Artistic culture of the Age of Enlightenment. Great Enlighteners. Artistic culture of the era of enlightenment Quiz on the topic of the world of artistic culture of enlightenment

Questions at the beginning of a paragraph

Cultural figures of the Enlightenment can be considered the heirs of the humanists of the Renaissance, since they affirmed the value of man as an individual, his right to freedom, happiness, development, just like the humanists. In their views on society, the humanists of the 15th and 16th centuries, like the enlighteners of the 18th century, called for the construction of a humane society through ethics based on human and other natural values, in the spirit of reason and free inquiry, through the use of human abilities. As an example, we can compare the main principle of the humanists - the doctrine of the high purpose of man, of his dignity (dignitas, which stated that a person, endowed with reason and an immortal soul, possessing virtue and limitless creative possibilities, free in his actions and thoughts, is placed at the center of the universe itself nature) and Rousseau’s idea that man is born with morality and kindness.

Questions at the end of the paragraph

Question 1. What do you think the enlighteners saw as the goal and main purpose of art?

The purpose and main purpose of art is to serve humanistic ideals. The focus of art should be on the human person, free and entitled.

Question 2. Like the literary heroes of the Renaissance, the characters of many educational novels also set off on a journey. What calls Robinson and Gulliver to distant lands?

Robinson and Gulliver were drawn to distant lands by their interest in learning new things.

Question 3. How does the work of “painters of the nobility” and “singers of the third estate” differ?

The work of the “painters of the nobility” and the “singers of the third estate” has significant differences. The canvases of the former are far from reality, full of carefree lightness. And the “singers of the third estate” depict the real life around them; often the heroes of the paintings are ordinary workers.

Question 4. Prepare a report on the life and work of one of the artists of the Enlightenment mentioned in the paragraph.

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) - great German composer, organist, music teacher, master of polyphony. Bach's work includes more than 1000 works of various genres.

Born (21) March 31, 1685 in the city of Eisenach, his ancestors were professional musicians.

At the age of ten, Johann Bach was taken in by his brother Johann Christoph. He taught the future composer to play the clavier and organ. At the age of 15, Bach entered the St. Michael vocal school in the city of Lüneburg. There he gets acquainted with the work of modern musicians and develops comprehensively. During 1700-1703, the musical biography of Johann Sebastian Bach begins, the first organ music was written.

After completing his studies, Bach was sent to Duke Ernst to serve as a musician at court. Dissatisfaction with his dependent position forces him to change jobs. In 1704, Bach received the position of organist of the New Church in Arndstadt. At this time he created many talented works. Collaboration with the poet Christian Friedrich Henrici and the court musician Telemachus enriched the music with new motifs.

In 1707, Bach moved to Mülhusen and continued to work as a church musician and engage in creative work. The authorities are satisfied with his work, the composer receives a reward.

In 1707, Bach married his cousin Maria Barbara. He decided to change jobs again, this time becoming court organist in Weimar. In this city, six children are born into the musician’s family, three of whom become famous musicians in the future.

In 1720, Bach's wife died, but a year later the composer married again, now to the famous singer Anna Magdalene Wilhelm.

In 1717, Bach entered the service of the Duke of Anhalt-Köthen, who highly valued his talent. During the period from 1717 to 1723, Bach's magnificent suites (for orchestra, cello, clavier) appeared.

Bach's Brandenburg concertos, English and French suites were written in Köthen.

In 1723, the musician received the position of cantor and teacher of music and Latin in the Church of St. Thomas, then became music director in Leipzig. Johann Sebastian Bach's wide repertoire included both secular and wind music. During his life, Johann Sebastian Bach managed to be the head of a music college. Several cycles of the composer Bach used all kinds of instruments ("Musical Offering", "The Art of Fugue")

In the last years of his life, Bach was rapidly losing his sight. His music was then considered unfashionable and outdated. Despite this, the composer continued to work. In 1747, he created a cycle of plays called “Music of the Offering”, dedicated to the Prussian king Frederick the Second. The last work was the collection of works “The Art of Fugue”, which included 14 fugues and 4 canons.

Johann Sebastian Bach died on July 28, 1750 in Leipzig, but his musical legacy remains immortal.

Assignments for the paragraph

Question 1: Hogarth's self-portrait shows three books. The authors of two are already familiar to you - Shakespeare and Swift. Is this a coincidence? How can you explain the artist's choice?

