Humanism, which marked a new era in the development of human society called the Renaissance. in those days it was under a heavy burden of church prejudices, any free thought was brutally suppressed. It was at that time in Florence that a philosophical doctrine was born, which made us look at the crown of God's creation in a new way.

The humanism of the Renaissance is a set of teachings representing a thinking person, able not only to go with the flow, but also able to resist and act independently. Its main focus is interest in each individual, faith in his spiritual and physical capabilities. It was the humanism of the Renaissance that proclaimed other principles of personality formation. In this teaching, man is presented as a creator, he is individual and not passive in his thoughts and actions.

The new philosophical direction took ancient culture, art and literature as a basis, focusing on the spiritual essence of man. In the Middle Ages, science and culture were the prerogative of the church, which was very reluctant to share its accumulated knowledge and achievements. Renaissance humanism lifted this veil. First in Italy, and then gradually throughout Europe, universities began to form, in which, along with theosophical sciences, they began to study secular subjects: mathematics, anatomy, music and humanitarian subjects.

The most famous humanists are: Dante Alighieri, Giovanni Boccaccio, Francesco Petrarca, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael Santi and Michelangelo Buanarotti. England gave the world such giants as William Shakespeare, Francis Bacon. France also gave Spain - Miguel de Cervantes, and Germany - Albrecht Durer and Ulrich von Hutten. All these great scientists, enlighteners, artists forever turned the worldview and consciousness of people and showed a reasonable person, beautiful in soul and thinking. It is to them that all subsequent generations are indebted for the presented opportunity to look at the world differently.

Humanism in the Renaissance era put the virtues that a person possesses at the head of everything, and demonstrated the possibility of their development in a person (independently or with the participation of mentors).

Anthropocentrism differs from humanism in that a person, according to this trend, is the center of the universe, and everything that is located around should serve him. Many Christians, armed with this teaching, proclaimed man to be a supreme creation, while at the same time placing on him the greatest burden of responsibility. Anthropocentrism and humanism of the Renaissance are very significantly different from each other, so you need to be able to clearly distinguish between these concepts. An anthropocentrist is a person who is a consumer. He believes that everyone owes him something, he justifies exploitation and does not think about the destruction of living nature. Its main principle is the following: a person has the right to live as he wants, and the rest of the world is obliged to serve him.

Anthropocentrism and humanism of the Renaissance were later used by many philosophers and scientists such as Descartes, Leibniz, Locke, Hobbes and others. These two definitions have repeatedly been taken as a basis in various schools and trends. The most significant, of course, for all subsequent generations was humanism, which in the Renaissance sowed the seeds of goodness, enlightenment and reason, which we today, several centuries later, consider the most important for Homo sapiens. We, descendants, enjoy today the great achievements of the literature and art of the Renaissance, and modern science is based on many teachings and discoveries that originated in the XIV century and still exist today. Renaissance humanism tried to teach him to respect himself and others, and our task is to be able to preserve and increase his best principles.

North Caucasian State Technological University

ESSAY

On the topic: "The history of the idea of ​​humanism"

Student group ASU-01-2

Barashev Vasily.

Vladikavkaz, 2001

The term "humanism" comes from the Latin "humanitas" (humanity), used in the 1st century. BC. the famous Roman orator Cicero (106-43 BC). For him, humanitas is the upbringing and education of a person, contributing to his exaltation.

The principle of humanism presupposed an attitude towards man as the highest value, respect for the dignity of each person, their right to life, free development, the realization of their abilities and the pursuit of happiness. Humanism presupposes the recognition of all fundamental human rights, affirms the welfare of the individual as the highest criterion for evaluating any social activity.

As a feature of world culture, humanism manifested itself in the ancient world. Already from the era of the Ancient Kingdom in Egypt (III millennium BC), statements such as the inscription of the priest Shesha reached us: "I saved the unfortunate from the stronger ... I gave bread to the hungry, clothing to the naked. I buried one who did not have my son ... "A large number of such texts testifies to the existence of a strong humanistic stream that permeates the culture of Ancient Egypt.

The ancient Egyptians were able to develop remarkable principles of the moral behavior of the individual, humanism. The books of wisdom of Amenemone testify to a very high level of morality. In ancient Egyptian culture, everything is immersed in an atmosphere of religiosity, but at the same time everything at the same time has powerful roots in the depths of pure humanity.

As a cultural trend, humanism originated in the 14th century in Italy and spread to Western Europe from the 15th century. The Renaissance, or Renaissance (from the French renaitre - to revive) has become one of the brightest eras in the development of European culture, spanning almost three centuries from the middle of the XIV century. until the first decades of the 17th century. It was an era of major changes in the history of the peoples of Europe. Under the conditions of a high level of urban civilization, the process of the emergence of capitalist relations and the crisis of feudalism began, the folding of nations and the creation of large national states took place, a new form of the political system appeared - an absolute monarchy, new social groups were formed - the bourgeoisie and hired workers. The spiritual world of man also changed. The Renaissance man was seized with a thirst for self-affirmation, great accomplishments, actively involved in social life, rediscovered the world of nature, sought to deeply comprehend it, admired its beauty. The culture of the Renaissance is characterized by a secular perception and understanding of the world, the assertion of the value of earthly existence, the greatness of the mind and creative abilities of a person, and the dignity of the individual. Humanism became the ideological basis of the Renaissance culture.

Humanists opposed the dictatorship of the Catholic Church in the spiritual life of society. They criticized the method of scholastic science based on formal logic (dialectics), rejected its dogmatism and belief in authorities, thereby clearing the way for the free development of scientific thought. At first, it manifested itself in the form of a defense of secular values ​​against oppression by the ascetic medieval church. Some Italian universities have returned to the ancient cultural and scientific heritage, half-forgotten and rejected in the Middle Ages. In improving the spiritual nature of man, the main role was assigned to a complex of disciplines, consisting of grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, ethics. It was these disciplines that became the theoretical basis of the Renaissance culture and were called "studiahumanitatis" (humanitarian disciplines). The Latin concept "humanitas" then meant the desire to develop human dignity despite the long-term belittling of the importance of everything connected with human life. The ideal was seen in harmony between enlightenment and activity.

Humanists called for the study of ancient culture, which the church rejected as pagan, perceiving from it only that which did not contradict Christian doctrine. The restoration of the ancient heritage was not an end in itself for them, but served as the basis for solving urgent problems of our time, for building a new culture. The emergence of Renaissance literature in the second half of the XIV century. associated with the names of Francesco Petrarca and Giovanni Boccaccio. They affirmed the humanistic ideas of the dignity of the individual, linking it not with gentility, but with the valiant deeds of man, his freedom and the right to enjoy the joys of earthly life.

The poet and philosopher Francesca Petrarca (1304-1374) is unanimously considered the ancestor of humanism. Petrarch was the first great humanist, poet and citizen who managed to see the wholeness of the pre-Renaissance currents of thought and unite them in a poetic synthesis, which became the program of future European generations. With his work, he managed to instill in these coming multi-tribal generations of Western and Eastern Europe a consciousness - albeit not always clear - of a certain spiritual and cultural unity, the beneficial effect of which is also reflected in our modern age.

