Tolstoy's artistic method. Realism of L. Tolstoy and its features. Tolstoy - artist and thinker, features of psychologism, “dialectics of the soul.” Autobiographical trilogy; innovation L.N. Tolstoy in understanding the human soul. List of used

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Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………. 3

Chapter 1. Definition of the concept of psychologism in literature ………………….. 5

Chapter 2. Psychologism in the works of L. N. Tolstoy …………...……………… 7

Chapter 2. Psychologism in the works of A.P. Chekhov………………………. 13

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………... 20

List of used literature……………………………………. 22

Introduction

All the richest Russian classics consist of two large trends - the development of the psychologism of heroes in their relationship to the world and other people and the development of internal psychologism, aimed at analyzing one’s own inner world, one’s soul. The first, of course, most clearly personifies the genius of Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy. The second is the no less significant genius of Anton Pavlovich Chekhov. But if Tolstoy is the personification of a showcase Russia, more elite and secular, then Chekhov in his work showed a different Russia - provincial Russia; If L.N. Tolstoy focused on great, strong-spirited personalities, then A.P. Chekhov was more interested in the spiritual world of the “little man.” Essentially, we are talking about two sides.

It would be rash to say that the psychologism of A.P. Chekhov and L.N. Tolstoy has not been studied at all in literary criticism. We can rely on the research of A. B. Esin, P. Kropotkin, and other researchers.

However, at the same time, it seems interesting to consider the features of the psychologism of these writers in interrelation, to compare the features of each of them’s approach to describing the inner world of heroes, their mental characteristics and psychological portraits.

It is precisely this comprehensive study of the features of psychologism in the works of A. P. Chekhov and L. N. Tolstoy that is purpose our research.

Accordingly, as tasks the following are set:

1) define the term “psychologism”, identify the main approaches to its interpretation by various researchers;

2) analyze the work of L. N. Tolstoy to identify features in the description of the psychological aspects of the interaction of heroes with people around them;

2) characterize the main points in A.P. Chekhov’s description of the inner world of the heroes;

4) compare the characteristic features of the creative method of writers when they depict the internal feelings and emotions, thoughts and experiences of a literary hero.

Work structure generally corresponds to the assigned tasks. The work consists of an introduction, three chapters of the main part, a conclusion and a list of references.

Chapter 1. Definition of the concept of psychologism in literature

Psychologism is a literary term that is traditionally attributed to several authors, primarily to L.N. Tolstoy and M.F. Dostoevsky, then to I. Turgenev with his “secret psychologism.” And, of course, psychologism is most clearly manifested in the works of A.P. Chekhov. Psychologism in literature is a complete, detailed and deep depiction of the feelings and emotions, thoughts and experiences of a literary character.

One of the main attractive features of fiction is its ability to reveal the secrets of a person’s inner world, to express emotional movements as accurately and vividly as a person cannot do in everyday, ordinary life. “Psychologism is one of the secrets of the long historical life of the literature of the past: when speaking about the human soul, it speaks to each reader about himself.” Esin A. B. Psychologism of Russian classical literature. M., 1988.

Psychologism is a stylistic characteristic of literary works, which depicts in detail and deeply
the inner world of the characters, i.e. their sensations, thoughts, feelings and, possibly, a subtle and convincing psychological analysis of mental phenomena and behavior is given. Psychological Dictionary / Ed. V. P. Zinchenko. M., 1997.

According to A. B. Esin, psychologism is “a fairly complete, detailed and deep depiction of the feelings, thoughts, experiences of a fictional personality (literary character) using specific means of fiction.” Esin A. B. Psychologism of Russian classical literature. M., 1988.

O. N. Osmolovsky noted that Russian literature “in general was characterized by ontological psychologism<.>the final explanation of man in Russian literature and philosophy is not psychological, but ontological - taking into account the divine fundamental principle of existence.” He proposes to supplement the systematization of forms of psychological analysis and terminology proposed by L. Ya. Ginzburg and A. B. Esin, which is usually used by modern researchers of psychological art: the introduction of the concepts of ethical, dramatic and lyrical psychologism seems logical and justified.

Chapter 2. Psychologism in the works of L. N. Tolstoy

Tolstoy's psychologism is the psychologism of a developing, fundamentally incomplete person. Revealing the inner world of heroes through actions and deeds, the writer achieved the highest skill in depicting characters. Tolstoy's main characters are always people rooted: either in their own family, or in their own land, or in history.

Psychological analysis became one of the main methods of artistic study of man in Tolstoy’s work, having a huge impact on world literature. Already in one of the first works with which the Russian reader becomes acquainted in his youth - the trilogy “Childhood. Adolescence. Youth”, Nikolenka’s introspection serves as a method for the writer to reveal the psychological characteristics and emotional experiences of the young hero.

The writer’s psychological exercises do not leave a heavy impression of hopelessness and the reader constantly hopes that everything will work out if circumstances change. In fairness, it is worth noting that, according to popular belief, there are two Tolstoys: the artist before the revolution and the religious thinker and prophet after it: Gustafson R. F. Inhabitant and Stranger: Theology and artistic creativity of Leo Tolstoy / Trans. from English T.Buzina. St. Petersburg, 2003. In his last years, Tolstoy in his work became closer to Dostoevsky - his “Resurrection” is filled with the same provincial tragedy, not flashy, not so large-scale, but no less interesting and real.

At the same time, the psychologism of L. N. Tolstoy in this novel is similar not only to the psychologism of M. F. Dostoevsky, but also, no less, to the psychologism of A. P. Chekhov. The complexity, uncertainty, and confusion of experiences usually characteristic of Tolstoy’s heroes are completely absent in Katyusha, and not because her inner world is poor and inexpressive. On the contrary, she, according to the author and the revolutionaries who became her comrades, is a wonderful woman who has experienced a lot. But the artist chose a different way of revealing her experience, not the “dialectics of the soul,” with its “details of feelings,” lengthy internal monologues and dialogues, dreams, memories, but, using Tolstoy’s own expression, “mental life expressed in scenes” (vol. 88 , p. 166). Here Tolstoy's psychologism is in some significant way similar to Chekhov's manner.

At the same time, even in “Resurrection” Tolstoy remains Tolstoy and his characters, and the whole essence of the novel is completely directed, literally rests on the unjust structure of society.

P. Kropotkin believed that Tolstoy’s book “Resurrection” left marks on the conscience of many people who until then had not been at all interested in the prison issue, and made them think about the incongruity of the entire modern system of punishment. Kropotkin P. Russian literature. Ideal and reality: A course of lectures. M., 2003.

Tolstoy's psychological method is based on the idea of ​​movement, accurately called by Chernyshevsky “dialectics of the soul.” The inner world of a person is depicted in the process as a constant, continuously changing mental flow. Tolstoy strives to depict not so much the nature of feelings and experiences as the process of the emergence of thoughts or feelings and their changes. Tolstoy writes in his diary: “How good it would be to write a work of art in which to clearly express the fluidity of a person, the fact that he is one and the same, now a villain, now an angel, now a sage, now an idiot, now a strong man, now a powerless being.” What are the means to depict a person? Traditionally, a portrait and external description play an important role.

The law of Tolstoy's world is the discrepancy between the external and the internal: the ugliness of Princess Marya hides spiritual wealth and beauty, and, on the contrary, the ancient perfection of Helen and the beauty of Anatole hide soullessness and insignificance. But much more important for Tolstoy is the depiction of the hero’s inner world, thoughts and feelings, which is why his internal monologue occupies a huge place.

The significance of the “internal” is also manifested in the fact that Tolstoy shows and evaluates external phenomena and events through the eyes of the hero, acting through his consciousness, as if depriving a person of a mediator-narrator in understanding reality. The new way of depicting the relationship between reality and man is reflected in the abundance of everyday details and details of the external environment that affect the psyche.
“The soul sounds under the countless, sometimes unnoticed, inaudible fingers of the reality of a given moment,” writes Tolstoy researcher A.P. Skaftymov. Natasha's joyful excitement on her name day; her condition during the first ball, new feelings associated with new impressions - pomp, splendor, noise; the hunting scene, described with all external details, and at the same time the state of feelings of all those involved - the hunter Danila, and the old count, and uncle, and Nikolai, and Natasha.

In the novel "War and Peace" the mental processes of the characters, their feelings and aspirations are indicated both indirectly - through gestures, facial expressions, actions, and directly - with the help of the characters' self-characteristics, in their internal ones (the reflections of Pierre, Andrey, Natalia, Marya and etc.) and external monologues. Portrait and landscape sketches serve as the key to understanding not only the inner world of the hero, but also the meaning of the entire work. So, for example, Kutuzov, on the eve of the Battle of Borodino, reading letters from madamme de Stael, is simply engaged in “the usual execution and subordination of life,” for “he alone was given to know, to understand the meaning of the event that was taking place,” for he “knew not with his mind or science, but with everyone Russian being, that the French are defeated and the enemies are fleeing.” This insignificant action characterizes Kutuzov’s worldview, which is close and understandable to the people. Helen’s “unchanging” smile, “marble shoulders and chest” emphasize her dead, empty essence. The “beautiful radiant” eyes of Princess Marya show us the depth of her spiritual world, where “the titanic work of self-improvement was carried out.” The writer shows self-doubt, the struggle between the desire for happiness and the awareness of the need for suffering in the scene when the heroine, preparing to meet Anatole, “ sat motionless in front of the mirror, looking at her face, and in the mirror she saw that there were tears in her eyes and her mouth was trembling, preparing to sob.”

The War of 1812 put everything in its place. Tolstoy’s favorite heroes merged with the people into a single whole, empty and selfish people only put on “masks of patriotism.” So, for example, Prince Vasily understood patriotism as “the ability to loudly, melodiously, between a desperate howl and a gentle murmur, pour out the words of the manifesto, completely independently from its meaning”, in Helen’s salon - to make speeches condemning Kutuzov, and at Anna Pavlovna - justifying him! The life of light is spiritually dead, and we see this when Anna Pavlovna “starts a conversation in the salon, like a spindle,” and “makes sure that the thread does not break.” Anna Mikhailovna “makes a mournful and Christian expression” on her face, “acting” with business techniques Petersburg lady,” Bilibin, talking about the losses in the battle, “collects the skin from his forehead and prepares to say the next thing.”

Tolstoy contrasts “dead” heroes with the spiritually rich, those seeking the meaning of life, who, in a moment of national misfortune, take full responsibility for their fate upon themselves. Natasha takes the wounded out of Moscow. She is close to the people, let us remember her dance, when she is shown “able to understand everything that was in Anisya, and in Anisya’s father, and in her aunt, and in every Russian person!” She was able to understand “everything that was in every Russian ”, and Prince Andrey, on the eve of the Battle of Borodino, talking with Pierre. Driving through the river where the soldiers were swimming, he experiences the pain characteristic of every Russian person when, instead of “healthy bodies,” he sees “healthy cannon fodder.” The “sounds of a dog barking” that Denisov makes when he learns about Petya’s death show us the sincerity and golden heart of the old warrior. The “ecstatic joy” shining in the face of the doomed Karataev, “its mysterious meaning, which filled Pierre’s soul with joy,” foreshadows the victory of the people’s moral feeling over the selfish tyranny of Napoleon. By depicting people from the people in these difficult moments, the writer shows that the victory that cost Russia so dearly , did not happen on its own, but matured in the depths of the people’s character. “On the fortification line it was like being in a family; the hidden warmth of moral feeling was felt everywhere.”