It is no coincidence that Hogarth's self-portrait depicts the books of Shakespeare and Swift. Hogarth was the author of illustrations for books by these authors

Question 2. Suggest what modern viewers would appreciate in the works of court painters, and what might cause criticism.

In the works of court painters, modern viewers could highly appreciate the level of skill of the artists. Beautifully painted landscapes, light and pleasing to the eye; masterfully conveyed moods of the characters; the general dreamy mood of the paintings. Criticism could be caused by a feeling of unreliability, unreality of the presented plots, far from real life.

Question 3. Beethoven said about Bach: “Not a stream! The sea should be its name” (“Bach” in German means stream). Do you agree with this statement?

Beethoven greatly appreciated Bach’s music, calling him “the true father of harmony.” I agree with his statement, because Bach’s talent is limitless, “like the sea,” his creative heritage is enormous, including more than 1000 works of various genres. Bach's work represents all the significant genres of that time, except opera; he summarized the achievements of musical art of the Baroque period. Bach is a famous master of polyphony, a successor of ancient traditions; in his work polyphony reaches its peak.

Question 4. Which work mentioned in the paragraph have you read? Tell us about your impressions. What changed in your attitude towards the work or its characters after studying the topic?

Novel "Gulliver's Travels". Seemed like a very interesting piece. The countries that Gulliver visited seem unusual and interesting to read. The inhabitants of the countries described in the novel ridicule human and social vices. After studying the topic, I came to the understanding that the countries described have their prototypes in real European states. So, Lilliput is a parody of England.

Question 5. Using additional material from the textbook, characterize the architectural styles of Baroque and Classicism. What ideas of the era were reflected in these architectural styles? Think about what kind of music could accompany your inspection of an architectural monument of the Baroque or Classicist style. Explain your point of view.

The Baroque style is distinguished by its complexity, whimsicality and splendor of forms, abundance of decorations and details. Baroque is ideal for embodying the greatness of the Catholic Church and absolutism; it is no coincidence that the main customers of Baroque buildings were the church and kings.

In these buildings, special attention was paid to the decoration of the premises, which architects and artists tried to give an elegant, lush appearance. The refined and aristocratic style of the Baroque was little in keeping with the philosophy of the Enlightenment thinkers. The calls of Voltaire, Rousseau, Locke to be guided by reason and morality, to return to nature, predetermined art's fascination with antiquity. The fashion includes strict lines and noble simplicity, imitation of the calm grandeur of Greek designs. Supporters of classicism in architecture reject baroque pomp and take as a model the naturalness and harmony of ancient buildings: smooth surfaces, modest decor, porticoes and columns give the buildings a cool elegance.

French painter Jean-Baptiste Simeon Chardin (1699-1779).

Jean-Baptiste Simeon Chardin (1699-1779) was a French painter, one of the most famous artists of the 18th century and one of the best colorists in the history of painting, famous for his work in the field of still life and genre painting.

In his work, the artist deliberately avoided the solemn and pastoral-mythological subjects characteristic of the art of his time. The main subject of his still lifes and genre scenes, based entirely on field observations and which were essentially hidden portraits, was the everyday home life of people from the so-called third estate, conveyed in a calm, sincere and truthful manner. Chardin, whose work as an artist marked the heyday of realism in the 18th century, continued the traditions of the Dutch and Flemish masters of still life and the everyday genre of the 17th century, enriching this tradition and introducing a touch of grace and naturalness into his work

Jean Baptiste Simeon Chardin was born on November 2, 1699 in Paris into the family of a cabinetmaker. He worked in the studio of Pierre Jacques Caza, then with the famous painter and sculptor N. N. Coipel, with whom Chardin began to paint from life. Among Chardin's mentors was also J.B. Vanloo, under whose leadership the young artist took part in the restoration of 16th-century frescoes. at the Fontainebleau Palace.

In 1728, Chardin organized an exhibition in the gallery at Place Dauphine, which brought him great success. The still lifes exhibited there were executed in the spirit of the Flemish masters of the 17th century. Thanks to these works, which included the famous “Scat” and “Buffet,” the artist was elected a member of the Royal Academy as “a painter of flowers, fruits and characteristic subjects.”