In his work - the beginning of many paths along the development of the Renaissance culture in Italy. In his treatise On Own Ignorance and Many Others, he resolutely rejects the scholastic scholasticism inherent in the Middle Ages, in relation to which he demonstratively proclaims his alleged ignorance, for he considers such scholarship to be completely useless for a man of his time.

In the above-mentioned treatise, a fundamentally new approach to the assessment of the ancient heritage is manifested. According to Petrarch, it is not blind imitation of the thoughts of remarkable predecessors that will allow to come to a new flourishing of literature, art, science, but the desire to rise to the heights of ancient culture and at the same time to rethink and in some way surpass it. This line, outlined by Petrarch, became the leading in relation to humanism to the cantic heritage.

The first humanist believed that the content of true philosophy should be the sciences of man, and in all his work there is a call to reorient philosophy to this worthy object of knowledge.

With his reasoning, Petrarch laid the foundation for the formation of personal identity in the Renaissance. In different epochs, a person is aware of himself in different ways. A medieval person was perceived as more valuable as a person, the more his behavior corresponded to the norms adopted in the corporation. He asserted himself through the most active involvement in a social group, in a corporation, in a divinely established order - this is the social prowess required of an individual. The Renaissance man is gradually abandoning universal medieval concepts, turning to the concrete, individual.

Humanists are developing a new approach to understanding a person, in which the concept of activity plays a huge role. The value of a human person for them is determined not by origin or social belonging, but by personal merit and the fruitfulness of its activity.

A striking embodiment of this approach can be, for example, the versatile activities of the famous humanist Leon Battista Alberta (1404-1472). He was an architect, painter, author of treatises on art, formulated the principles of pictorial composition - balance and symmetry of color, gestures and poses of characters. According to Albert, a person is able to prevail over the vicissitudes of fate only by his own activity. “The one who does not want to be defeated easily wins. Those who are used to obeying endure the yoke of fate. "

However, it would be wrong to idealize humanism, not to notice its individualistic tendencies. The work of Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457) can be considered a true hymn to individualism. In her main philosophical essay, "On the Delight," Valla proclaims the desire for pleasure as an inalienable property of man. The measure of morality for him is personal good. “I cannot sufficiently understand why someone wants to die for their homeland. You are dying because you do not want your homeland to perish, as if it would not perish by this death either. " Such a worldview position looks like an antisocial one.

Humanistic thought of the second half of the 15th century. enriched with new ideas, the most important of which was the idea of ​​the dignity of the individual, indicating the special properties of man in comparison with other creatures and his special position in the world. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494), in his flamboyant Speech on the Dignity of Man, places him at the center of the world:

"We do not give you, O Adam, neither our place, nor a certain image, nor a special duty, so that you have a place, a person, and duties at your own will, according to your will and your decision."

It is argued that God (contrary to church dogma) did not create man in his own image and likeness, but gave him the opportunity to create himself. The culmination of humanistic anthropocentrism is Pico's idea that a person's dignity lies in his freedom: he can become what he wants.

Glorifying the power of man and his greatness, admiring his amazing creations, the thinkers of the Renaissance inevitably came to a rapprochement between man and God.

“Man tames the winds and conquers the seas, knows the count of time ... In addition, with the help of a lamp, he turns the night into day. Finally, magic reveals the divinity of man to us. It works miracles with the hands of man - both those that nature can create, and those that only God can create. "

In such reasoning by Giannozzo Manetti (1396-1472), Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499), Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639), Pico (1463-1494) and others, the most important characteristic of humanistic anthropocentrism was manifested - the tendency to deify a person.

However, the humanists were neither heretics nor atheists. On the contrary, the overwhelming majority of them remained believers, but if the Christian worldview asserted that God should be in the first place, and then man, then humanists highlighted man, and then talked about God.

The presence of God in the philosophy of even the most radical thinkers of the Renaissance presupposed at the same time a critical attitude towards the church as a social institution. The humanistic worldview, therefore, includes anti-clerical (from Latin anti - against, clericalis - ecclesiastical) views, that is, views directed against the claims of the church and clergy to dominance in society.

The writings of Lorenzo Valla, Leonardo Bruni (1374-1444), Poggio Bracciolini (1380-1459), Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469-1536) and others contain speeches against the secular popes of power, exposing the vices of the ministers of the church and the moral depravity of monasticism. However, this did not prevent many humanists from becoming ministers of the church, and two of them - Tommaso Parentucelli and Enea Silvio Piccolomini - were even erected in the 15th century. to the papal throne.

I must say that until the middle of the XVI century. persecution of humanists by the Catholic Church is an extremely rare phenomenon. The champions of the new secular culture were not afraid of the fires of the Inquisition and were known as good Christians. And only the Reformation - (from the Latin reformatio - transformation) a movement for the renewal of the faith, which turned against the papacy - forced the church to go on the offensive.

The relationship between the Reformation and the Renaissance is contradictory. On the one hand, the humanists of the Renaissance and the representatives of the Reformation were related by a deep hostility to scholasticism, a thirst for religious renewal, the idea of ​​a return to origins (in one case - to the ancient, in the other - to the Gospel). On the other hand, the Reformation is a protest against the Renaissance exaltation of man.

This contradiction is fully manifested when comparing the views of the founder of the Reformation, Martin Luther, and the Dutch humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam. Erasmus' thoughts often echo those of Luther: this is both a sarcastic view of the privileges of Catholic hierarchs, and caustic remarks about the way of thinking of Roman theologians. But they parted ways about free will. Luther defended the idea that before God, man has neither will nor dignity. Only if a person realizes that he cannot be the creator of his own destiny, he can be saved. And the only and sufficient condition for salvation is faith. For Erasmus, human freedom meant no less than God. Holy Scripture for him is a call addressed by God to a person, and the latter is free to respond to it or not.

One way or another, the Renaissance, which replaced the Middle Ages, "built on" Christian ethics and contributed to the further development of humanism.

Development of the ideas of humanism in Russia.

Already in the first significant Russian poets of the 18th century - Lomonosov and Derzhavin - we find secularized nationalism combined with humanism. It is no longer holy Russia, but Great Russia that inspires them; national eros, ecstasy with the greatness of Russia refer entirely to the empirical existence of Russia, without any historiosophical justification. In this appeal to Russia there is, of course, a reaction against blind worship of the West and a disdain for everything Russian, which was so clearly manifested in Russian Voltaireism. Lomonosov was an ardent patriot and believed that:

Maybe Platonov's own

And quick-witted Newtons

Russian land to give birth.

Derzhavin, a true "singer of Russian glory", defends the freedom and dignity of man; in verses written for the birth of the grandson of Catherine II (the future Emperor Alexander I), he exclaims:

Be your master of passions,

Be a man on the throne.