The internal monologues of the characters in “War and Peace” are detailed and have a complex syntactic structure. They show the “fluidity” of characters, the mental process itself, because Tolstoy’s psychologism is the psychologism of a becoming, developing, fundamentally incomplete person. One feeling transforms into another under the influence of memories and associations. These are the internal monologues of Prince Andrei and Pierre, their conversation in Otradnoye: “If I see, clearly see this staircase that leads from a plant to a person... why can’t I assume that this staircase does not stop with me, but leads everything further and further, to higher beings...” “Dialectics of the soul,” the quality of people who are generous and sensitive to living life, acquires epic properties in the novel. The subtle skill of psychologism, the greatness of the conceived idea of ​​the novel, the scope of the narrative put “War and Peace” on a par with the great masterpieces of world literature.

E. Markov repeatedly turned to the work of L. Tolstoy. Its main task is to comprehend Tolstoy’s concept of the world and man, on which, as the critic tries to show, all elements of the work depend - plot, composition, choice of characters, favorite life situations. The subject of observation is the writer's ideas about the basic universal laws governing human existence, the writer's assessment of what is depicted, and his philosophy of life, reflected in the figurative fabric of the works. In Markov’s critical interpretation, Tolstoy is a writer who expresses in his work a direct, joyful perception of existence. The author of the article “Turgenev and Count Tolstoy in the main motives of their work” is focused on the life-affirming pathos of the writer’s works, the basis of which he considers pantheism. Tracing how such problems as personality and people, man and history, the relationship between private and public life, duty and feeling, natural and moral are solved in Tolstoy’s works, he identifies the criteria for the author’s socio-historical and moral-ethical assessment of his heroes: “Morality Count Tolstoy - loyalty or disloyalty to nature. A moral person in his eyes is the one who least of all invents himself."

Chapter 2. Psychologism in worksA. P. Chekhova

The history of Russian literature has always relied on the work of those literary artists whose talent, having risen to the highest
achievements of his predecessors, having managed to rethink what was created earlier, brought fundamental
artistic discoveries. Among such authors, one can certainly single out Anton Pavlovich Chekhov, whose name is associated with a special kind of
mastery, manifested primarily in the writer’s ability to trace the dynamics of the human soul in its various manifestations and in all its depth, using a small genre form - a story. Before this author, literature did not know a method that would allow one to analyze the fleeting features of current existence and at the same time give a complete, epic picture of life. Chekhov managed to accomplish this for the first time.

The new form of storytelling implied, of course, a new hero, completely different from monumental images (such as Onegin, Pechorin, Bolkonsky, Karenina). The subject of interest and artistic comprehension of Chekhov becomes that layer of reality that reveals to the reader ordinary, everyday life, which often passes by the consciousness of most people. But, according to the writer, everyday life is what “creates personality,” since there are not so many bright, unusual events in the destinies of people. And Chekhov strives to draw the reader’s attention to individual days and hours of a “small” philistine existence, to comprehend them and
help a person live consciously.

Unlike the classical heroes of the Russian novel, painted and sculpted, Chekhov's characters are easy to “feel”, but difficult to “see.” This impression arises, in particular, because the writer refuses traditional portraiture. He confines himself to more or less vivid details, entrusting everything else to the imagination of his reader. The writer's attention can be focused on a detailed description of the hero's things: galoshes, glasses, knife, umbrella, watch, robe, cap. And only two or three portrait strokes: “small”, “crooked”, “face like a ferret” (Belikov’s image). Chekhov highlights individual details, and we ourselves conjecture and complete the image. And the author helps us with this, revealing the character of his hero in relationships with others, in skillfully constructed dialogues, with the help of an internal monologue.

There is such a pattern in Chekhov’s narrative: the richer the character’s nature, the more vividly he perceives the surrounding reality, the more direct his connections with the world, and reality itself appears in all its diversity.

In Chekhov's dramaturgy, where instead of the established development of dramatic action there is a smooth narrative flow of life, without ups and downs, without a certain way marked beginning and end. After all, as you know, Chekhov believed that a writer should take as his plot “even, smooth, ordinary life, as it really is.” It is no coincidence that even the death of heroes or an attempted death in Chekhov should not hold either the author’s or the audience’s attention, and are not essential for resolving the dramatic conflict, as happens in “The Seagull” or “Three Sisters”, where the death of Treplev and Tuzenbach goes unnoticed even by close people. So the main content of the drama is not external action, but a kind of “lyrical plot”, the movement of the souls of the heroes, not an event, but being, not the relationships of people with each other, but the relationships of people with reality, the world.

Such works in which the internal conflict is psychological in nature and is decisive in the development of events can be called psychological plays. Like any other type of internal conflict, psychological conflict functions at the plot level, that is, it acts as the motivational basis of dramatic action. An action based on an internal conflict does not imply a complete resolution of contradictions with the onset of a denouement. It may only mark the resolution of the external struggle, but the knots of internal problems are not completely untied. In this regard, V. Khalizev’s reasoning about the relationship between the nature of the conflict and the levels of its functioning is indicative. The scientist notes that internal conflict is substantial in nature, while external conflict is causal.

At the end of the 19th century, the grandiose tasks of recreating harmony in the world and in the human soul unexpectedly arose before the average person, the layman; it was he who now had to break through to eternal questions through what Maeterlinck called “the tragedy of everyday life,” when a person becomes a toy in the hands fate, but nevertheless strives to realize himself within the framework of Time and Eternity. All this led to a significant transformation of the external conflict. Now this is a confrontation between a person and an initially hostile world, external circumstances. And even if an antagonist appeared, he only embodied the hostile reality surrounding the hero. This external conflict was initially seen as insoluble, and therefore fatalistic and as close to tragic as possible. The tragedy of everyday life, revealed by the “new drama,” in contrast to ancient and Renaissance tragedy, is contained in a conscious and deep conflict between personality and objective necessity.

The insoluble nature of the external conflict was initially predetermined in the “new drama”, predetermined by life itself; it became not so much the driving force of the drama as the background of the unfolding action and determined the tragic pathos of the work. And the true core of dramatic action becomes the internal conflict, the hero’s struggle with himself in a hostile reality. This conflict, as a rule, is also unresolved within the play due to external circumstances that fatally subjugate a person. Therefore, the hero, not finding support in the present, most often looks for moral guidelines in the invariably wonderful past or in the uncertain bright future. The unresolved internal conflict against the background of an unresolvable external one, the inability to overcome the automatism of life, the internal lack of freedom of the individual - these are all the structure-forming elements of the “new drama”.

S. Balukhaty noted that the drama of Chekhov’s experiences and situations “is created according to the principle of non-resolution of the mutual relationships of persons involved in it during the play,” thus, incompleteness is perceived as the idea of ​​creativity. The unresolved and insoluble nature of the conflict leads the heroes of the “new drama” to spiritual death, to inaction, mental apathy, to a state of anticipation of death, and even death itself is not seen as a resolution of the hero’s internal contradictions, since the death of an individual person is not an event against the backdrop of eternity, to the comprehension of which a man breaks through. The dramatic conflict in the realistic-symbolic direction is realized not so much in the logic of the actions of the characters, but in the development of thoughts and experiences deeply hidden from the external gaze.

A separate psychological category in Chekhov’s psychologism is the ease with which logical activity in general becomes dependent on a person’s emotional states; and also the ease with which a comparatively general assessment is fluctuated and aberrated by momentary emotions. An invisible, powerful enemy - feeling magnetically determines and confuses the course of thought of most people, already wavering and arbitrary, determined by the strength of associations.

What suffers most in this anonymous struggle is the assessment given to life or people by such a powerless, biased mind. The assessment of one and the same situation, or a person in particular, constantly fluctuates depending on one’s mood. This becomes possible, obviously, because every situation, and especially a person, has many characteristics that must be analyzed without separating them in order to satisfactorily evaluate the whole. This means that it is enough to pick out individual signs to make several incorrect assessments possible. Moreover, often, for such a one-sided assessment, a person snatches from a real “bundle” a sign that is in itself insignificant. Especially the assessment of people as always possessing a very complex set of characteristics fluctuates and may be incorrect.

The originality of Chekhov's artistic thinking can also be seen in the original ending of his stories. The writer does not seek to surprise or amaze the reader with a rearrangement of episodes, a spectacular, unexpected outcome of events. In the story “The Bride,” for example, according to the laws of traditional novelistic composition, the denouement had to be dramatic - the escape from the house of the heroine, who refused to marry her fiancé, and a scandal. However, no scandal occurs in the story. The plot is interesting for the author not by the movement of events, but by the movement of the heroine’s inner life.

Chekhov understands the role of plot in storytelling in his own way. One can name stories in which the eventfulness is essentially absent (“Happiness”, “On the Way”, etc.). The lack of action, according to researchers, is precisely what determines the philosophical and poetic mood of these short stories. Instead of a “shock” ending, Chekhov seems to pause the movement of events, giving the reader the opportunity to reflect on life for himself.

As many researchers note, Chekhov’s psychologism is close to the Japanese worldview, in particular, his “gaps” in the description of the characters’ inner world.

The Japanese’s attraction to Chekhov’s work and his literary personality is organic. It is connected with their artistic nature, their aesthetic ideas about beauty.

November night.

I'm reading Anton Chekhov.

I'm speechless with amazement.

This is a tercet by Asahi Suehiko from his book “My Chekhov”. How is Chekhov's psychologism close to Japan?

The laconicism of Chekhov's story, its soft tones, subtle nuances, the writer's tendency to leave works unsaid, as well as attention to detail - this narrative style, not familiar to Western readers, was organic for the Japanese. Chekhov elevated brevity to a kind of aesthetic principle; he said that a writer should not get bogged down in details, but be able to sacrifice details for the sake of the whole. In his artistic style, Chekhov always remained faithful to the principle of relying on individual details, on “particulars.” From these “particulars” the reader formed an idea of ​​the internal state of Chekhov’s heroes and their experiences. Chekhov wrote: “In the sphere of the psyche there are also particularities. God forbid from common places. It is best to avoid describing the mental states of the heroes...” As is known, contemporary critics of Chekhov did not immediately grasp the novelty of Chekhov’s psychologism and suggested that the writer was not at all interested in the psychology of his heroes.

Something similar happened to the Japanese writer Tanizaki Junichiro. Analyzing Tanizaki’s famous novel “Fine Snow” (1948), the American researcher of Japanese literature Donald Keene noticed a gaping gap in the narrative - the lack of psychological characteristics of the characters’ lives. “Reading this novel,” wrote D. Keene, “we become thoughtful, discovering that in the world of Japanese feelings there is an unfilled place. The writer does not hide anything from us and even tells us what kind of toothbrushes the heroines used. However, the novel does not say anything about what Taeko felt when her lover died. And it begins to seem to us that maybe the heroine didn’t care. "Fine Snow" is a difficult novel for the European reader."

The features of Tanizaki’s fine art noted by the American researcher, which are not familiar to Europeans, in essence, are very reminiscent of the features of Chekhov’s psychologism, which at one time met with misunderstanding of his contemporaries.

“Suffering,” wrote Chekhov, “must be expressed the way they are expressed in life, that is, not with feet or hands, but with tone and gaze; not with gestures, but with grace.”

Conclusion

All the richest Russian classics seem to consist of two large trends - the development of the psychologism of heroes in their relationship to the world and other people and the development of internal psychologism, aimed at analyzing one’s own inner world, one’s soul.