In the 1730s - 1740s. Chardin created his best genre scenes depicting the life of simple city workers, people of the “third estate” (“Washerman”, “Peddler”, “Hardworking Mother”, “Prayer before Dinner”).

Caring Nanny, 1747.
Oil on canvas, 46.2 x 37 cm.

Laundress
Canvas, oil. 37.5 x 42.7
State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg

Peddler

Prayer before lunch

Many of Chardin’s paintings are dedicated to children (“The Little Teacher”, “Soap Bubbles”, “House of Cards”, “Girl with a Shuttlecock”). The images captured on Chardin’s canvases are marked by vital spontaneity, simplicity and sincerity.

The Little Teacher [approx. 1736]

Soap bubbles [approx. 1739]

House of cards

Young draftsman 1737. 81x65

In 1731, Chardin married the daughter of a merchant, Margarita Sentar. They had a daughter and a son (who also became an artist). Chardin's daughter died in infancy; Margarita died almost simultaneously with her. In 1744, Chardin married Marguerite Pouget. The daughter born from the second marriage also died. Chardin's son also died (already in adulthood).

In his work, Chardin constantly turns to still life. In his still lifes there are very few things, arranged carefully and thoughtfully: several vessels, several fruits, kitchen utensils, modest food of a common man (“Silver tureen”, “Copper tank”, “Still life with a pheasant and a hunting bag”, “Glass with water and jug", "Pipes and jug", "Still life with brioche", "Silver cup").

Silver cup [ca. 1768]

Glass of water and jug [approx. 1760]

Pipes and jug

Fruits, jug and glass

Still life with grapes and pomegranates, 1763, 47x57
Louvre, Paris

Over the years, the artist's popularity has grown. Engravings made from his paintings sell out very quickly. The painting “Hurdy Organ” is purchased by the king himself for 1,500 livres. In 1743, Chardin became an adviser, and in 1755, treasurer of the academy. He is entrusted with organizing annual exhibitions. In 1765, Chardin was elected a member of the Rouen Academy of Painting. The artist receives orders from high-ranking persons. He painted several still lifes for the Chateau de Choisy, and for Empress Catherine II he created the painting “Still Life with Art Attributes.”

Still life with attributes of the arts

In 1770, the powerful J. B. M. Pierre became the director of the Academy, who overthrew Chardin’s patrons; as a result, the artist loses his posts. Chardin is experiencing financial difficulties, he is even forced to sell his house.

Due to deteriorating vision, the artist is forced to abandon oil paints and work in pastels (“Self-Portrait”) or draw in pencil. One of Chardin’s last works is the famous “Self-Portrait with a Green Visor” - the pinnacle of the master’s creativity.

Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Simeon
The famous self-portrait with a green visor (1775) is the pinnacle of creativity. One of the last works of the master.
Paper, pastel. Louvre, Paris

On December 6, 1779, Chardin died, leaving behind over a thousand paintings. Contemporaries very soon forgot Chardin. Its former glory returned to it only in the middle of the 19th century.

Original post and comments at

Jean Baptiste Simeon Chardin (1699 – 1779)

In the self-portrait we see not an aristocrat, but a working man. The head is wrapped in a scarf, on top of which there is a green visor that protects the artist’s eyes from bright light.

"Self-Portrait"

Singer of the third estate and its ideals, a subtle master of genre painting and still life.

"Cook Peeling Turnips"

"Laundress"

The laboring third estate – the main characters of Chardin’s paintings

There is a lot of “little Dutch” in Chardin. Working from life became his main school, while at the Academy great importance was attached to drawing from ancient casts. But Chardin managed to reach such heights in the “low” genres, which were considered still life and genre.

Hard working mother

Still life with a copper teapot

With extraordinary warmth, he unfolds a simple narrative before the viewer. The family gathered at the table. The young mother, pouring out the soup, apparently reminded her daughters of the need to repeat the words of the pre-dinner prayer. Chardin's great creative success is the image of the younger girl, which is one of the best children's images created by him .

