefore, gradually (in the middle of the 4th millennium BC) as a result of the unification of the nomes, two large states emerged - Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. Initially, the unification took place in the north, that is, in Lower Egypt, and then in the south, in Upper Egypt. The southern union of nomes turned out to be a stronger union than the northern one, and therefore by the end
IV millennium BC e. Upper (southern) Egypt conquers Lower (northern) Egypt and a single state is formed. This old dualism has been preserved
in the crown of the king: white headdress in the shape of a bottle - south and red
in the form of a hat - the north, connected into one crown. Menes is considered the first king.

The chronology of Ancient Egypt is extremely arbitrary, however, the history of the state is divided into the Early Kingdom (3100-2800 BC), the Old Kingdom (about 2800-2250 BC), the Middle Kingdom (about 2250 -1700 BC), New Kingdom (circa 1575-1087 BC).

The city of Thinis in Upper Egypt became the political center of the Early Kingdom. It was the residence of the first two dynasties of the pharaohs. The kingdom was already twofold, that is, united by the south and the north, but the unity was still fragile. During the III dynasty, the capital was transferred to the city of Memphis, which was located closer to the Nile Delta. The Ancient Kingdom emerges with a strictly centralized and bureaucratically organized monarchy in the form eastern despotism. It is characterized by centralized management, the presence of an extensive bureaucracy, and the deification of the monarch. The first grandiose pyramids are erected (starting with the step pyramid of Jozer and ending with the pyramids of Cheops and Khafre). The Pyramid of Cheops is the greatest of such Egyptian structures: its height is 146.5 meters, the width of each side is over 230 meters. About 2,300 thousand granite blocks weighing about 2.5 tons each were used for its construction. Military power is significantly strengthened, and campaigns of conquest begin. The consolidation of the country is completed, elements of tribal relations are almost eliminated, and a class society is formed.

Already under the kings of the V dynasty, dissatisfaction with the unifying policy of the kings appeared, and the new nobility sought
to separatism. At the end of the kingdom the fragmentation of Egypt begins,
and as a result of the distribution of various privileges and benefits, the role and importance of local new rulers increases.

The period of collapse leads to the decline of productive forces and the irrigation system. In the south, a unification movement arises, initially led by the Heracleopolis nome, and then the Theban nome advances. The Middle Kingdom arises when Egypt becomes a single centralized state. However, individual nomes begin to become burdened by the power of the pharaohs, trying to evade
from participation in national work on the construction of pyramids and temples. Benefits are again distributed to the new elite, which leads to
to the weakening of the central government, and then to the separatism of the nomes. The increasing exploitation of the population and slaves causes a grandiose uprising, when, according to a contemporary, “the earth turned over like a potter’s wheel” and there was “a pestilence throughout the country, blood everywhere,” “slaves became the owners of slaves.” The internal struggle made it easier for the Asian Hyksos tribes, who
as a result of the invasion they seized power for almost two centuries
in the state.

The struggle with the conquerors leads to the formation of the New Kingdom - the period of the first world empire in history, the territory of which extended from north to south over 3200 km. This kingdom reached its greatest power under Pharaoh Ramses II (1317-1251 BC).
At the end of this kingdom, slave uprisings occur, the central government weakens, the role of mercenaries in the army increases, and foreign pharaohs appear on the throne. Egypt is invaded by the Libyans and then by the Ethiopians. In 525 BC. e. Egypt is part of the Persian state, and in 30 BC. e. - Roman Empire.