In the works of L.N. Tolstoy and A.P. Chekhov, psychological portraits are very deeply developed. And the main value of these portraits is that, by combining several typical features of representatives of Russian society of the 19th century, both Tolstoy and Chekhov were able to create bright, memorable, but at the same time atypical images, which, nevertheless, were written deeply realistically. Pierre Bezukhov, Natasha Rostova, three sisters, “a man in a case” - the most magnificent and unforgettable images. But at the same time, it is not difficult to notice a significant difference in their development.

If Tolstoy analyzes the psychological portraits of his characters as internal projections of the events happening to them, then Chekhov, on the contrary, derives the entire logic of actions from the psychological state of his heroes. Both are right. Thanks to these two geniuses, we can look at the 19th century from two sides, and this, undoubtedly, gives us the opportunity to gain completeness of perception.

Chekhov's heroes are often much less likable than Tolstoy's. These are “little people” in whom there is nothing great, but a lot of tragedy.

Tolstoy's tragedy is different. Tolstoy, of course, a great psychologist, focuses on the spiritual formation of the hero, on his development. The key moments of Tolstoy’s psychologism are the “star moments” of the heroes, the moments in which some higher truth is revealed to them. Tolstoy's psychological method is based on the idea of ​​movement, accurately called by Chernyshevsky “dialectics of the soul.” The inner world of a person is depicted in the process as a constant, continuously changing mental flow.

List of used literature

Esin A. B. Russian literature and literary studies. M., 2003.

Esin A. B. Psychologism of Russian classical literature. M., 1988.

Gustafson R. F. Inhabitant and Stranger: Theology and artistic creativity of Leo Tolstoy / Trans. from English T.Buzina. St. Petersburg, 2003.

Kropotkin P. Russian literature. Ideal and reality: A course of lectures. M., 2003.

Psychological Dictionary / Ed. V. P. Zinchenko. M., 1997.

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In 1869, from the pen of L.N. Tolstoy came one of the brilliant works of world literature - the epic novel "War and Peace". The genre of the epic novel is the creation of Leo Tolstoy. The ideological and artistic meaning of each novel scene and each character becomes fully clear only in their connection with the comprehensive content of the epic, that is, in the context of historical events. The composition of “War and Peace” is also subject to the requirements of the genre. The plot is based on historical events. Secondly, the significance of the destinies of families and individuals is revealed. The epic novel combines detailed pictures of Russian life, battle scenes, artistic narration and philosophical digressions. The basis of the content of the epic novel is events of a large historical scale, “general life, not private life,” reflected in the destinies of individual people. Tolstoy achieved an unusually wide coverage of all layers of Russian life - hence the huge number of characters. The popular idea is not that ordinary people are depicted, but that at the time of historical upheavals the nation acquires a directional movement that unites all layers of society. For T, the people are not peasants, but all Russian people opposing an external enemy, and the division occurs not along social lines, but according to friend or foe... People in “War and Peace” it is the living soul of the nation: Russian peasants, soldiers and partisans; townspeople who destroyed their property and left long-lived places: the nobility who created militias; the population leaving Moscow and showing “with this negative action the full strength of their national feeling.” The common good (victory) is portrayed by the writer as a necessary (natural) result of the unidirectional interests of many people, always determined by one feeling - the “hidden warmth of patriotism.” One of the chapters of compositions of methods for constructing a district is ANTITHESIS. Already in the title: “B and M”. two antonyms. It is war in its meaning, but peace is like 1) peace; 2) universality, the whole world; 3) peace with And short - community, community cell. Community implies commonality: everyday life, interests, economic. How is the correct model of the community device. The entire text is organized with this principle: episodes of peaceful and military life are compositionally interspersed. It shows h-ka in peacetime and wartime. The system of pers-zhey also determines the str-ru of the district. Favorite and least favorite heroes. Alive, having developed their spirit: Andrey, Pierre, Nikolai, Natasha. They are opposed to static heroes: Helen, Sonya (also contrasted to Natasha. She did not become Tolstoy’s ideal, because she is sweet, but cold (episode of a summer night) and she does not react, does not reflect). Anatol. Napoleon and Kutuzov. Eyes are an important detail of Tolstoy’s hero, a meaningful, deep look. The principle of antithesis is subject to 2 compositional nests: the War of 1805-7 and 1812. In the first war, the Russian army showed itself passively, the souls of Russians were not affected. The second is domestic, defensive. Andrey: Under Austerlitz there was nothing to defend. Don't take prisoners in Borodino, they entered my house. Composite nests yet. 1) families: family is a mirror of society. Different families are shown and they are also contrasted: 1) Families where there is a union between parents and children. Rostov, Bolkonsky. They are also opposed to each other: Rostov - absolute trust and all-consuming love. Natasha comes to her mother and tells her all her thoughts. Nikolai confesses to his father about his gambling debt, who helps him. The father dominates the Bolkonsky family. The obedience of children is built on the authority of the father. Maria is ready to learn geometry so that her father will be pleased with her. Farewell to father and Andrey. The father first gives orders if the son returns and the father has already died. Then he gives an order: I am glad that you are going to the front and will become a warrior, but it will hurt me if you die, but I will be sad if you do not behave like Bolkonsky’s son. Andrey: you shouldn’t tell me about this. These families bring up those people who will become the foundation of the Russian nation. 2) There is no connection between them. Kuragins, caragins, bergs. Kuragins - moral decay. All they do is oppose the French - they refuse the French language. The viability of each character in War and Peace is tested by popular thought. Among the people, Pierre's best qualities turn out to be necessary: ​​strength. disdain for the comforts of life, simplicity, selflessness, lack of egoism" He strives to "enter this common life, to be imbued with his whole being by what makes them so." Pierre feels his insignificance, the artificiality of his mental "constructions in comparison with the truth, simplicity and by the strength of the soldiers and militias seen on the Borodino field. The highest praise for Andrei Bolkonsky is the nickname “our prince” given to him by the soldiers of the regiment. The correctness of Kutuzov in his dispute with Bennigsen at the council in Fili is emphasized by the fact that the sympathies of a peasant girl are on his side Malashi.The positive traits of Natasha Rostova are revealed with particular brightness at the moment when, before the French enter Moscow, inspired by a patriotic feeling, she forces her to throw her family goods off the cart and take the wounded, and when she, in a Russian dance, delighted with folk music, shows all her strength the national spirit contained in it. The author creates many images of men, soldiers, whose judgments together make up the people's perception of the world. “People's thought” is embodied in many individualized images. Those people qualities that T. always considered to be the integral qualities of a Russian soldier - heroism, willpower, simplicity and modesty - are embodied in the image of Captain Tushin, yavl. a living embodiment of the people's spirit. Beneath the unattractive appearance of this hero lies inner beauty and moral greatness. Tikhon Shcherbaty – person. war. The spirit of rebellion and the feeling of love for his land, all that rebellion that T. discovers in the serf peasant, he brought together in this image. Platon Karataev brings peace to the souls of the people around him. He is completely devoid of egoism: meek and kind to every person. “People's thought” clearly sounds in the protest against Napoleon’s wars of conquest and in the blessing of the liberation struggle, in which the people defend their right to independence, to their national way of life. The folk is revealed in War and Peace, first of all, as universal, national. "Anna Karenina": began publishing in the magazine "Russian Bulletin" in January 1875 and immediately caused a storm of controversy in society and Russian criticism. The main thought is a family thought. Three types of family relationships. There are 3 storylines in the district: 1) the story of Anna’s adultery, the triangle Anna - Vronsky - Karenin; 2) history of the Oblonsky family; 3) the love story of Levin and Kitty Shcherbatskaya. At first glance, these storylines are loosely connected. Anna is Stiva Oblonsky's sister. Kitty is Dolly Oblonskaya's sister; Anna and Levin meet twice in the novel (at the ball, when Levin proposes to Kitty, and shortly before Anna's death). The destinies of the heroes are intertwined. These three storylines are three versions of family, human relationships and human types. The peculiarity of the composition of the novel is that in the center there are two stories that develop in parallel: the story of the family life of Anna Karenina, and the fate of the nobleman Levin, who lives in the village and strives to improve the farm. These are the main characters of the novel. Their paths cross at the end of the work, but this does not affect the development of the events of the novel. There is an internal connection between the images of Anna and Levin. The episodes associated with these images are united by contrast, or according to the law of correspondence, one way or another, complement others. The principle of concentric arrangement of large and small circles of events in the novel. Tolstoy made Levin’s “circle” much wider than Anna’s “circle”. Levin's story begins much earlier than Anna's story and ends after the death of the heroine after whom the novel is named. The book ends not with the death of Anna (part seven), but with Levin’s moral quest and his attempts to create a positive program for the renewal of private and public life (part eight). Anna and Vronsky live for love, but sensual, carnal love. Karenin for social activities, and only Levin in the novel gives the final and correct answer: a person lives for the sake of love for people. Levin is the only one in the novel who thinks about philosophical questions. He comes to the conclusion that nothing needs to be changed in the patriarchal structure of the Russian village. Anna's death leads him to think about the fragility of human existence. He, too, is visited by thoughts of death, but his love for Kitty and the child, for the whole world, saves him and establishes a balance between him and the world: he finds the meaning of life in activities for people. "Resurrection". In comparison with “War and Peace” and “Anna Karenina”, “Resurrection” is new, openly social, “public”. In the structure of “Resurrection” 3 points are important: 1) the main task of the region is to artistically explore the entire existence general structure of life. The work shows various social strata: aristocracy, clergy, merchants, peasantry, military environment, English missionaries, workers, jailers. The setting is varied: Moscow and St. Petersburg, a poor village, a landowner's estate, a prison, transit stages, judicial institutions, a church, a tavern, etc. The beginning of the district is Nekhlyudov’s crime against Katyusha Maslova (seduction of a girl). The rest of the material is strung on this plot core. 2) Rn thought about sin, repentance and the revival of the nobleman Nekhlyudov. However, in the final version, something else came to the fore as a subject - the life of the offended people, in particular the innocently convicted Maslova. Maslova's trial is discussed in detail in her prison cell, as are all her meetings with Nekhlyudov. 3) The district is sharply journalistic. This is both a district review and a district sermon. The composition is single-line and is built in accordance with the main conflict. The world is divided into 2 unequal and hostile camps: the ruling classes and peasants, the urban poor, prisoners, political exiles. At the center of the story is the situation of the fall and rebirth of the heroes. The entire district excl. The first chapters are the story of the gradual internal revival of the h-ka. Katyusha Maslova is experiencing spiritual resurrection. In her life we ​​can highlight 2 key stages: 1) Nekhlyudov’s meanness and 2) meeting with political prisoners, who believed her. Affected??? social, morals, f-fskogo x-ra. The title itself already contains all these problems. Sunday is not a day of the week, it is a capacious concept. 1) Christian meanings: spiritual rebirth (i.e. the fall of morals and the ascent of morals) Redemption. When Katya Maslova becomes a prostitute, even her name changes: Lyubka. She begins to lead a different life. The point of the trial is the beginning of the spirit of rebirth. The main character recognizes his old love. He sees in him not Lyubka, but Katya. He breaks through the wall with which she has surrounded herself and the spirit of rebirth begins. Tolstoy shows 2 ways of revival: 1) repentance, awareness. Nekhlyudov - an attempt to save another person. 2) Katya Maslova - becomes close to the revolutionaries and socialists. Her sacrificial path is serving the people. At the end of the district, when Nekhlyudov follows her into exile in Siberia. Transit points - Nekhlyudov's declaration of love, marriage proposal. She loves him, but will never allow herself to hang the yoke of the past on him. She chooses a revolutionary, he becomes her husband. “Resurrection” summed up all of Tolstoy’s TV in the 80s and 90s. On the negative side, the tasks of universal denunciation and moral preaching were achieved by this novel. For this work the writer was excommunicated from the church. Tolstoy's districts were translated into European languages ​​during Tolstoy's lifetime. They were accepted by European readers. They had an impact on the worldview, the districts were discussed, Sunday - with an open ending, therefore there is a lot of controversy. Tolstoy had a significant influence on the tradition of the European region.