Prayer before lunch

Option 2

A1. “The Age of Reason” is called: 1) XVI century. 2) XVII century. 3) XVIII century. 4) XIX century

A2. Thinkers of the Enlightenment: 1) J. Hus, F. Bacon 2) D. Diderot, Voltaire 3) F. Rabelais, W. Shakespeare 4) J. Bruno, I. Newton

A4. Which of the following thinkers can be classified as English enlighteners of the 17th century: 1) John Locke 2) Voltaire 3) Adam Smith 4) Jean Jacques Rousseau 5) Francis Bacon

A5. The comedy “The Marriage of Figaro” was created by a writer of the Enlightenment era:

1) I.V. Goethe 2) J. Swift 3) T. More 4) P.O. Beaumarchais

A6. The artist of the Enlightenment was called the “Singer of the Third Estate”:

1) I.S. Bach 2) W. Hogarth 3) J.B. Chardin 4) J.A. Houdon

A7. The result of the Enlightenment is: 1) the beginning of the process of secularization of culture 2) the approval

humanistic values ​​3) elimination of illiteracy of the population 4) liberation

oppressed masses

A8. This thinker denied any benefit of church rituals and prayers. Church he

considered the main enemy of the Enlightenment. 1) John Locke 2) Voltaire 3) Adam Smith 4) Jean Jacques Rousseau 5) Francis Bacon

IN 1. What ideas did the enlighteners put forward:

the need for an absolute monarchy

the need to strengthen the class system

3) education is the main way to improve society

4) the need to provide people with civil rights and freedoms

5) revolution is the only possible way to restructure society

6) The main source of people's well-being is labor.

Q 2. Compose a sentence using the words and phrases below: Enlighteners are _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ who contributed, writers, achievements, all those, knowledge, scientific, outstanding thinkers, dissemination, scientists,

AT 3. Who we are talking about: The main merit of this English thinker of the 17th century was in creating the doctrine of natural human rights: the right to life, liberty, property. The scientist was sure that all people are equal by nature. He was also a teacher and attached great importance to the education and upbringing of man and citizen.

Answer__________________

AT 4. Who we are talking about: Contemporaries called it a true miracle of the 18th century. His life

it was short, full of hardship and loneliness. At the age of 3, he began to study music, at the age of 4 he composed his first concerto, at 12 he wrote an opera, which premiered at the Milan theater, and at 14 he was already an academician of the most prestigious music academy in Italy.

Answer__________________

AT 5. Establish a correspondence between the cultural figure and the work.

Q6. Identify the heroes of which works are depicted in the pictures

Answer:_____________________

AT 7. Identify the missing word:
Enlightenmentists believed that all people are naturally endowed with ________________________, in particular the right to life, liberty and equality. It followed from this that all the differences existing in society (between the poor and the rich, rulers and subordinates, nobles and ordinary people) were established not by God, but by the people themselves, taking this into account they had to change what they themselves had created.

Test Great Enlighteners of Europe.The world of artistic culture of the Enlightenment.Option 1

A1. The beginning of the Age of Enlightenment dates back to: 1) XVI century. 2) the end of the 17th century. 3) the end of the 18th century. 4) early XIX

3) T. More, Erasmus of Rotterdam 4) J.-J. Rousseau, C. Montesquieu

A3. Figures of the Enlightenment expressed the ideas of social class:

l) bourgeoisie 2) aristocracy 3) peasantry 4) wage workers

A4. Which of the following thinkers can be classified as French enlighteners of the 18th century: 1) John Locke 2) Voltaire 3) Adam Smith 4) Jean Jacques Rousseau 5) Francis Bacon

A5. The novel "Gulliver's Travels" was created by a writer of the Enlightenment era:

1) I.V. Goethe 2) C. Montesquieu 3) J. Swift 4) T. More

A6. The artist of the Enlightenment was called the “first painter of the king”:

1) F. Schiller 2) J.L. David 3) F. Boucher 4) J.B. Chardin

A7. The result of the Enlightenment is: 1) the destruction of medieval consciousness and preparation

soil for bourgeois revolutions 2) bridging the cultural gap between the nobility and

the third estate 3) the growth of the welfare of the inhabitants of Europe 4) the invention of printing

A8. He was a supporter of universal suffrage. 1) John Locke 2) Voltaire 3) Adam Smith 4) Jean Jacques Rousseau 5) Francis Bacon

IN 1. Which provisions correspond to the views of the enlighteners:

faith in human reason

the need to abolish private property

the church is the main support of the state and society

way to rebuild society is to educate people

5) to achieve stability in society, it is necessary to restrict the rights and freedoms of people

6) The ideal of social order is an enlightened monarchy led by a philosopher king.