This motif of pure humanism is increasingly becoming the crystallization nucleus of a new ideology. In order not to drown in the immense material related to this, let us dwell on only two prominent representatives of Russian humanism of the 18th century - Novikov and Radishchev.

Novikov (1744-1818) was born into the family of a poor landowner, received a rather poor education at home, but worked hard on his self-education. At the age of 25, he undertook the publication of a magazine ("Drone"), in which he proved himself to be a man of great public instinct, a passionate denouncer of various untruths in Russian life, an ardent idealist. Struggling with blind worship of the West, ridiculing the cruel customs of Russian life of that time, Novikov writes with deep sorrow about the plight of the Russian peasants. The work of thought proceeded under the sign of reaction to the then "Westernizers" and the development of a new national identity. But in the humanism of the 18th century, Russians more and more often begin to put forward the basic meaning of morality and even preach the primacy of morality over reason. In the pedagogical dreams, which in 18th century Russia were so close to the utopian plan of "creating a new breed of people", the "development of the most graceful heart", and not of reason, the development of "the inclination to good" was put forward in the first place. Fonvizin in "Nedoroslya" even expresses such an aphorism: "The mind, since it is only the mind, is the most trifle; good manners give a direct price to the mind." In these words, moralism is very typically expressed, as a kind of new feature of Russian consciousness.

Let us turn to another prominent exponent of Russian humanism of the 18th century - A.N. Radishchev, in whom we will find even more philosophical content.

The name of Radishchev is surrounded by an aura of martyrdom (like Novikov, too), but, besides this, for subsequent generations of the Russian intelligentsia, Radishchev became a kind of banner, as a bright and radical humanist, as an ardent supporter of the primacy of the social problem.

In the person of Radishchev, we are dealing with a serious thinker who, under different conditions, could have given a lot of value in the philosophical field, but his fate was unfavorable. At the same time, Radishchev's work received one-sided coverage in subsequent generations - he turned into a "hero" of the Russian radical movement, into a bright fighter for the liberation of the peasants, a representative of Russian revolutionary nationalism. All this, of course, was in him; Russian nationalism, and before him secularized, in Radishchev absorbs the radical conclusions of "natural law", becomes a breeding ground for that revolutionary ferment that was first clearly manifested in Rousseau.

The difficult fate of Radishchev gives him the right to the exclusive attention of historians of the Russian national movement in the 18th century - he, undoubtedly, is the pinnacle of this movement, as a bright and ardent representative of radicalism. The secularization of thought proceeded very quickly in Russia in the 18th century and led to the secular radicalism of the descendants of those who used to stand for church radicalism. Radishchev, brighter than others, somehow more holistically than others, relied on the ideas of natural law, which in the 18th century merged with Rousseauism, with criticism of modern untruth. But, of course, Radishchev is not alone in this - he only expressed the new ideology more vividly than others, more fully than others he asserted the primacy of the social and moral theme in the construction of a new ideology. But Radishchev must be put first of all in connection with the latter task - with the development of a free, non-ecclesiastical, secularized ideology. The philosophical substantiation of this ideology was next in turn - and Radishchev was the first to try to give an independent substantiation of it (of course, relying on the thinkers of the West, but synthesizing them in his own way). Developing within the boundaries of nationalism and humanism, Radishchev is imbued with an ardent pathos of freedom and the restoration of the "natural" order of things.

Russian Freemasonry of the 18th and early 19th centuries played an enormous role in the spiritual mobilization of the creative forces of Russia. On the one hand, it attracted people who were looking for a counterbalance to the atheistic currents of the 18th century, and in this sense it was an expression of the religious needs of the Russian people of that time. On the other hand, Freemasonry, captivating with its idealism and noble humanistic dreams of serving humanity, was itself a phenomenon of extra-church religiosity, free from any ecclesiastical authority. Capturing significant strata of Russian society, Freemasonry undoubtedly raised creative movements in the soul, was a school of humanism, and at the same time awakened intellectual interests. Giving scope to the free quest of the spirit, Freemasonry freed from the superficial and vulgar Russian Voltaireism.

Humanism, powered by Freemasonry, is already familiar to us from the figure of N.I. Novikov. This humanism was based on a reaction against the one-sided intellectualism of the era. The favorite formula here was the thought that "enlightenment without a moral ideal carries with it poison." Here, of course, there is a closeness to Rousseau's preaching, to the chanting of feelings, but there are also echoes of that trend in Western Europe that was associated with English moralists, with the formation of "aesthetic man" (especially in England and Germany), i.e. with everything that preceded the emergence of romanticism in Europe. But here, of course, various occult currents also influenced, which raised their heads just at the height of the European enlightenment. In Russian humanism associated with Freemasonry, purely moral motives played an essential role. In this respect, the humanism of the 18th century is in the closest connection with the moral patheticism of Russian journalism of the 19th century.

Turning to the religious and philosophical trends in Freemasonry, we note that Freemasonry has been spreading in our country since the middle of the 18th century - during the reign of Elizabeth. Russian high society by this time had already completely departed from its native antiquity. Some were fond of cheap "voltaireism", as Boltin put it, some went into nationalist interests, into pure humanism, and occasionally - into scientific studies (especially Russian history). But there were people of a different kind who had spiritual needs and painfully experienced the emptiness created with the departure from church consciousness. The successes of Freemasonry in Russian society showed that there were a lot of such people: Freemasonry opened the way for them to a concentrated spiritual life, to serious and genuine idealism, and even to a religious life (outside the Church, however). In the translated and original Masonic literature, the main religious and philosophical theme appears quite clearly: the doctrine of the innermost life in man, the innermost meaning of life in general. Here theoretical and practical interest merged; A special appeal to this mystical metaphysics was given by its independence from the official church doctrine, and at the same time its clear superiority in comparison with the current scientific and philosophical teachings of the era. For Russian society, the teachings that were discovered in Freemasonry seemed to be a manifestation of precisely modernity - in its deeper course. Freemasonry, like all secularized culture, believed in a "golden age ahead", in progress, called for creativity, for "philanthropy". In Russian Freemasonry, all the main features of the future "advanced" intelligentsia were formed - and in the first place was the primacy of morality and a sense of duty to serve society, practical idealism in general. This was the path of ideological life and effective service to the ideal.

In modern philosophy, with the changes in life and thoughts that have taken place since the end of the 19th century with increasing acceleration, many principles, including those of classical humanism, have been questioned.

The philosophy of existentialism (from the late Latin existentia - existence) appears to be a kind of humanism of the new wave. Martin Heidegger became the father of existential thought for modern existentialism. He also had a decisive influence on French existentialism.

The central thesis of existentialism is the statement that "the essence of human existence lies in eksistence, in crime," in going beyond all other beings and oneself. This means not only that, as Sartre wanted to show in his essay "Existentialism is humanism ", a person is open to the world, and not constrained by predetermination ... but also the fact that within himself a person is a constant crime, endless soaring.