13. Creativity of A.P. Chekhov. A.P. Chekhov (01/17/1860 – 07/2/1904). 1 lane - TV 1 floor. 1880s (1879-1885). Collaborates with humorous magazines (eg “Oskolki”). Signed as: Antosha, Man without a spleen, My brother's brother, more often than not Antosha Chekhonte. During the first half of the 1880s. Chekhov works in different genres: humorous little thing(comic aphorisms, captions for drawings, parody calendars, reports, etc.) literary parody, feuilletons, anecdote, novella(“Living Goods”, “Belated Flowers”), the genre of the scene (a short humorous story, a picture from life, the comedy of which consists in conveying the conversation of the characters), comic novella (81-82): a humorous story, built according to novelistic laws, action-packed and with an unexpected resolution. (“Death of an Official” and “Fat and Thin” (1883), “Chameleon” and “I Quarreled with My Wife” (1884), “Dear Dog” and “Horse Name” (1885), “On Mortality” (1886)). The main novelistic devices: double denouement, violation of the traditions of the plot cliche, endings “contrastingly wrapped up in the beginning of the story”, ring composition, typical for a comic short story “motive of unfulfilled expectations”, etc. A special place is occupied by novella of morals, rising to biting satire. C ikle stories 1883 ode about officials, which are built on the same principle: the hero abruptly changes his behavior or says something opposite to what he was just saying out of inner conviction, “instinctively, by reflex,” automatically and instantly. "Chameleon" It was first published in the magazine “Oskolki”, in 1884 it was signed “A. Chekhonte”. Features of the genre. The action begins immediately. There are no detailed author's arguments. The part bears a special load. The plot of the story is based on a certain everyday conflict, a specific situation: the goldsmith Khryukin was bitten by a dog, and the police warden Ochumelov must resolve the conflict in the market square. Feature of the composition: the same scene is repeated several times. but it repeats itself, as in a mirror. Depending on who owns the dog, Ochumelov is ready to consider her or Khryukin to be the culprit of the incident. Little man theme. The story “The Death of an Official” shows a paradoxical situation when a small man pursues a strong one. Chekhov emphasizes in the little man a slave who has no self-esteem. A person turns into a rank. Another type of little person was developed by the author in the stories “Grief”, “Tosca”, etc. This is a humiliated, oppressed person, but retaining human dignity, for example, like the old cab driver Iona Potapov from the story “Tosca”. 2nd lane - TV in the 2nd half of the 80s - 90s. In 1885-1889. Chekhov began his professional literary career as an employee of the monthly magazines “Severny Vestnik”, “Russian Thought”, “Life”. The stories and tales “Steppe”, “Name Day” (1888), “Fit”, “Boring Story” (1889) belong to this period. During this period, the collections “At Twilight” (1887), “Innocent Speeches” (1887), “Stories” (1888), and “Gloomy People” (1890) were published. Chekhov works a lot for the theater: the play “Ivanov” (1887-1889), the one-act play “Wedding” (1889, published 1890), the play “Leshy” (1889, published 1890; then remade into the play “Uncle Vanya”), vaudevilles “The Bear”, “The Proposal”, “Anniversary”, etc. The story “The Steppe” is considered to be a transitional stage in the writer’s television. In it, Chekhov, moving away from the concrete everyday localization of his early stories, changes spatial orientations and expands his field of vision. “The Steppe” was published in 1888. In "Northern Bulletin". The main themes and problems of the story: 1) the theme of the Motherland, its endless expanses, powerful people: 2) man and nature; 3) beauty and meaning of life: 4) national happiness: Happiness is understood as overcoming, gaining life experience, mastering living space, unity with people: 5) as well as the formation of the human personality. The subtitle of the story “The Story of One Trip” indicates that the work can be perceived on two levels: external, objective, realistic, and then it is almost an ethnographic essay, in which in front of the traveling 9-year-old boy Yegorushka, one picture successively replaces another. The name “Steppe”, which absorbs a whole complex of associations, takes the narrative to a symbolic, metaphysical level. The original plot is in that. that the story intertwines two storylines: human life and the life of nature. Landscape of the story: the steppe with human destinies included in it. The steppe is a holistic image-character. The author uses the technique of correlating the hero with nature (for example, the singing peasant woman is the singing grass. Dranitskaya is a black bird, Solomon is a plucked bird). The story can be roughly divided into 3 parts: Yegorushka’s past life, given retrospectively, in memories, very briefly: Yegorushka’s future, which is still unclear. In the present there is a bare steppe living its own life. Features of the composition: each chapter makes up a special story. Compositionally, “Steppe” is built in the same way. like many of Chekhov's later stories, the beginning and end, as well as numerous repetitions, round out the narrative, forming a ring composition. Artistic features: 1) the author’s desire for maximum generalization (the steppe is the image of a yearning Motherland): 2) associativity: 3) sound painting; 4) a kind of chronotope: in the steppe, the present and the past overlap each other, time is compressed. Yegorushka makes her way from patriarchal antiquity to the world of civilization. The road in the work is a road from one space-time plane to another. This is Russian history, the history of Russia's path. In 1890, Chekhov took a trip to the island. Sakhalin, the result of which is the essay and journalistic book “Sakhalin Island” (1893-1894, separate edition 1895). In the same 1890, he bought the Melikhovo estate in the Moscow province, where he built schools, helped the poor and treated peasants, worked as a local doctor during the cholera epidemic of 1892-1893, participated in the general population census of 1897. In 1898-1900 The writer creates his most famous stories: the trilogy “The Man in a Case”, “Gooseberry”, “About Love”, as well as “Ionych” and “The Lady with the Dog”. Around 1893, a new stage in Chekhov’s work began(plays “The Seagull” (1896), “Uncle Vanya” (1897), “Three Sisters” (1900-1901, awarded the Griboyedov Prize), “The Cherry Orchard” (1903-1904)). In Vishn. In the garden in the center there is a sale of the estate. But from the first act to the end of the play, Ranevskaya’s drama immerses us in the driving process of general everyday life. The Cherry Orchard” by the representative. is a combination of comedy - “sometimes even farce,” as the author himself wrote, with gentle and subtle intrigue. While ridiculing their weaknesses and vices, the author at the same time sympathizes with them. The main conflict develops in the souls of the heroes. He concluded not in the struggle for the cherry orchard, but in dissatisfaction with life, the inability to unite dream and reality. Particular conflicts entailed changes in the depiction of the dramatic character. The author does not sharply characterize the individual's speech; rather, their speech merges into one melody. With this effect, the author created a feeling of harmony. Innovation of the playwright. The fact is that it departs from the prince of classical drama and reflects the dramatic world of not only the problems, but also the display of the psychological experiences of the heroes. Chekhov's plays became a new wave in theatrical art.

14.History, theoretical foundations and artistic practice of Russian symbolism. Poetry of A.A. Blok. Symbolism was first recognized as a new literary direction in an article by D.S. Merezhkovsky in 1893. He proclaimed 3 main elements of Russian literature: mystical content, symbols and the expansion of artistic impressionability. The word-symbol was considered as a sign with the help of which the artist comprehended the “mystical content”. Bryusov, Balmont, Sologub belonged to the generation of “senior” symbolists. Decadent moods in their work were reflected in the pessimistic perception of the world as a prison (Gippius, Sologub), in the self-deification of the “I” (Bryusov), motives of loneliness, lack of faith in life and one’s own strength. In the works of older symbolists, the apocalyptic theme associated with the image of the city clearly manifests itself. “Younger Symbolists”: A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach.Ivanov, S. Solovyov, Ellis (L.L. Kobylinsky) - came to literature at the beginning of the 20th century. and acted as adherents of a philosophical and religious understanding of the world in the spirit of the late philosophy of Vl. Solovyova. The younger symbolists tried to overcome the extreme subjectivism and individualism of the older ones. Peering into the surrounding life in search of mysterious signs, many felt tectonic processes within Russian culture, Russian society, and all of humanity as a whole. The premonition of an impending catastrophe literally permeates all the lyrics of the mature Blok and A. Bely. The book “Gold in Azure” by A. Bely is imbued with the expectation of apocalyptic periods; in the books “Ashes” and “Urna” (1909), these expectations are replaced by tragic pictures of a dying Russia. And in the “City” cycle from the book “Ashes” a sign of revolution appears - a red domino, an ominous sign of an impending disaster. Main features of symbolism:- Dual world: departure from the real earthly and the creation of an ideal world of dreams and mysticism, existing according to the laws of Eternal Beauty; - Images-symbols: the language of premonitions, hints, generalizations, mysterious visions, allegories; -Symbolism of color and light: azure, purple, gold, shadows, shimmer; - The poet is the creator of ideal worlds - mystical, cosmic, divine; -Language: orientation towards classical verse, exquisite imagery, musicality and lightness of syllable, attitude to the word as a code, symbolic content of everyday words. Manifestos: 1) Merezhkovsky “On the causes of decline and new trends in modern Russian literature”; 2) Bryusov “Keys of Secrets”; 3) Vyach. Ivanov “Thoughts on Symbolism”; 4) Block “On the current state of Russian symbolism.” A.A.Blok(1880-1921) Blok’s early poems made up the first book, published in 1904, “ Poems about a Beautiful Lady" are multifaceted. These poems are symbolist, contrasting the mournful HERE and the beautiful THERE, the holiness of the hero's ideals, the desire for the promised land, a decisive break with the surrounding life, the cult of individualism, beauty. The plot of the cycle is the expectation of a meeting with the beloved, who will transform the world and the hero. The heroine, on the one hand, a real woman “She is slender and tall, // Always arrogant and stern.” On the other hand, before us is the heavenly, mystical image of the “Virgin,” “Majestic Eternal Wife,” “Incomprehensible.” “He” is a lover a knight, a humble monk, ready for self-denial. "She" is the ethereal focus of faith, hope and love of the lyrical hero. His second book, " Unexpected joy", made the poet's name popular in literary circles. Among the poems are "Stranger", "A Girl Sang in the Church Choir", "Autumn Wave". Blok's hero becomes an inhabitant of noisy city streets, greedily peering into life. He is lonely, surrounded by drunkards, he rejects this world that horrifies his soul, like a booth, in which there is no place for anything beautiful and holy. The world poisons him, but in the midst of this drunken stupor a stranger appears, and her image awakens bright feelings, it seems she believes in beauty. Her image is surprisingly romantic and alluring, and it is clear that the poet’s faith in goodness is still alive. Vulgarity and dirt cannot tarnish the image of a stranger, reflecting Blok’s dreams of pure, selfless love. And the poem “Autumn Wave” became the first embodiment of the theme of the homeland, Russia in Blok’s work. In Nekrasov's intonations appear in the poems - love for the homeland - love-salvation, the understanding that one’s destiny cannot be imagined in isolation from it. After a trip to Italy in 1909, Blok wrote the cycle " Italian poems", in the spring of 1914 - cycle " Carmen". In these poems, Blok remains a subtle lyricist, praising beauty and love. Through the deepening of social trends ( cycle "City"), religious interest ( cycle “Snow Mask”), comprehension of the “terrible world”, awareness of the tragedy of modern man (the play “Rose and Cross”) Blok came to the idea of ​​​​the inevitability of “retribution” ( cycle "Iambics"; poem "Retribution"). Hatred of the “well-fed” world, of the ugly, inhuman features of life (the “Terrible World” cycle, 1909-16) is persistently and strongly expressed in Blok’s work. Love lyrics Blok is romantic, she carries within herself, along with delight and rapture, a fatal and tragic beginning (sections of the cycle “Snow Mask”, “Faina”, “Retribution”, 1908-13, “Carmen”, 1914). Theme of the poet and poetry. The idea of ​​the poet's freedom, his independence from public opinion, superiority over the crowd runs through all the early poems on the topic of creativity. poems “To Friends” and “Poets. “To the Muse” creativity is not a reward, but hard work, which often brings disappointment and dissatisfaction rather than laurels and joy. Inspiration is sent by God, but any gift must be paid for, and the poet pays with personal happiness and peace, comfort and well-being. Blok considers the main theme of his work theme of the Motherland. From the first poems about Russia (“Autumn Wave”, “Autumn Love”, “Russia”) a two-faced image of the country appears - poor, pious and at the same time free, wild, banditry. During this period, the poet created cycles of poems “Motherland” and “On the Kulikovo Field”. The ambivalent attitude towards Russia is especially vividly embodied in the poem “To sin shamelessly, uncontrollably...”. Blok paints a realistic picture of contemporary Russia. And under the lamp by the icon / Drink tea, snapping the bill, / Then salivate coupons, / Open the pot-bellied chest of drawers... But the work ends with the words: Yes, and so, my Russia, / You are dearer to me of all lands. The revolution of 1917 was reflected in the largest post-October poem " Twelve"(1918). It reflected both real events and the poet's views on history, the essence of civilization and culture. The very beginning of the poem sets the reader up for struggle; two worlds stand in sharp contrast - the old and the new, just born: Black Evening. / White snow. /Wind, wind! /A man cannot stand on his feet. Human passions and the raging elements act in unison, destroying everything that has become obsolete, personifying the old way of life. As attributes of the old way of life - the bourgeois, the lady, and the priest: There is the lady in karakul / Turned up to another... / - We were crying, crying... - / Slipped / And - bam - stretched out! And then, shaking off the fragments of a lost society, twelve people walk. Who are they - builders of the future or cruel destroyers, killers? Blok used many symbols in his poem: names, numbers, colors. The leitmotif of the poem appears from the first bars: in the gap and opposition of “white” and “black.” Black color is a vague, dark beginning. White color symbolizes purity, spirituality, this is the color of the future. The image of Christ is also symbolic in the poem. Jesus Christ is the messenger of new human relationships, an exponent of holiness and purifying suffering. For Blok, his “twelve” are real heroes, since they are the executors of a great mission, carrying out a holy cause - a revolution. As a symbolist and mystic, the author expresses the holiness of the revolution religiously. Emphasizing the holiness of the revolution, Blok places the invisible walking Christ before these “twelve”.