Q 2. Compose a sentence using the words and phrases below: The Enlightenment is a _________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ era of European culture, and a powerful ideological current of decisive importance, based on the belief in reason, in human development, historical

AT 3. Who we are talking about: French educator, from a noble family. The thinker outlined his political views in a book about the spirit of laws. The idea of ​​freedom occupied a central place in his work: “Freedom is the right to do everything that is permitted by law.” He also said that individual freedom is possible in a society where there is no abuse of power. He developed Locke's doctrine of the separation of powers, indicating that the 3 branches of government (legislative, executive and judicial) should be separated. Legislative power should belong to the people who elect a parliament, where various sections of the population are represented, executive power to the monarch who appoints the government, and judicial power to independent judges.

AT 4. Who we are talking about: He has lived in Vienna since he was 22. He is young, full of energy, famous, publishers

willingly publish his works. Only one thing is upsetting - attacks of a terrible disease are increasingly repeated: “My hearing is getting weaker and weaker, the terrible tinnitus does not stop day or night.” And yet the composer does not give up. He created the work: “Sonata in a Kind of Fantasy” (“Moonlight”) - a touching story about the composer’s unhappy love,

Q5. Establish a correspondence between the cultural figure and the work

One element of the left column corresponds to one element of the right.

Q6. Identify the heroes of which works are depicted in the pictures

AT 7. Identify the missing word: The philosopher Denis Diderot saw his task as making modern knowledge as accessible to everyone as possible. Such attempts have taken place before, but they were not on such a scale. The publication was called ______________ The organizers managed to attract great philosophers and writers of that time to the work, but most of it was written by less famous people but no less educated.

AT 8. Here are extracts from the works of French philosophers reflecting on the need to transform society. In their works they called for a better life for people. Read the texts and think about what ideas of Enlightenment thinkers are reflected here. Write down the answer.

1) “...When in one and the same person or in the same government body the legislative power is united with the executive power, there is no freedom, since it can be feared that the same monarch or the same senate, which can to issue tyrannical laws, will carry them out in a tyrannical manner.
Freedom does not exist in cases where the judicial power is not separated from the legislative and executive powers. If it is combined with executive power, then the judge turns into an oppressor...” (C. Montesquieu),
2) “...The Church always wanted to spread and used all kinds of weapons to take away from us our property and our lives... The history of the Church is an unbroken chain of strife, deception, oppression, fraud... murders; and thus it is proven that abuse relates to the very essence of the matter, as it has been proven that the wolf has always been a predator and not at all as a result of some random abuses drank the blood of our sheep.
Religion causes... only evil. Everywhere you turn, you will see that the priests invariably preached slaughter...
The most absurd of all despotisms, the most humiliating to human nature, the most incongruous and the most harmful is the despotism of priests...
It is difficult to understand how saints who have taken a vow of humility, obedience and chastity nevertheless own an entire state in your state and command slaves...” (Voltaire).
3) “To properly understand political power and determine the source of its origin, we must consider in what state of nature all men find themselves, and that is a state of complete freedom in respect to their actions and in respect of the disposal of their property and person in accordance with what they consider it suitable for themselves within the limits of the law of nature, without asking permission from any other person and without depending on anyone else's will.

It is also a state of equality in which all power and all jurisdiction are reciprocal—no one has more than another.” (D. Locke).

_________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 1. Choose the correct answer.

1.1. "Singer of the Third Estate" was called:
a) Voltaire;
b) Beethoven;
c) Montesquieu;
d) Chardin;
d) Swift.

1.3. Rousseau considered the most perfect form of government:
a) the power of the people;
b) limited monarchy;
c) a democratic republic of small owners.

1.4. Plantation slavery is:
a) the revival of slave-owning methods of exploitation in the conditions of developing capitalism;
b) a system of forced labor, in which plantations were worked by poor white immigrants who sold themselves into slavery for a certain period of time.

Task 2. Do you agree with the following statements?