Heidegger opposes his concept to traditional humanism in the rational and optimistic form of the 18th-19th centuries, as well as the dogmatic form of affirming unchanging values. However, he refutes humanism not in the name of anti-humanism, but in the name of the eksistence of man, his incompleteness, his creative knowledge.

Existentialism is a harsh and sober philosophy, at the center of its research is a person who, thanks to the experience of two world wars, has become hostile to ideology, a person whose strength is only enough to exist and pursue a single goal: externally and internally to cope with the burden of his fate.

Humanism brought into ethical thought the recognition of the intrinsic value of the human person and earthly life. From here the ideas of happiness, justice and equality of people gradually developed. Voluntarily or involuntarily, but the humanistic course of the Renaissance contributed to the assertion of the rights of the individual and, in particular, the recognition of the right to a happy life. It is not surprising that in the future humanism was organically transformed into philanthropy, promoting gentleness in relationships, compassion, mercy, friendliness, and eventually tolerance towards dissidents. Many philosophical trends have absorbed the features of humanism. Humanism as a phenomenon turned out to be a historically changing system of views. Having originated in art, he opened the way for science, scientific and technological revolution, contributed to the economic boom, education, social transformations and revolutions.

List of used literature:

1. LM Bragina "The social and ethical views of the Italian

nists "(II half of the 15th century) Publishing house of Moscow State University, 1983

2. Essays on the history of Russian ethical thought. M., "Science", 1976

3. From the history of culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Publishing house "Science", M., 1976

4. Aesthetics. Dictionary. Politizdat, M., 1989

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Introduction

humanism era revival culture

The term "humanism" comes from the Latin "humanitas" (humanity), used in the 1st century. BC. the famous Roman orator Cicero (106-43 BC). For him, humanitas is the upbringing and education of a person, contributing to his elevation.

The principle of humanism presupposed an attitude towards man as the highest value, respect for the dignity of each person, their right to life, free development, the realization of their abilities and the pursuit of happiness. Humanism presupposes the recognition of all fundamental human rights, affirms the welfare of the individual as the highest criterion for evaluating any social activity.

As a cultural trend, humanism originated in the 14th century in Italy and spread to Western Europe from the 15th century. The Renaissance, or Renaissance (from the French renaitre - to revive) has become one of the brightest eras in the development of European culture, spanning almost three centuries from the middle of the XIV century. until the first decades of the 17th century. It was an era of major changes in the history of the peoples of Europe. Under the conditions of a high level of urban civilization, the process of the emergence of capitalist relations and the crisis of feudalism began, the folding of nations and the creation of large national states took place, a new form of the political system appeared - an absolute monarchy, new social groups were formed - the bourgeoisie and hired workers. The spiritual world of man also changed. The Renaissance man was seized with a thirst for self-affirmation, great accomplishments, actively involved in social life, rediscovered the world of nature, sought to deeply comprehend it, admired its beauty. The culture of the Renaissance is characterized by a secular perception and understanding of the world, the assertion of the value of earthly existence, the greatness of the mind and creative abilities of a person, and the dignity of the individual. Humanism became the ideological basis of the Renaissance culture.

Purpose: to understand what role the ideas of humanism played in the formation of the culture of the Renaissance.

1. Study and analyze literary sources on this topic;

2. Define the term humanism;

3. Analyze the work of the humanists of the Renaissance;

4. Reveal the influence of humanistic ideas on the culture of the Renaissance;

Subject: Culture of revival.

Object: Creativity of humanists.

1. The concept of "Renaissance" and the periodization of the era

The Middle Ages, or rather the period of transition from medieval culture to the culture of modern times (XIV-XVII centuries), is called the Renaissance.

At this time, antifeudal sentiments, humanistic worldviews, and an appeal to the cultural heritage of antiquity prevail in society. Hence the name "revival". The renaissance arose and was most vividly manifested in Italy.

Elements of humanistic ethics, realism in art appeared. The Art of Renaissance is divided into 4 stages: Pre-Renaissance, Early Renaissance, High Renaissance, Late Renaissance. Chronological boundaries in different countries do not coincide due to historical circumstances. So the Renaissance in the Nordic countries of Europe is lagging behind in comparison with Italy. Rozin V.M. Introduction to cultural studies. M .: Infa-M Forum, 2000.S. 158

The culture of the Renaissance reflected in itself the specifics of the transitional era. The old and the new were often intricately intertwined in it, presenting a unique, qualitatively new alloy. The culture of the Renaissance is inseparable from the humanistic worldview. During the Renaissance, certain areas of science and culture were not yet fully differentiated, and many ideas were formulated not by professionals (there were few of them), but by artists, poets, scientists. However, the Renaissance (especially the 16th century) was already marked by major scientific shifts in the field of natural science. Its development, directly connected during this period with the demands of practice (trade, navigation, construction, military affairs, and others), of the emerging capitalist production, was facilitated by the first successes of a new, anti-dogmatic worldview. Rozin V.M. Introduction to cultural studies. -M .: Infa-M Forum, 2000. p.86-87 A specific feature of the science of this era was a close connection with art; the process of overcoming the religious and mystical abstractions and dogmatism of the Middle Ages proceeded simultaneously in science and art, sometimes uniting in the work of one person (a particularly striking example is the work of Leonardo da Vinci - an artist, scientist, engineer).

It is believed that the beginning of the era was in Italy and is associated with Florence in the 15th century. From here, this powerful cultural upheaval gained strength, involving other regions of Italy, then France, Spain, communicating their ideas and discoveries to artists and thinkers of Germany, England, the Netherlands, Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, the Balkan states, infecting with confidence in new human capabilities. B. History and culturology. -M .: Logos, 2001. p.98 For the first time, Europe could unite on the basis of ideas that had not an orthodox religious, but universal, humanistic character. The birth of the idea of ​​the unlimited possibilities of man, but not only of the idea, the birth of its active carrier, a new subject of culture, a humanist. This is how the Renaissance entered the history of human culture.

The era from the Renaissance to the Reformation is internally contradictory, moving from the old to the new, it stretched in many regions of Europe for more than three centuries.

Humanists, looking back to Antiquity, remained unconditional Christians. In their own lives, in their humanitarian studies, they connected two equal worlds - Antiquity and the Christian Middle Ages. Thus, the Renaissance sets a hitherto unknown temporary unity - the spiritual history of mankind. Remaining Christians and not infringing on the rights of the Holy Church, not denying the Almighty, but only trying to clarify His main plan for man, the humanists inscribed in the real world of Italian, and then the entire European everyday life, the works, days, language and scholarly occupations of the ancient Romans and Greeks ... Europe for the first time felt the living connection of times. Shishova N.V. History and culturology. -M .: Logos, 2001. p.103-105

Both humanists and reformers, in their own way, prepared Europe for a new turn in culture, they also found words that still denote the era that began in the 17th century - the era of modern times. Both foresaw and tried in their own way to implement the idea of ​​the unity of human culture in its history.