15.Acmeism in Russian literature: main representatives, aesthetic program, artistic practice. Plaziya A.A. Akhmatova. Acmeism as a literary movement emerged from symbolism; the emergence of the movement dates back to the early 1910s. The formation of the new movement takes place first in the “Society of Admirers of the Artistic Word” (“Poetic Academy”), and then in the “Workshop of Poets” created in 1911, headed by N. Gumilyov and S. Gorodetsky. The most prominent representatives of the new trend included N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, S. Gorodetsky, M. Zenkevich, V. Narbut. Later they were joined by G. Adamovich, G. Ivanov, I. Odoevtseva, N. Otsup. The Acmeism program was proclaimed in such manifestos as: 1) “The Legacy of Acmeism and Symbolism” by N. Gumilyov; 2) “Some trends in modern Russian poetry” by S. Gorodetsky; 3) “Morning of Acmeism” by O. Mandelstam. The organs of the new trend were the magazines “Apollo” (1909-1917), created by the writer and historian S. Makovsky, and “Hyperborea”, founded in 1912 and headed by M. Lozinsky. The current has gotten three non-identical names: “acmeism” (from the Greek acme - flowering, peak, tip), “Adamism” (on behalf of the first member of Adam) and “clarism” (beautiful clarity). The philosophical basis of this movement was pragmatism (philosophy of action) and the ideas of the phenomenological school (which defended the “experience of objectivity”, “questioning of things”, “acceptance of the world”). Among their literary teachers, the Acmeists singled out F. Villon (with his appreciation for life), F. Rabelais (with his inherent “wise physiology”), W. Shakespeare (with his gift of insight into the inner world of the human race), T. Gautier (a champion "impeccable forms"). Also the poets E. Baratynsky, F. Tyutchev and Russian classical prose. The artistic principles of Acmeism were entrenched in his poetic practice: 1) active acceptance of multi-colored and vibrant earthly life; 2) rehabilitation of a simple objective world that has “shapes, weight, time”; 3) a primitive bestial, courageously strong view of the world; 4) denial of transcendence and mysticism; 5) focus on the picturesqueness of the image; 6) transfer of psychological states with attention to the bodily principle; 7) expression of “longing for world culture”; 8) attention to the specific meaning of the word; 9) perfection of forms. The fate of Acmeism is tragic. He had to assert himself in a tense and moral struggle. He was persecuted more than once. The tragic fate of A. Akhmatova, and the death of Mandelstam (died in a hospital barracks in the camp), Narbut (was shot at a quarantine transit point). The first victim was the leader of the movement, N. Gumilyov (he was shot). Anna Andreevna Akhmatova(surname at birth - Gorenko; 1889-1966) - one of the most famous Russian poets of the 20th century, writer, literary critic, literary critic, translator. Akhmatova was one of those who acted as a representative of the new movement of Acmeism (from Symbolism). In her early poems, the world around her is depicted clearly, vividly and objectively accurately. “I don’t need my legs anymore...” Object-figurative expressions: water column, coolness, the heroine grabs the seaweed with her hand. She sees in front of her a bridge as distant as her former lover. The layer of water is dense and heavy; above the water there is light smoke, into which her soul turns. The main theme is love. Dramatic moment: separation, approaching separation. Portrayed psychologically accurately. Collection "Evening".“I clenched my hands under a dark veil,” “I put the glove from my left hand on my right hand.” Uses a detail-thing, a detail-gesture. Collection "Rosary" 1914. The theme of love expands, while there is a complete rejection of the indifferent and frivolous attitude towards love, psychologism deepens, and a rejection of hedonism (sensual pleasures). “I escorted my friend to the front.” Then 1917. Collection “White Flock” and “Plantain”. Poems dedicated to the beginning of the 1st World War. "In memory of July 19, 1914." “Prayer” the heroine is ready to sacrifice everything so that the cloud over Russia becomes a cloud. Akhmatova did not accept the 1917 revolution in February and rejected the October one. “There was a voice for me, it called comfortingly” poem-voice monologue + author’s remarks. This form is more complex than all previous verses. The theme of emigration is “to leave or to stay?”. Akhmatova remains. “I am not with those who abandoned the earth to be torn apart by the enemies.” Positions: 1) those who abandoned the earth at a difficult moment - contempt; 2) “I always feel sorry for the exile” not of his own free will, they were expelled - pity; 3) those who remained, even on the verge of disaster, count themselves. In the early 20s, Akhmatova was forced to refuse to publish her poems, because... comes into conflict with the totalitarian regime. He is engaged in translations, the life and works of Pushkin. In the 1930s he wrote a series of poems, which he later combined into poem "Requiem". sources: Akhmatova’s personal tragedy (the arrest of her son), the execution of Nikolai Gumilyov, the repression of Akhmatova’s second husband. We are talking about the general grief of the totalitarian regime, the grief of all Russian women on “this side of the prison bars.” "Instead of a preface." 3 plot layers: 1) personal grief of a mother who lost her son; 2) the grief of thousands of Russian women; 3) the grief of the Mother of God losing her son. Themes of life, death, madness, memory, monument are intertwined. The mother suffers so deeply that she calls for death, but madness comes. She is glad for him, because madness kills memory and frees her from suffering. A woman who is a mother can allow herself to forget, but a woman who is a poet cannot. She needs to preserve the memory of these “frenzied years.” In the epilogue of the poem, the theme of memory turns into the theme of a monument. 2 questions: 1) will they remember me, 2) why exactly. “And I pray not for myself alone, but for everyone who stood there with me.” The monument is not to her, but to thousands of women who have lost loved ones. Place the monument “here, where it stood for 300 hours and where the bolt was not opened for me.” During the war, Akhmatova lived in St. Petersburg. Collection "Wind of War". The tragedy of the Leningrad blockade. “Oath” and “Courage” 1942 Akhmatova addresses the Russian intelligentsia. It is necessary to preserve Russian culture, the Russian word. Mature creativity “Poem without a hero.” Action in 1913 in Petrograd. This is a kaleidoscope of life in a ghostly, fantastic city. The central event is a theatrical masquerade. There are a lot of allegories here. Lots of allusions to real people. Fragmentary episodes. In the life of the city, as at this ball, masks dominate instead of people. However, real drama ensues. A dragoon cornet with poetry committed suicide under the doors of the calambina, which rejected him. This plot is projected onto the life of an entire era. frivolous, superficial and tragic. There is a hero in it - a lyrical heroine who, from the heights of the 50s, looks back to her youth in 1913. And on the one hand, he admires this time, and on the other, he understands that it was then that something important was missed, which led the country to disaster. In Akhmatova’s mature lyrics, the theme of creativity develops in a new way. She explores those secret motives that lead to the creation of poetry collection “Secrets of the Craft”. Cycle "Northern Elegies". biblical and evangelical motifs. She had to endure two disgraces. During her second disgrace, she died in 1966.

16. Russian futurism: futurist groups, main representatives, manifestos, artistic practice. Poetry of V. Mayakovsky. Futurism (from Latin - future) arose almost simultaneously in Russia and Italy.