2.1. “Still Life with Art Attributes” by Chardin was painted for the conference hall of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts ( Yes; No).
2.2. Bach predicted a great future for Beethoven: “The time will come when the whole world will talk about him” (yes; No).
2.3. Schiller wrote theatrical plays, believing that in this way he was helping to establish the ideas of the Enlightenment in feudal Germany ( Yes; No).
2.4. Houdon created a series of paintings called “Elections” (yes; No).
2.5. The agrarian revolution in England was the transfer of land to the peasants (yes; No).
2.6. Diggers are machine destroyers (yes; No).
2.7. In 1707, Parliament legalized the union between England and Scotland, and the state became known as Great Britain ( Yes; No).
2.8. Benjamin Franklin represented the interests of the colonies in the English Parliament (yes; No).
2.9. The Pilgrim Fathers Day holiday was established in the United States in honor of the arrival of a group of Puritans in 1620 ( Yes; No).

Task 3.
3.1. Match the name of the cultural figure with the title of his work. Enter the letters of your chosen answers in the table.

3.2. Match the date with the event. Enter the letters of your chosen answers in the table.

Task 4. Who are we talking about?

4.1. There is a cast iron bridge across the Severn River in England, built back in the 18th century. It rests entirely on an arch 100 feet long, 52 feet high and 18 feet wide (ft - 0.3048 m). This is the first structure of its kind in the world. The bridge itself, built in 1779, became a symbol of the industrial revolution and technical progress. At that time it was an unheard of bold project that required great ingenuity from its authors. One of the initiators of this construction was an absolutely amazing person, the owner of an iron foundry. This manufacturer was so passionate about the idea of ​​​​using cast iron, so in love with iron, that he received the nickname Iron Mad (Iron Mad - crazy about iron, obsessed with cast iron). He tried to build cast iron boats and ships, wore an iron bowler hat, and cast iron badges with his image were used as coins in the Midlands. When he died, he was buried in a cast-iron coffin, and a cast-iron obelisk was erected on his grave.
It was he who came up with the idea of ​​​​building a cast iron bridge and involved Abraham Darby III in this venture. The parts of the bridge were cast at his factory, and in 1779 the bridge across the Severn was built, and in 1781 it was inaugurated.
Thus, the “iron crazy” person was involved in the creation of one of the wonders of the world.

We are talking about John Wilkinson.

4.2. The war and the attacks of the British forced the Congress to become more active. It was decided to create its own army and appoint a commander-in-chief. The choice fell on a 44-year-old wealthy planter from Virginia. He had some military experience, having fought with the French and Indians before the Revolution. He was endowed with undoubted talents as an organizer and military leader, possessed courage and fortitude, composure and resourcefulness, adhered to moderate views, was far from the “lower classes,” but firmly believed in the inevitability of separation from England and the sanctity of the war that had begun. He also had a commanding appearance: tall (188 cm), slender, “straight as an Indian,” personable, with noble manners, reserved and taciturn, he made a pleasant impression. The face was distinguished by a long straight nose, piercing gray-blue eyes and a firm chin. The expression on his face was both kind and authoritative. His broad-mindedness suited everyone in Congress. And he did not disappoint the hopes of Congress and the nation.

We are talking about George Washington.

Task 5. On what principle are the rows formed?

5.1. Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, George Washington.
Figures of the war for the independence of the English colonies in the North. America.

5.2. King, colonial governors, colonial assemblies.
The system of governing the English colonies in the North. America.

5.3. John Kay, James Hargreaves, Hayes, Edmund Cartwright, James Watt.
English inventors of the industrial revolution.

5.4. An enlightened monarch, the destruction of class privileges and seigneurial orders, the need for religion for the people.
Ideas of government according to Voltaire.

Task 6. Fill the gaps.

6.1. US Declaration of Independence, Jefferson
6.2. King, Parliament, England
6.3 . Landlord, tenant farmer, hired laborer
6.4 . Enlightenment, Weimar, Faust, Goethe.

Task 7. Group according to certain characteristics.

7.1. a) Collision at Lexington; b) Algonquins; c) the battle of Saratoga; d) Iroquois; e) Battle of Yorktown.
Points a, c, d - battles of the American Revolutionary War.
Points b, d - Indian tribes, the indigenous population of the English colonies in the North. America.

7.2. a) Levellers; b) Abraham Darby; c) diggers; d) John Wilkinson; d) Richard Arkwright.
Points a, b are representatives of various trends of “equalizers”.
Points b, d, e - representatives of the English industrial bourgeoisie of the era of the industrial revolution.