2. Worldview

The new worldview that arose during the Renaissance is usually called humanism (from Latin - human, humane). Certain features of humanism are present in ancient culture, but Renaissance humanism was more voluminous and holistic.

Humanism means not only that a person is recognized as the highest value, but also that a person is declared the criterion of any value. This feature of humanism was expressed in antiquity by Protagoras: "Man is the measure of all things." Such a view assumed the self-knowledge of a person.

The humanism of the Renaissance manifested itself as the exaltation of reason as the main instrument of knowledge. In fact, this meant the recognition of the domination of reason over the surrounding world. From this followed another feature of humanism - the belief in universal and endless progress. Finally, the poeticization of man and everything human entailed an aesthetic perception of reality, a passion for the beautiful and the sublime. The humanism of the Renaissance, without denying that man was created in the image and likeness of God, at the same time asserted the human right to unlimited creativity. It is in creativity, the humanists believed, that the likeness of a person to God should first of all be manifested. Markov A.N. History of world culture. M, 1997.-438s.

3. Philosophy

The socio-political and cultural conditions of the Renaissance favorably influenced the development of philosophical thought. In this regard, first of all, it should be pointed out that the philosophy of this time freed itself from Christian-church oppression, ceased to be a servant (slave) of theology and began to develop according to its own laws. This is the first thing. And secondly, in the philosophical thought of that time - especially in the early period - almost all directions and shades of ancient philosophy were revived and began to operate actively. Here one could see Aristotelianism (Peter Pomponazzi, Zabarella) and Neoplatonism (Georg Pletona, Marcio Feccino, Martin Luther, Thomas Münzer) and Stoicism (Petrarch), and Epicureanism (Lorenzo Valla, François Rabelais) ( Montaigne) and others. Shishova N.V. History and Culturology. M .: Logos, 2000.p.76

The work of Francesca Petrarca (1304 - 1374), considered the first humanist in Europe ("Canzonere"), is widely recognized. His sonnets on the life and death of Madonna Laura received worldwide fame. Petrarch's follower was the humanist writer Giovani Boccaccio (1313 - 1375), the author of The Decameron, a collection of realistic novellas united by a common humanistic ideal and representing a single whole, who made a significant contribution to the development of the Italian literary language based on the vernacular.

Dante, Francesca Petrarca and Giovanni Boccaccio, famous poets of the Renaissance, were the creators of the Italian literary language. During their lifetime, their works became widely known not only in Italy, but also far beyond its borders, entered the treasury of world literature.

But the philosophy of the Renaissance was not limited only to the revival and development (adaptation to its modernity) of ancient philosophy. Along with this and in an organic connection with this, the Renaissance enriched the history and content of the philosophy of all mankind with the development of new and important problems of the worldview. The most important among them, which have not lost their acute relevance in modern conditions, is the formulation and development of the problems of Humanism.

4. Creativity of humanists

The poet and philosopher Francesca Petrarca (1304-1374) is unanimously considered the founder of humanism. Petrarch was the first great humanist, poet and citizen who managed to see the wholeness of the pre-Renaissance currents of thought and unite them in a poetic synthesis, which became the program of future European generations. With his work, he managed to instill in these coming multi-tribal generations of Western and Eastern Europe a consciousness - albeit not always clear - of a certain spiritual and cultural unity, the beneficial effect of which is also reflected in our modern age.

In his work is the beginning of many paths along which the development of the Renaissance culture in Italy went. In his treatise On Own Ignorance and Many Others, he resolutely rejects the holastic scholarship inherent in the Middle Ages, in relation to which he demonstratively proclaims his alleged ignorance, for he considers such scholarship to be completely useless for the day of a man of his time.

In the above-mentioned treatise, a fundamentally new approach to the assessment of the ancient heritage is manifested. According to Petrarch, it is not blind imitation of the thoughts of remarkable predecessors that will allow to come to a new flowering of literature, art, science, but the desire to rise to the heights of ancient culture and at the same time to rethink and in some way surpass it. This line, outlined by Petrarch, became the leading one in the attitude of humanism to the ancient heritage.

The first humanist believed that the sciences about man should become the content of true philosophy, and in all his work there is a call to reorient philosophy to this worthy object of knowledge.

With his reasoning, Petrarch laid the foundation for the formation of personal self-awareness of the Renaissance. In different epochs, a person realizes himself in different ways. A medieval person was perceived as more valuable as a person, the more his behavior corresponded to the norms adopted in the corporation. He asserted himself through the most active inclusion in a social group, in a corporation, in a divinely established order - such is the social valor demanded of an individual. The Renaissance man is gradually abandoning universal medieval concepts, turning to the concrete, individual.

Humanists are developing a new approach to understanding a person, in which the concept of activity plays a huge role. The value of a human personality for them is determined not by origin or social belonging, but by personal merit and the fruitfulness of its activities.

A striking embodiment of this approach can be, for example, the versatile activities of the famous humanist Leon Battista Alberta (1404-1472). He was an architect, painter, author of treatises on art, formulated the principles of pictorial composition - balance and symmetry of color, gestures and poses of characters. According to Albert, a person is able to prevail over the vicissitudes of fate only by his own activity. “The one who does not want to be defeated easily wins. The yoke of fate is tolerated by the one who is accustomed to obeying "Bragina L.M. Socio-ethical views of the Italian Humanists. -M, 2003.-303s ..

However, it would be wrong to idealize humanism, not to notice its individualistic tendencies. The work of Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457) can be read as a true hymn to individualism. In his main philosophical essay, "On Pleasure," Valla proclaims the desire for pleasure as an inalienable property of man. The measure of morality for him is personal good. “I cannot sufficiently understand why someone wants to die for their homeland. You are dying because you do not want your homeland to perish, as if it would not perish with your death. " Such a worldview position looks like an antisocial one.

Humanistic thought of the second half of the 15th century. enriched with new ideas, the most important of which was the idea of ​​the dignity of the individual, indicating the special properties of man in comparison with other creatures and his special position in the world. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494), in his flamboyant Speech on the Dignity of Man, places him at the center of the world:

"We do not give you, O Adam, neither our place, nor a certain image, nor a special duty, so that you have a place, a person, and duties at your own will, according to your will and your decision" Bragin L.M. Socio-ethical views of the Italian Humanists. -M, 2003.-303s ..

It is argued that God (contrary to church dogma) did not create man in his own image and likeness, but gave him the opportunity to create himself. The culmination of humanistic anthropocentrism is Pico's idea that a person's dignity lies in his freedom: he can become whatever he wishes.

Glorifying the power of man and his greatness, admiring his amazing creations, the thinkers of the Renaissance inevitably came to a rapprochement between man and God.

“Man tames the winds and conquers the seas, knows the count of time ... In addition, with the help of a lamp, he turns night into day. Finally, the divinity of man is revealed to us by magic. She works miracles with human hands - both those that nature can create, and those that only God can create. "

In such reasoning by Giannozzo Manetti (1396-1472), Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499), Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639), Pico (1463-1494) and others, the most important characteristic of humanistic anthropocentrism was manifested - the tendency to deify a person.