Futurism - one of the main avant-garde movements in European art of the early 20th century. Russian futurism arose in 1910-1911. as an original artistic movement. Its history consisted of a complex interaction and struggle of 4 main groups: “Gilea” (Cubo-Futurists), “Association of Ego-Futurists”, “Centrifuge”, “Mezzanine of Poetry”. The earliest and most radical was “Gilea”, whose participants in numerous collections (“Zadok of Judges”, 1910; manifesto “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste”, 1912; “Dead Moon”, 1913, etc.) and speeches primarily defined “the face of futurism " In “The Slap of Public Taste,” the futurists proclaimed a revolution of form independent of content. The call for a revolution in form stemmed from the first and main postulate of the futurists - about art as life-creativity, about the subjective will of the artist as the decisive and main engine of human history. The coming revolution was desired because it was perceived as a massive massacre. an action that involves the whole world in the game. After the February revolution, ft. The "Gileans" formed an imaginary "Government of the Globe". Software for ft. became shocking to the average person (“A slap in the face to public taste” - manifesto). F. was most afraid of indifference. A necessary condition for its existence was the atmosphere of literature. scandal. Optimal cheat. reaction to TV ft. there was aggressive rejection and hysterical protest, which was provoked by extremes in the behavior of the foot. (Malevich appeared with a wooden spoon in his buttonhole, Mayakovsky in a woman’s yellow jacket, Kruchenykh wore a sofa cushion on a cord across his shoulder). The principle of their work is the principle of “shift”, which was transferred to the literature of their avant-garde painting. Lexical renewal was achieved by depoetizing the language, introducing stylistically inappropriate words, vulgarisms, etc. terms. The word is ft. lost its halo of sacredness, it became objectified. Syntactic. displacements appeared at feet. in violation of the laws of logical compatibility of words., refusal of punctuation marks. Great value ft. gave the visual impact of the text. Futurists advocated the destruction of the conventional system of literary genres and styles and insisted on unlimited “word creativity and word innovation. The creation of original neologisms is a common feature in the works of such dissimilar poets as I. Severyanin and V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayak-ii and A. Kruchenykh. A bright innovator in the field of language was V. Khlebnikov, at the beginning of 1920. he introduced a special term to designate such a language - “zaum”, “abstruse language”. Calling for Pushkin and other classics to be thrown off the ship of modernity, the futurist poets were unable to break the ties that connected them with the primordial traditions of Russian culture. The traditions of Russian futurism started from the poetics of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” through the odic poetry of the 18th century. (G.R. Derzhavina), classical poetry of the 19th century (A.S. Pushkin), decadence of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. and through the poetry of symbolism. Mayak- a poet of accented verse with a distinct oratorical intonation (in the text there is no regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. In long lines with stressed syllables, from 1 to 6 unstressed syllables are placed). At the same time, there is a rhyme; Mayak-go's rhyming thinking was generally strict and original. Early lyrics. City theme. The idea of ​​urban civilization as a second, man-made nature, which h-k created around himself in contrast to the first. The poem “To Signs”, the theme of which is “new urban beauty.” “Iron Books” - street signs on tin - are indeed intended for reading. The subject of poetic inspiration here is the city, which is beautiful because it was created for the purpose. Theme of loneliness. The main topic becomes psychological condition his lyrical hero, the cat; despite the cordiality of the signs, he feels like he’s in a big city lonely. This hero is drawn from books, from indoor life to the street, to people. However, in the restaurant you can see a chewing creature. It was to him that Mayak addressed in verse "Here!":“In an hour from here into a clean alley / Your flabby fat will leak out.” The city is inhabited not by people, but by a crowd, which Mayak contemptuously calls “a hundred-headed louse.” The main opposition of early creativity: I - you (“Could you?” 1913); he has so far romantic shit, reflects duality.“Listen!”(] 914): spitting pearls. War theme (“War has been declared”, “Mom and the evening killed by the Germans”). Compassion for the victims of war. "To you!" - political continuation of “Here!” Satirical theme- Parody hymns (to dinner, to the scientist, to the critic, to the judge) "A cloud in pants" (1915), which brought him real fame. The Lighthouse rebellion is addressed to the Creator, cat. created love-torment, love-suffering. The hero of Mayak-go claims to curtail God, declaring Him “a half-educated, tiny big thing.” This is how the grandiose idea of ​​remaking the universe grows. But the only carrier of rebellion is the poet’s lonely “I.” The riot happens in his mind, unfolding like one big metaphor. A challenge thrown to the sky: “Hey, you! Sky! Take off your hat,” remains simply unheard. The conflict stated in “Cloud in Pants” was deepened and developed in the poems “Spine Flute” (1915) and “War and Peace” (1916), where the preaching of a harmonious world order by the forces of the h-ch himself was combined with the readiness of the hero Mayak-go sacrifice yourself for the sake of the future. This collision was brought to its complete exhaustion in the poem “Ch-k” (1916-1917), the final, final project of the pre-revolutionary Mayak. Revolution The lighthouse was greeted with enthusiasm. During the revolution and the civil war, he renamed the Cubo-Futurists into Comfutists (communist-futurists). Then he created LEF - the left front of the movement, which, in his opinion, was supposed to unite the leaders of the Kura who were close to the revolution - not only writers, but also musicians, artists, theater and film directors. Then LEF was not enough for him, he wanted to become “to the left of LEF”, and he created the “New LEF”. Then he once again reformed his group and renamed it REF - the revolutionary front of art. Z poet's wish- put into poetic form a political slogan, propaganda poster, trade advertising, current information, satirical feuilleton, write odes in honor of the leaders of the Bolshevik Party and revolutionary holidays. In the first post-October verses, Mayak calls his poems marches And orders:“Our March”, “Left March”, “Order for the Army of Arts”, “Order No. 2 for the Army of Arts”. Mayak's poems in the first post-revolutionary years sound like an oratorical speech at a rally. The “I”, to whom one prefers, almost disappears from his poems. "We". Mayak speaks as if on behalf of a new breed of people, cat. brought to life by the revolution. In 1918 he writes play "Mystery Bouffe". Mystery is a square dramatization of biblical stories, and the word “Buff” refers to the tradition of a cheerful circus performance. Two levels, sublimely religious and comically circus, determined the style and poetics of this piece. The scene of action is declared to be “the entire universe,” which the ark plows in search of the “Promised Land.” This turns out to be the “Communar World”, that is, the land rinsed by the revolution - the “holy washerwoman” - and turned into a universal Commune. Following “Mystery,” he wrote the heroic poem “150 million” (1919), inspired by the prospects of the approaching world revolution (the revolutionary fire in 1919 was already burning in Bulgaria, Hungary, and Germany). The main character of the poem - the one hundred and fifty million people of Russia, united in the “united Ivan”, crushed the stronghold of the world bourgeoisie - America. M wrote 2 satirical plays “Bedbug” and “Bathhouse”. In the play “The Bedbug” of 1929, the poet declares an irreconcilable war on philistinism in all its manifestations. “Former worker, former party member, now groom,” Prisypkin, who renamed himself Pierre Skripkin, reveals his philistine essence in actions and speeches. The inhabitants of the “young people’s” hostel, people from the future, into which the viewer finds himself along with the characters of the play, perceive Prisypkin and the microbe of philistinism, with which he is amazed, as phenomena incompatible with the laws, views, way of life of the new society. va. The mercilessness in exposing philistinism gives the play a combative, offensive character. The play “Bath” (1930) is aimed at an equally dangerous phenomenon - bureaucracy. The play is a fusion of dreams and reality, an interweaving of the present and the future. This is achieved by using fiction, which is woven into the real life of the inventor Chudakov and his comrades. The whole action comes down to the struggle for the time machine created by Chudakov, which will allow him to see the future, to be convinced of the reality of the dream, which is brought closer every day by the selfless work of thousands of people. The acute conflict between the real builders of the new society and Pobedonosikov, who stands in the way of the society to the future, is growing into a decisive battle between the new norms of life and bureaucracy, with Pobedonosikovism. The fantastic nature of the plot allows the poet to show the unacceptability of bureaucratic principles for the society of the future: the time machine throws out those “who are not needed for communism.” Political acuity in the formulation of the problem, accuracy of the poetic word, ingenuity in creating stage action are the distinctive features of this play by M.

17. Main trends in the development of Russian realism of the late 19th and early 20th centuries: main representatives, artistic practice. Creativity of I. Bunin. Realism in RL belongs to the ageless and eternal phenomena, and at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. in the works of L.N. Tolstoy and A.P. Chekhov, he is experiencing a powerful rise. In Tolstoy: the poem “Resurrection”, “Father Sergius”, “The Devil”. Chekhov: the play “The Cherry Orchard”, the stories “The Bishop”, “The Bride” (1903). Later, a group of young writers entered Russian literature, continuing the traditions of classical realism. This is V.G. Korolenko, A.I. Kuprin, M. Gorky, I.A. Bunin, B. Zaitsev, I. Shmelev, V. Veresaev, L. Andreev. The work of these writers uniquely reflected the interaction of the realistic method with the new trends of the era. In 1902, Gorky became one of the organizers of the publishing partnership “Znanie”, and in 1904 he began publishing collective collections of prose and poetry. At the center of the work of the Znanievo writers was the theme of intense resistance of the h-ka to the social evil surrounding him, the theme of the awakening of consciousness, the formation of personality. L. Andreev, I. Bunin, V. Veresaev, S. Gusev-Orenburgsky, A. Kuprin, A. Serafimovich, M. Gorky and others collaborated in nineteen collections of “Knowledge” that appeared in 1904-1907. I. Bunin (1870-1953). TV developed in two directions: poetry and prose. Symbolist poetry with the influence of impressionism. The prose is realistic. Bunin began his literary career as a poet. His earliest poem is dated 1883. At first he was a student of Nikitin, Koltsov, and partly also of Nekrasov. Bunin followed them in developing peasant themes, adopted the motives of their lyrics, and imitated the structure and rhythm of their poems. While at the gymnasium, in January 1886 he wrote the poem “In the Village Cemetery” - about the hard lot of the Russian peasant. characteristic of one of Bunin’s first poems to appear in print, “The Village Beggar” (1886). In its center is the mournful image of an old peasant, a homeless sufferer, overcome by too much need, forced to live out his days on beggarly alms. We find sad thoughts about the homeland in a number of poems “Motherland” (1891), “Motherland” (1896). Gradually, nature became for Bunin that healing and beneficial force that gives a person everything: joy, wisdom, beauty, a sense of infinity, diversity and integrity peace, a sense of unity, kinship with him. Recreating pictures of Russian nature and the image of the Motherland, the poet cannot free himself from the feeling of grief. “Yes, my native land is not happy now!” - he exclaims in the poem “In the Steppe” (1889), merging together the feeling of his homeland and the feeling of grief for it. In 1903, the Academy of Sciences awarded Bunin the Pushkin Prize for the poetry collection “Falling Leaves” (1901) and the translation of “The Song of Hiawatha” (1896) by the American poet G. Longfellow, based on the tales of North American Indians (in 1909 the Academy of Sciences would choose Bunin as its honorary member). In 1903-1908. mournful poems arose about modernity, about Russia, where everything was shifting - “the great and the vile,” despotism and slavery, humility, heroism and cruelty. Printing the short poetic cycle “Rus” in 1908, Bunin reveals the complex, contradictory world of Russia. The poem that closes it, “Wasteland,” is perhaps Bunin’s most socially acute poem of those years. The theme of the people and their suffering is combined with the lyrical and mournful voice of the author. Bunin's realistic poetry was associated with the motives, moods, images and themes of his prose. Bunin turned to fiction at the age of sixteen. The unfinished sketch “The Lark's Song” and the fairy tale “The Light of Life” (1886 - 1887) were a kind of lyricism in prose; in which an attempt is made to express the youthful rapture of the beauty of nature, passionate but vague dreams of happiness, and creativity. Bunin’s first love story “Infatuation” (1886 - 1887) is also full of lyrical animation; the entire narrative bears the imprint of bookish imitation. The theme of first love is in the plot of the story “First Love”. Young Bunin acted as a “writer of the offended and oppressed.” Bunin's earliest epic works, such as the story "Nefedka" (1887) or the essays "Two Wanderers" (1887 - 1889) and "Convulsive" (1891), introduce the reader to the world of the village poor, beggars, tramps, lonely wanderers, the destitute, the homeless people The theme of the moral responsibility of the noble intelligentsia to the people was raised in the stories “Tanta” (1893), “News from the Motherland” (1895). In many works, the writer shows the desolation of the noble estate, the savagery of its last inhabitants (“In the Field”). In his stories, novellas, and poems, Bunin shows the whole range of problems of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. The main theme of the early 1900s was the theme of Russia's fading patriarchal past. The stories “Antonov Apples”, “Pines”, “Zakhar Vorobyov” and others were written. They capture the beauty of Russian nature, the tragedy of a poor, disadvantaged people. We see the most vivid expression of the problem of the collapse of the foundations of noble society in the story “ Antonov apples" Bunin regrets Russia's fading past, idealizing the noble way of life. Bunin’s best memories of his former life are saturated with the smell of Antonov apples. The stories “The Good Life”, “The Mister from San Francisco” and others reveal the life of the city bottom with taverns and cheap rooms, the world of human passions. In the mid-1910s, he moved away from the theme of Russia's patriarchal past to criticism of bourgeois reality. The stories “The Good Life”, “The Mister from San Francisco” and others reveal the life of the city bottom with taverns and cheap rooms, the world of human passions. Bunin describes in great detail the luxury that represents the true life of the gentlemen of modern times. At the center of the work is a collective image of an American bourgeois millionaire who does not even have his own name, since no one remembered it. The consumer society has erased everything human in itself, the ability for empathy and condolences. Bunin perceived the October Revolution as a social drama. In 1920 he emigrated to France. There he continues his creative activity, creates the autobiographical novel “The Life of Arsenyev”, the stories “Mowers”, “Lapti”, writes a cycle of short stories “Dark Alleys”. In the collection " Dark alleys"The main theme is love. The book “Dark Alleys” is a whole gallery of female portraits. Here you can meet girls who have matured early, and self-confident young women, and respectable ladies, and prostitutes, and models, and peasant women. Female characters play the main role in the stories, male characters are auxiliary, secondary. More attention is paid to men's emotions and their feelings. The stories amaze with the variety of shades of love: the simple-minded but unbreakable affection of a peasant girl for the master who seduced her (“Tanya”); fleeting dacha hobbies (“Zoyka and Valeria”); a short one-day novel (“Antigone”, “Calling Cards”); passion leading to suicide (“Galya Ganskaya”); simple-minded confession of a minor prostitute (“Madrid”). The heroine of the story “Cold Autumn”, who lost her fiancé, loves him for thirty years and believes that in her life there was only that autumn evening, and everything else was an “unnecessary dream.” In the story " Sukhodol"The writer reconsiders the tradition of poetizing estate life. The ideological orientation of the work is contradictory, for Bunin, truthfully depicting the horrors of serfdom, the cruelty and degeneration of the owners of the estate, at the same time strives to substantiate the idea of ​​​​the blood unity of landowners and peasants, of the special closeness of their way of life and psyche. The Sukhodolsk chronicle is refracted through the perception of the former serf Natalia. She is submissive to her masters, incapable of condemnation and protest. The Khrushchevs are reputed to be the kindest gentlemen. On the other hand, they keep their peasants at bay. There are many oddities in the Khrushchev family: the grandfather, Tonya and Natalya are going crazy, either from boredom or from love. The house of the pillar nobles is gloomy and gloomy, like the life of its inhabitants. It seems that the Sukhodol residents live in isolation from the outside world. In the entire village there is the same desolation as in their souls, the death of old Khrushchev, killed by Gevraska, is predetermined by fate itself. Women, living out their lives, live only with memories of the past. Above the novel Life of Arsenyev“Bunin worked for a long time, with breaks. Novel is constructed as a free lyrical-philosophical monologue, where there are no usual heroes, where it is impossible to highlight the plot in the usual sense on the left. But “The Life of Arsenyev” is not just a lyrical diary of distant days. The first impressions of childhood and adolescence, life in the estate and study at the gymnasium, pictures of Russian nature and the life of the impoverished nobility serve only as a canvas for Bunin’s philosophical, religious and ethical concept. Autobiographical material is transformed by the writer. A huge mosaic picture of Russia is made up of many miniatures. “The Life of Arsenyev” is dedicated to the journey of the soul of a young hero who perceives the world with an unusually fresh and acute perception of the world. A passionate and deep feeling permeates the last, fifth book of the novel - “Lika”. It was based on the experiences of Bunin himself, his youthful love for Varya Pashchenko. Time is powerless to kill a true feeling. “Recently I saw her in a dream - the only time in my entire long life without her” - this is how “The Life of Arsenyev” ends. In the novel, death and oblivion recede before the power of love, before the heightened sense - of the hero and the author - of life. After being awarded the Nobel Prize in 1933, Bunin became a symbol of Russian literature throughout the world.

18.Creativity of S. Yesenin. Issues. Artistic originality. S. Yesenin (1895-1925) Born in the Ryazan province into the cross family. He studied at the zemstvo school in the village. Konstantinov, church-teacher's office in Spas-Klepiki, moving to Moscow. This is the peasant elite! There he worked as an assistant proofreader at Sytin's printing house, attended meetings of the Surikov circle and lectures at the Shanyavsky People's University. (The Surikov circle was founded in 1872 by the famous peasant poet Ivan Zakharovich. Surikov as a literary association of writers from the people). His early poems were rehashes of Koltsov, Nadson, and imitative developments of folklore motifs and genres. There was a lot of bad taste and provincialism in them. Quite quickly I realized their limitations. An important point is getting to know Blok and Klyuev. Blok gave him a recommendation, and at the end of 1915 Yesenin published his first book of poems in St. Petersburg - “Radunitsa”. Soon he was warmly received in St. Petersburg salons, and critics started talking about him as “Ryazan Lele.” The first period of TV-va E. (1914-1916) called Kitezh. (Klyuev attracted E. to the role of a salon poet: it is necessary to play the role of a “shepherdess” - boots, a jacket, a peasant talk. 1) Klyuev took into account the emerging fashion for everything “national”, thereby hoping to win a place in the literary environment. 2) Klyuev, who considered himself a representative of the ancient Russian nation, called E. to go to the people from the spoiled city center). Yours of this period reflects the sacred Russian dual world. In everyday life, he is a pagan, but he believes in Christ and goes to church. In the center of Yesenin’s world is “blue” Rus', a peasant hut with images (“In the Hut”). The main motive is grace (“Black, then smelling howl!”). The landscape is static; built on metaphor. Christ walks among people and calls the hero into the oak groves. The lyrical hero of E.’s early poems most often appears in 2 forms: 1. pilgrim, walking through the fields and forests of Rus' with secret faith in Jesus and the Mother of God and 2. Pagan shepherd (shepherd-shepherd, he is involved in the works of Christ): I pray at the dawn, I take communion by the stream. Pagan and Christian merge in the image of “double feeling.” An example of double feeling is the poetry of early E. "Song of the Dog" (1915), in which the whelping red bitch appears almost as the Virgin Mary. Her puppies are drowned, and one of them, like a red moon in the sky, turns out to be taken to heaven. The dog's tragedy is projected onto the gospel story. Second period - 1916 - 1919. Yesenin is a utopian. the search for an ideal - the kingdom of universal happiness, earthly paradise. The idea of ​​Russia-Inonia, another Rus' (land of ancestors, mythological eternity). In the small poems “Comrade”, “Singing Call”, “Otcharya”, “Advent”, “Transfiguration”, “Rural Book of Hours”, “Inonia”, “Jordanian Dove”. He talks about God's chosen country, Russia, cat. should become an earthly paradise. Christ is close to the Russian revolution - he was born in a manger and a peasant took him into his callous hands. In the poems and poems of this period, the image of the baby Jesus and, in parallel, the image of the calving sky are important: “The calving sky licks the red heifer.” A new Russia is born and brings to the world the Third - peasant - testament. The new god is a peasant god, a cow god, without a cross and torment, so it sounds like blasphemy: “I spit out the sacrament.” 1918 gr.war - conflict with Klyuev, lost faith in utopia. Dystopia. In the poem “Mare's Ships,” the Third Testament turned into a pestilence. Horses are dying on city streets - Apocalypse: “mad glow of corpses”). Who is to blame? Element of October (Metaphor: the October wind will consume the groves). He renounces the February and October illusions. 1919 own poetic manifesto - “The Keys of Mary”. In “The Keys of Mary” he wrote about the ancient ch-ka and its mythology, the secret of which was known to the ancient Slavic culture of shepherds and farmers. This art was connected with the sky. The remains of this culture are preserved by the Russian village (This is peasant folklore - the basis of Russian imagery), cat. in the era of bourgeois, “urban” civilization, it dies “like a fish splashed out on the shore of the earth by a wave.” Meets Anatoly Mariengof and Vadim Shershenevich. ( approximately 1920-1924 Imagist period) Imagists affirm the idea of ​​the intrinsic value of the image in poetry (the content is the cecum of art). The image is built on logic, talent and intuition are dubious things. The category of beauty was also banished, anti-aestheticism and the physiological nature of the image were welcomed. In a certain sense, Yesenin followed these principles: “The sun grows cold, like a puddle that a gelding has made,” “Over the groves, like a cow, the dawn lifted its tail.” The “Imagist” period of E.’s creativity begins with the transformation monk and shepherd into a hooligan. 1920 poem “Hooligan”, “Confession of a Hooligan”. In them, not only the lyrical hero changes, but also the landscape, the cat. becomes uncomfortable, gloomy, hostile. Yesenin strengthens the motive of his rejection, calling himself a robber, horse thief, thief, boor, charlatan, brawler. But at the same time he emphasizes in every possible way that at heart he remained as before as a village hick. In 1920 he began working on the dramatic poem “Pugachev,” but he was interested in Nestor Makhno, who was then called the new Pugachev. But writing a poem about him was too dangerous. E. saw in Makhno the possibility of a third way in the revolution, but it collapsed. 1922-1923 cycle of poems “Moscow Tavern” (MK)(feeling of hopeless impasse) Paradoxical combination of the theme of drunken decay with amazing poetic power. The disintegration in “MK” is Asian-style, cruel and rampant. One of the most expressive poems of the cycle ended like this: You, my Scattered... Scattered... Asian side. The lyrical hero E is just as cruel in this cycle. Purification for the hero of “MK” could only come through death and a religious return to the lost national soil. “Soviet Rus'” in the works of S. Yesenin E. greeted the revolution enthusiastically. At first he talks about God's chosen country of Russia, cat. should become an earthly paradise. In the poems and poems of this period, the image of the baby Jesus and, in parallel, the image of the calving sky are important: “The calving sky licks the red heifer.” But the civil war cooled the ardor. In the poem “Mare's Ships,” Paradise turned into pestilence. Horses are dying on city streets - Apocalypse: “mad glow of corpses”). Who is to blame? Element of October (Metaphor: the October wind will consume the groves). He renounces the February and October illusions. He was close to the Essayers. He considered Makhno's Republic as a new path for Russia. After traveling to America, In 1924-1925 An attempt to overcome one's discrepancy with reality. "I accept" concept. He makes a peacemaking gesture towards the Bolsheviks and tries to join the new Russia. E. writes a kind of small lyrical trilogy - “Return to the Motherland”, “Soviet Rus'”, “Departing Rus'” - in which for the first time he turns to the life of the Soviet village. The language of E.’s utopia is alien to this village, which gave rise to a bitter confession: “The language of my fellow citizens has become like a stranger to me, / In my own country I am like a foreigner.” Or, as he summed it up in another verse: “Who am I? What am I? Is it just a dreamer, / Lost the blue of his eyes in the darkness.” He writes about “steel Rus'”, about how he wants to “lift up his pants and run after the Komsomol”. In “Letter to a Woman” E. is generally inclined to condemn himself for staying away from the struggle for the future, efforts to speak up for the new tongue. Yesenin's last major works are of a final nature. In 1925, one after another, he wrote the cycle “Persian Motifs”, the poems “Anna Snegina” and “The Black Man”. In “Persian Motives”, a conventional, invented Persia arises - a country of poetry and love, an illusory world of peace and silence. In “The Black Man,” the subject of the image was an empty, devalued life, in the face of which the poems are exposed as something illusory and deceitful. The poet's double, the Black Man, confesses with cynical composure. Yesenin painfully felt that he was living the fate of some “adventurer,” “a scoundrel and a drunkard.” Until now it was a mask. In “The Black Man,” the mask was fused to the face and was torn off with blood and flesh. Yesenin conceived “Anna Snegina” as an epic, “Nekrasov” narrative from peasant life, but in the end he created a lyrical confession. The plot of “Anna Snegina” unfolds against the backdrop of the men’s struggle for land in 1917. The hero of the poem, a double of Yesenin himself, also named Sergei, returns to his native place to rest. His friend Pron Ogloblin goes with him to the estate of the landowner Snegina (with whom Sergei once had an affair) to take land. Three people who love each other face a painful conflict - in order to eventually part forever: Anna goes to London, Sergei to the capital, Pron is killed by the whites. Anna from emigration sends him a letter of recognition." “But you are still dear to me, / Like the homeland and like spring.” And if at the beginning of the poem there is resentment towards a life in which there is so little love (“But they loved us little”) , then at the end the opposite is stated: (We all loved during these years, / But that means they loved us too.) The author of “Anna Snegina” forgives life for everything that “did not come true” in it, blessing it.