However, the humanists were neither heretics nor atheists. On the contrary, the overwhelming majority of them remained believers. But if the Christian worldview asserted that God should come first, and then man, then humanists highlighted man, and then talked about God.

The presence of God in the philosophy of even the most radical thinkers of the Renaissance implied at the same time a critical attitude towards the church as a social institution. The humanistic worldview, therefore, also includes anti-clerical (from Latin anti - against, clericalis - church) views, that is, views directed against the claims of the church and clergy to dominance in society.

The writings of Lorenzo Valla, Leonardo Bruni (1374-1444), Poggio Bracciolini (1380-1459), Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469-1536) and others contain speeches against the secular power of the popes, exposing the vices of the ministers of the church and the moral depravity of monasticism. However, this did not prevent many humanists from becoming ministers of the church, and two of them - Tommaso Parentucelli and Enea Silvio Piccolomini - were even erected in the 15th century. to the papal throne.

I must say that until the middle of the XVI century. persecution of humanists by the Catholic Church is extremely rare. The champions of the new secular culture were not afraid of the fires of the Inquisition and were known as good Christians. And only the Reformation - (from the Latin reformatio - transformation) a movement for the renewal of the faith, which turned against the papacy - forced the church to go on the offensive.

The relationship between the Reformation and the Renaissance is contradictory. On the one hand, the humanists of the Renaissance and the representatives of the Reformation were related by a deep hostility to scholasticism, a thirst for religious renewal, the idea of ​​a return to origins (in one case - to the ancient, in the other - to the Gospel). On the other hand, the Reformation is a protest against the Renaissance exaltation of man.

This contradiction is fully manifested when comparing the views of the founder of the Reformation, Martin Luther, and the Dutch humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam. Erasmus' thoughts often echo those of Luther: this is both a sarcastic view of the privileges of Catholic hierarchs, and caustic remarks about the way of thinking of Roman theologians. But they parted ways about free will. Luther defended the idea that before God, man has neither will nor dignity. Only if a person realizes that he cannot be the creator of his own destiny, he can be saved. And the only and sufficient condition for salvation is faith. For Erasmus, human freedom meant no less than God. Holy Scripture for him is a call addressed by God to a person, and the latter is free to respond to it or not.

One way or another, the Renaissance, which replaced the Middle Ages, "built on" Christian ethics and contributed to the further development of humanism.

5. Science

If in the art of the Renaissance sensual corporeality became the universal ideal and natural criterion, then in science this role was assigned to the rational individual. Not individual knowledge or opinion, but the authenticity of the individual itself turned out to be the true foundation of rational knowledge.

Everything in the world can be questioned, only the fact of the doubt itself is undoubted, which is direct evidence of the existence of reason. This self-justification of reason, taken as the only true point of view, is a rational individual.

The science of the Renaissance differed little from art, since it was the result of the personal creative search of the thinker. An artist is a seeker of true images, a thinker is a seeker of true ideas. An artist has a technique of depiction, a thinker has a technique of clarification, or a method of cognition. The thinker is able to penetrate beyond the limits of the sensible world into the plans of the Creator. And just as the creation of the world on the basis of perfect images continued in the work of the artist, so in the work of the scientist God's intentions about the world were revealed.

It may seem strange, but the tradition of seeing in pure reason as a means of comprehending God and his designs, which the scholars of the Renaissance adhered to, developed in medieval mysticism. This tradition dates back to antiquity - in the teachings of the Pythagoreans, in the philosophy of Plato. Gaidenko P.P. Evolution of the concept of science .- M, 1999.-115s.

The humanistic orientation of the Renaissance was manifested in the fact that the scientific worldview of the era was associated with the problem of human existence.

Conclusion

Humanism brought into ethical thought the recognition of the intrinsic value of the human person and earthly life. From here the ideas of happiness, justice and equality of people gradually developed. Voluntarily or involuntarily, but the humanistic course of the Renaissance contributed to the assertion of the rights of the individual and, in particular, the recognition of the right to a happy life. It is not surprising that in the future humanism was organically transformed into philanthropy, promoting gentleness in relationships, compassion, mercy, friendliness, and eventually tolerance towards dissidents. Many philosophical trends have absorbed the features of humanism. Humanism as a phenomenon turned out to be a historically changing system of views. Having originated in art, he opened the way for science, scientific and technological revolution, contributed to the economic boom, education, social transformations and revolutions.

List of used literature

1. Bragin L.M. Socio-ethical views of the Italian Humanists. -M, 2003.-303s.

2. P.P. Gaidenko Evolution of the concept of science .- M, 1999.-255s.

3. Gnedich P. P. World history of arts. M, 2004.-623s.

4. Markov A.N. History of world culture. M, 1997.-655s.

5. Rozin V.M. Introduction to cultural studies.- M .: Infa-M Forum., 2000.-356s.

6. Shishova NV History and cultural studies. -M .: Logos., 2001.-430s.

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The term "humanism" comes from the Latin "humanitas" (humanity), used in the 1st century. BC. the famous Roman orator Cicero (106-43 BC). For him, humanitas is the upbringing and education of a person, contributing to his elevation.

As a cultural trend, humanism originated in the 14th century in Italy and spread to Western Europe from the 15th century. The Renaissance, or Renaissance (from the French renaitre - to revive) has become one of the brightest eras in the development of European culture, spanning almost three centuries from the middle of the XIV century. until the first decades of the 17th century. It was an era of major changes in the history of the peoples of Europe. Under the conditions of a high level of urban civilization, the process of the emergence of capitalist relations and the crisis of feudalism began, the folding of nations and the creation of large national states took place, a new form of political system appeared - an absolute monarchy, new social groups were formed - the bourgeoisie and hired workers. The spiritual world of man also changed. The Renaissance man was seized with a thirst for self-affirmation, great accomplishments, actively involved in social life, rediscovered the world of nature, sought to deeply comprehend it, admired its beauty. The culture of the Renaissance is characterized by a secular perception and understanding of the world, the assertion of the value of earthly existence, the greatness of the mind and creative abilities of a person, and the dignity of the individual. Humanism became the ideological basis of the Renaissance culture.

The poet and philosopher Francesca Petrarca (1304-1374) is unanimously considered the founder of humanism. Petrarch was the first great humanist, poet and citizen who was able to see the wholeness of the Renaissance currents of thought and unite them in a poetic synthesis, which became the program of future European generations. With his work, he managed to instill in these coming generations of different tribal Western and Eastern Europe a consciousness - albeit not always clear - of a certain spiritual and cultural unity, the beneficial effect of which is also reflected in our modern age. The long-term love story of Petrarch for Laura has become world famous, expressed by the poet in a wonderful cycle of canzons and sonnets, published under the title “The Book of Songs”. This book, as well as other poetic works of Petrarch, made such a great impression on his contemporaries that even during his lifetime he was recognized as one of the greatest poets and was crowned with a laurel wreath.

In his work is the beginning of many paths along which the development of the Renaissance culture in Italy went. In his treatise On Own Ignorance and Many Others, he resolutely rejects the scholastic scholasticism inherent in the Middle Ages, in relation to which he demonstratively proclaims his alleged ignorance, for he considers such scholarship to be completely useless for the day of a man of his time. However, Petrarch is not only a poet, but also a peculiar and interesting thinker and philosopher. It was he who was the first in Europe to formulate the ideas of humanism, began to talk about the need to revive the ancient spirit, the ideals of antiquity. No wonder already at the beginning of the 15th century. wrote: "Francesca Petrarca was the first to whom grace descended, he recognized and realized and brought to light the grace of an ancient style, lost and forgotten." Humanism brought into ethical thought the recognition of the very value of the human person and earthly life. From here the ideas of happiness, justice and equality of people gradually developed. Voluntarily or involuntarily, but the humanistic course of the Renaissance contributed to the assertion of the rights of the individual and, in particular, the recognition of the right to a happy life. It is not surprising that in the future humanism was organically transformed into philanthropy, promoting gentleness in relationships, compassion, mercy, friendliness, and eventually tolerance towards dissidents. Many philosophical trends have absorbed the features of humanism. Humanism as a phenomenon turned out to be a historically changing system of views. Having originated in art, he opened the way for science, scientific and technological revolution, contributed to the economic boom, education, social transformations and revolutions.

· Anti-church orientation;

• recognition of a person as a harmonious unity of bodily and spiritual principles, reason and passions;

· Understanding of a person as an active, active personality;

• recognition of freedom of reason and thought;

• recognition of creativity as the highest manifestation of human abilities;

· Optimistic outlook, striving for fullness of life.

"Talented, restless, unbridled minds, working fast, overwhelmingly proud, never content, with stoic speeches in their language, but greedy for money, for the blessings of life, for honor and respect, shamelessly currying favor with the noble and the rich, viciously competing with each other." - such is the portrait of these people of a new breed who proudly called themselves humanists (A. Stepanov).

F. Petrarch, the spiritual father of the humanists, exclaimed: "How much eloquence is dearer than life itself for all of us, spinning in the dust of the literary palette, so much we strive for glory than for virtue!"

The ideas of humanism that in a person his personal qualities, such as intelligence, creative energy, enterprise, self-esteem, will and education, and by no means social status and origin, are important, will become the basis of the culture of the New Age.

Even the titles of the treatises of the Renaissance are evidence of the new views on man: "On the Advantage and Superiority of Man" (Fazio) or "Speech on the Dignity of Man" (Pico Della Mirandola) (for comparison, one can recall the medieval message of the Pope: "On the insignificance of the human condition" ).

An example of a new personality is the Italian humanist philosopher Pico Della Mirandola(1463 - 1494). At the age of 20, he knew 28 languages, and his belief in the infinity of the human mind and his own education was so great that he agreed to invite 20 of the smartest people from all over the world to answer 700 of the most difficult questions. European culture did not know such self-confidence, especially after a thousand years of belittling medieval man.

The Renaissance gave the rationale for such an exaltation of man. Pico Della Mirandola interpreted the history of the creation of man by God in a new way: having created man and “... placing him in the center of the world, God addressed him with these words:“ We do not give you, O Adam, neither a certain place, nor our own image, nor a special duty so that you have a place and a person and a duty of your own free will, according to your will and your decision. "

Thus, freedom and independence were declared to be inalienable features of man, but the thought of man as the center of the world became even more significant. It was she who became the basis of a new worldview - anthropocentrism, according to which man was considered the highest goal of the universe.

5. Conversion to antiquity.

Ancient culture became a source of inspiration and new ideas for the Renaissance. Humanists saw in antiquity an example of harmony, a reasonable social structure and tried to get closer to the worldview of the ancients. The return to the forgotten achievements of ancient culture took place in the field of science, philosophy, literature, art, classical "golden Latin". So, in Italy, manuscripts of ancient writers were searched for, works of antique sculpture, architecture were extracted from oblivion and became models for study and imitation (for example, Michelangelo depicts the biblical David in the image of an ancient hero).

In Florence in the 15th century. the Platonic Academy was formed, where an enlightened aristocratic audience studied eloquence, mastery of Latin and Greek, grace of manners and the art of love.

The imitation of antiquity was often paradoxical. For example, the architect Alberti created in Rimini in a Gothic temple the tomb of a noble lady, on which there was a Latin inscription: "Divae Isotta Sacrum", i.e. "Divine Isota", as they wrote on Roman tombstones. This example is very indicative: on the one hand, the Renaissance tried to revive pagan antiquity, but on the other hand, the creators of the Renaissance were people of Christian culture, and antiquity could not become organically close to them.

The Renaissance epoch thus became the experience of uniting the incompatible: pagan and Christian cultures. A striking example of such an experience can be called the work of Botticelli, who depicted pagan goddesses with the faces of the Madonna.

Remarkable in this regard is the point of view of O. Spengler, who considers the Renaissance a cultural regression: Europe did not create anything new, but only mechanically repeated old discoveries.

6. Understanding creativity.

The Renaissance was not unfounded, placing man in the center of the world, in the place of God. The thinkers of the Renaissance found convincing proof of this: Man is like God, because he is able to create. The ability to create became the main human dignity for the Renaissance. Creativity was valued above wealth and titles (a feature of humanism can be called a kind of hostility to the power of gold and wealth).

The Renaissance period presents many examples of recognition of the highest status for an artist, among which is Giotto, who allowed himself insolence and remarks about the King of Naples, or Michelangelo, whose fame was so great that his name did not need titles and even surnames.

The ideal of the Renaissance is a man - a creator, a universal genius who knows no boundaries, striving to embrace the impossible, to unite the divine and the human. An example is Michelangelo, who, as a creator, creates a new world in the frescoes of the Sistine Chapel. This understanding of man is called Renaissance titanism. The best example of this is the figure Leonardo da Vinci.

In his work, he seemed to compete with nature and the Creator, as if he designed and built the world out of natural chaos. His "La Gioconda" is an example of a "higher synthesis" based on all knowledge about nature and man. When the viewer tries to endow her with certain emotions or ascribes to her this or that state of mind, he destroys Leonardo's plan: for Leonardo, these categories are shallow; ethics, soul, faith are too human. His plan is superhuman - all at once and nothing in particular: the personality, age and gender of Gioconda (there is a version that this is a self-portrait of Leonardo at a young age and the image of a woman), time of day, season, geography of the landscape and even its earthly origin remain a question for the viewer. “Mona Lisa smiles like the universe itself” (A. Yakimovich).

7. "The downside of titanism."

The artist's attempt to rise above nature, unprecedented before the Renaissance, turned into an attempt to rise above man. Culture researcher AF Losev called it "Satanic temptation" and saw in the ideas of revivalism a manifestation of immoralism.

Indeed, the everyday reality of the era in a very peculiar way embodied the ideas of humanists about human freedom. Unrestricted freedom has turned into permissiveness and contempt for all moral standards. There are many examples of this. For revenge in churches, bowls of holy water were poisoned. Pope Alexander IV himself accidentally poisoned himself with a poison of his own preparation. Orgies were held at the residence of the Pope, and the Popes with their retinue went hunting. The priests were forbidden "for the sake of money to become pimps of prostitutes", monks indulged in orgies, and writers compared monasteries to nativity scenes. King Ferrante of Naples kept his enemies in cages, fattened them up, killed them, salted them and served them to his enemies, while the Duke of Ferrara used to walk around the city naked. AF Losev called it “the flip side of titanism”.

Antiquity gave a kind of basis for a double morality: relying, depending on the circumstances, either on Christian or antique authorities, it was easy for a Renaissance man to justify any thought, any act.

The antipode of humanism was, in fact, the views of the Italian thinker Nicolo Machiavelli(1469-1527), justifying the use of any means to achieve an end. Machiavelli in his book "The Sovereign" expressed the idea that the politician is free from the prohibitions of morality, comparing him with a centaur: "The new sovereign needs to own the nature of both the beast and the man." This was the first recognition of the tragic contradiction between universal human morality and political interests.

Self-denial of Renaissance humanism was also the ideas of the English humanist Thomas Mora (1478-1535) and the Italian philosopher Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639), who saw the ideal of social harmony in a society built on a rigid hierarchical system that regulates all spheres of life. Subsequently, this model will be called "barracks communism." At the heart of this metamorphosis lies a rather deep feeling by the thinkers of the Renaissance of the dual nature of freedom.

The era of the Italian Renaissance is conventionally divided into a number of stages:

Proto-Renaissance (trecento) - late 13th - 14th centuries

Early Renaissance (Quattrocento) - XV century

High Renaissance (Cinquecento) –1 half of the 16th century.

Late Renaissance - 2nd half of the 16th - early 17th centuries.

Proto-renaissance(period XIII - early XIV centuries) largely paved the way for the art of the Renaissance. This period was marked by the work of the great poet Dante Alighieri, the architect Arnolfo di Cambio, the sculptor Nicolae Pisano, and the author of frescoes Giotto di Bondone (1266/1267 - 1337), whose name is associated with a turn towards realistic art.

Early Renaissance. Literary creativity belongs to the Early Renaissance period Francesco Petrarch(1304-1374). He remained in the history of the Renaissance as the first humanist and passionate popularizer of the heritage of ancient authors, as evidenced by his treatise "On the Great Men of Antiquity." Petrarch's sonnets on the life and death of Madonna Laura, praising the sublime love for a woman, received worldwide fame.

Disciple and follower of Petrarch was Boccaccio(1313-1375) - the author of the collection of realistic short stories "The Decameron", which became a satire over the church, saturated with subtle observations, excellent knowledge of psychology, humor and optimism.

The legacy of Sandro, an outstanding artist of the Early Renaissance Botticelli(1445-1510), who worked at the Medici court in Florence, is distinguished by a subtle flavor and a mood of sadness.

Sculptor Donatello(c. 1386-1466), reviving ancient traditions, was the first to present a nude body in sculpture. His art is characterized by a realistic manner.

Philippe, one of the founders of Renaissance architecture Brunelleschi(1377-1446) revived the main elements of ancient architecture, talentedly solved the most complex technical problems (construction of the dome of the Florentine Cathedral), made a great contribution to fundamental science (the theory of linear perspective).

High renaissance... The High Renaissance period was comparatively short. It is associated primarily with the names of three brilliant masters, the titans of the Renaissance - Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael Santi and Michelangelo Buonarroti. In the work of representatives of the High Renaissance, the realistic and humanistic foundations of the Renaissance culture reached the peak.

Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519) is hardly equal in the degree of giftedness and versatility among the representatives of the Renaissance. Leonardo was simultaneously an artist, art theorist, sculptor, architect, mathematician, physicist, mechanic, astronomer, physiologist, botanist, anatomist, enriching these and many other areas of knowledge with discoveries and ingenious guesses.

In the work of Leonardo, the universalism of the representatives of the Renaissance was most fully expressed, where it is difficult to find sharp lines between science, artistic fantasy and the embodiment of ideas.

Younger contemporary of Leonardo the great painter of Italy Raphael Santi(1483-1520) went down in the history of world culture as the creator of pictorial masterpieces imbued with grace and soft lyricism ("Sistine Madonna"). The master is also famous for his paintings of the ceremonial halls of the Vatican Palace (fresco "School of Athens") and architectural projects.

The last master of the High Renaissance was Michelangelo Buonarroti(1475-1564) - a great sculptor, painter, architect and poet. Despite his versatile talents, he is called first of all the first draftsman of Italy thanks to the most significant work of an already mature artist - the painting of the vault of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican Palace (the total area of ​​the fresco is 600 square meters. Meters).

As a sculptor, Michelangelo became known for his early work "David". But Michelangelo gained true recognition as an architect and sculptor as a designer and leader of the construction of the main part of the building of the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome, which remains to this day the largest Catholic church in the world. Architectural and sculptural works in Florence, in particular, the sculptural composition in the Medici chapel, brought him no less fame. Four nude figures on the sarcophagi of the rulers of Florence "Evening", "Daughter", "Morning" and "Day" very vividly illustrate the master's awareness of the limitations of human capabilities, despair before the fast passing time. These tragic moods sound in a poem by the last titan of the Renaissance, written on behalf of the sculpture "Night":

"It is gratifying to sleep, it is more gratifying to be a stone

Oh, in this age, criminal and shameful,

Not to live, not to feel is an enviable lot.
Please be quiet, don't you dare wake me up. "

Art of Venice... The period of the High and Late Renaissance was the heyday of art in Venice. In the second half of the XVI century. Venice, which has preserved the republican structure, is becoming a kind of oasis and center of the Renaissance. Among the artists of the Venetian school - Giorgione(1476-1510), who immortalized his name with his canvases "Judith", "Sleeping Venus", "Country Concert". The greatest representative of the Venetian school - Titian Vecellio(1477 or 1487 -1576). During his lifetime, he received recognition in Europe. Titian's works are attracted by the novelty of their solution primarily to coloristic and compositional tasks ("The Penitent Magdalene", "Earthly and Heavenly Love", "Venus", "Danae", "Saint Sebastian", etc.)

Late renaissance... The Late Renaissance period was marked by the advance of the Catholic Church. The Church tried to restore the partially lost undivided power over the minds, encouraging cultural figures, on the one hand, and using repressive measures against the disobedient, on the other. So, many painters, poets, sculptors, architects abandoned the ideas of humanism, inheriting only the manner and technique of the great masters of the Renaissance (the so-called mannerism). Among the most important Mannerist artists are Jacopo Pontormo (1494-1557), Francesco Parmigianino (1503-1540), Angelo Broisino (1503-1572), who are characterized by the ideal of cold and at the same time sensually mysterious beauty.