As a manuscript

Gromova

Polina Sergeevna

PROSE a. K. TOLSTOY:

PROBLEMS OF GENRE EVOLUTION

dissertations for an academic degree

candidate of philological sciences

The work was carried out at the Department of History of Russian Literature

Tver State University.

Scientific director

Official opponents:

Doctor of Philology, Professor

Candidate of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor

Leading organization

Institute of World Literature

Scientific secretary of the dissertation council

Doctor of Philology, Professor

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF WORK

The work of the classic of Russian literature, the count, cannot be called unstudied. And although in the minds of the mass reader Tolstoy is, first of all, a poet and playwright, various researchers have repeatedly turned to his prose. Among them, and others. The observations made by them are valuable and are taken into account in this dissertation. At the same time, there are still many unclear and open questions in the study of Tolstoy’s prose. Early fantasy and historical prose are traditionally viewed as two isolated and independent stages in the writer’s work; The connections between Tolstoy's early prose and his novel did not become the subject of special study. Until now, due to its complexity, questions about the genre nature of Tolstoy’s works and the creative evolution of the writer remain the least illuminated. Although there are special works on Tolstoy's fantastic prose, it has not yet been fully revealed as an artistic unity.

Tolstoy's prose represents a wide variety of genre forms and artistic solutions. It reveals the writer’s understanding of modern Russian reality and the national historical past, raising eternal questions of love, goodness, justice, faith, and creativity. At the same time, while displaying genre diversity, Tolstoy’s prose is distinguished by its internal unity. The writer did not deliberately abandon fantasy and move on to historical works in his mature period; this dynamic seems quite natural. The premises of the historical novel are laid in early fiction, and fantastic elements fit organically into the historical novel. Turning to the works of art created by Tolstoy in one period or another of his work, it seems necessary to study their genre features in more detail, as well as to trace the formation of the images of the heroes and the development of various themes, ideas and motives. All this directly reflects Tolstoy’s creative evolution. Of particular interest for research in this light is early fantastic prose, which lays the foundations of artistic images and characters developed by Tolstoy in the future, and in addition, the author's style is formed and the basic artistic principles of creativity are developed, implemented in subsequent works of different genres.

Object The dissertation research includes prose works, namely early fantastic prose (“The Ghoul”, “The Family of the Ghoul”, “Meeting after Three Hundred Years”, “Amena”) and the novel “Prince Silver”.

Item research - genre specificity of works, features of the creative evolution of the writer, as well as the interaction of various literary traditions and artistic innovation in prose.

Relevance And scientific novelty The work is due to the fact that recently interest in Tolstoy’s work has increased greatly, but not all problems related to him can still be considered sufficiently illuminated. In this work, for the first time, an attempt has been made to trace the evolution of the genre and, at the same time, to comprehend Tolstoy’s prose in its unity, as well as to show the relationship between the fantastic and the historical in his works, the pattern of movement from a fantastic depiction of life to romantic historicism.

Target research - to trace the formation and development of the genre system in prose works.

Achieving this goal requires solving a number of research tasks:

1. Consider the genre specifics of prose works.

2. To introduce a number of clarifications into the existing ideas about the genre nature of Tolstoy’s prose works.

3. Determine the directions of genre transformations associated with Tolstoy’s creative evolution.

Methodological basis of the study:

The dissertation uses historical-literary, comparative-genetic and comparative-typological research methods. Works on the history of Russian literature and problems of romanticism, etc., as well as the works of the above-mentioned authors on creativity, turned out to be valuable in the study of this topic. The theoretical basis of the study is works on poetics. In matters of genre, we relied on research and.

Theoretical and practical significance is due to the fact that this study makes additions to the understanding of the relationship between artistic intent and the genre of the work that has developed in literary criticism. The dissertation materials can be used in the practice of university teaching of the history of Russian literature of the 19th century, as well as special courses devoted to fantastic and historical prose of the 19th century, creativity; for further development of the problems of romanticism and its interaction with other literary methodologies and movements.

Provisions for defense:

1. The genre nature of Tolstoy’s works is closely related to the nature of artistic fiction, which in turn is determined by the writer’s creative method.

2. Tolstoy’s early fantastic prose is a complex of works in which the romantic principles of his work are formed, and also reflect the Gothic literary tradition and some realistic tendencies.

3. In Tolstoy’s work there was no sharp transition from fantastic prose to historical prose. Interest in history and elements of historical artistic thinking are clearly visible in his early works, and the fantastic elements of early prose, remaining in Tolstoy’s later work, organically merge with romantic historicism.

4. “Prince Silver” is a natural continuation and development of trends that formed in Tolstoy’s early fantastic prose. The artistic method of Tolstoy the prose writer receives its most complete embodiment in the novel.

5. “Prince Silver” - a romantic historical novel. The definition of “romantic” is fundamentally important, since the novel reflects an understanding of history that is characteristic of romanticism.

6. Tolstoy’s prose, despite its genre diversity, represents a dynamic artistic unity.

Approbation of the study held at the II International Scientific Conference “Moscow in Russian and World Literature” (Moscow, RAS IMLI, November 2-3, 2010), Annual Student Scientific Conferences (Tver, Tver State University), International Scientific Conferences “The World of Romanticism "(Tver, May 21-23, 2009; Tver, May 13-15, 2010), International Scientific Conference "V Akhmatov Readings. , : Book. Piece of art. Document" (Tver - Bezhetsk May 21 - 23, 2009), Regional scientific conference "Tver book: ancient Russian heritage and modernity" (Tver, February 19, 2010), educational and scientific seminar "The theme of night in romantic literature" (Tver , Tver State University, April 17, 2010), educational and scientific seminar “Landscape in Romantic Literature” (Tver, Tv State University, April 9, 2011).

The main provisions of the dissertation are covered in 11 articles published in regional and central specialized publications. A list of published works is given at the end of the abstract.

Work structure. The dissertation consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography (225 titles).

MAIN CONTENT OF THE WORK

In administered The history of the study of Tolstoy's artistic heritage is briefly presented, the degree of research into the problems associated with his work is characterized, the subject and goals of this work, its relevance, theoretical and practical significance are determined.

The first chapter – “Early fantastic prose” – dedicated to Tolstoy’s prose dilogy “The Family of the Ghoul and “Meeting after Three Hundred Years” as his first science fiction works.

The first paragraph of the chapter “Romantic concept of the fantastic and creativity” includes an overview of romantic views on fantasy and imagination, necessary for understanding Tolstoy's attitude to the fantastic in fiction, and contains a comparison of these views with the position of the writer himself.

Since romantic ideas about the fantastic are examined in detail in the dissertation on Russian material, in our work, taking into account Tolstoy’s deep connections with the European romantic tradition, the main emphasis is on the aesthetics of foreign romanticism.

As is known, in the aesthetic works of F. Schlegel, C. Nodier and other romantics, an extensive and multifaceted concept of fantasy-imagination was developed, affecting both ontological aspects and direct aspects of artistic creativity. In one of his articles, C. Nodier wrote: “The two main sanctuaries of freedom are the faith of a religious person and the imagination of a poet.” The Romantics especially valued the ability to imagine in modern, purely pragmatic reality.

Tolstoy was highly characterized by that mystical sense of life, which in his works forms the basis for the definition of romanticism. According to the remark, “Romanticism was valuable for Tolstoy in its most diverse aspects and manifestations: in the affirmation of the ideal world, the aspiration to the “suprastellar”, eternal and infinite, in the worship of beauty, the cult of art as a “step to a better world”, the pathos of the original and national , in the charm of the mysterious and wonderful, etc.” Continuing the passion for science fiction, which was characteristic of Russian literature of the 30s and 40s. XIX century, Tolstoy's early prose reveals a connection with the tradition of early European romanticism. According to our observations, it fully expressed the immersion in the fantasy world characteristic of the romantics, the affirmation of the value and multidimensionality of fantasy, the desire to pose through fantasy the deep problems of existence, as well as the combination of the fantastic with the ironic.

Tolstoy's early prose is traditionally called fantastic, as it is united by the motifs of the supernatural invading ordinary reality. Tolstoy widely uses the philosophical, aesthetic and expressive possibilities of fiction: in his early prose it reflects the author’s view of the world and becomes one of the main ways of revealing the characters of the characters and the problems of the works. The dissertation develops the position that behind the usual everyday life, Tolstoy’s literary fantasy seems to glimpse the true structure of the universe, discovers patterns and cause-and-effect relationships between events that at first glance are unrelated, thereby creating an idea of ​​the diversity and unity of the Universe.

Fantasy in Tolstoy’s work reflects that very “human truth”, which is opposed to mechanical imitation in the depiction of nature, events, and characters. This “truth” is nothing more than the Artist’s loyalty to himself (see ibid.), his principles and understanding of reality, which is impossible to reflect in a work of art without having imagination. Thus, according to Tolstoy, fantasy turns out to be connected, on the one hand, with the freedom of artistic creativity, and, on the other hand, with familiarization with the deep secrets of the universe. Therefore, it seems natural that fantastic motifs and images that first appeared in Tolstoy’s early prose do not subsequently disappear from his works, but continue to develop throughout his entire creative career.

In the second paragraph of the first chapter - “Genre features of the stories “The Family of the Ghoul” and “Meeting after Three Hundred Years””– the question is raised about the specifics of these two works as a romantic dilogy, their main genre features are determined, and the common motifs that will be developed in the writer’s subsequent works are examined in detail.

The stories “The Family of the Ghoul” and “Meeting after Three Hundred Years” do not have an exact dating, but most researchers agree that they are Tolstoy’s earliest experiments in prose (late 30s – early 40s). These works are traditionally and rightly combined by researchers into a dilogy.

The dissertation provides new evidence of the structural commonality of the stories and reveals the artistic connections that hold them together. Thus, narratives from the characters’ perspectives are placed in frames. The internal text and the framing text interact in an original way, forming a complex system of points of view. The multi-level structure of a small work allows the writer to push genre boundaries and significantly expand the scope of the visual and expressive possibilities of the story.

Tolstoy's dilogy not only has common motifs that flow from one work to another, but also contains what is developed in further work. Already in these works of Tolstoy, a “sense of history” and the ability to recreate the color and style of the era were expressed. The stories are set in the past and have an exact historical date (1759, 1815). The dissertation puts forward the assumption that the dating of events had a certain meaning for Tolstoy and behind it lies a polemic with the skepticism and rationalism of the Enlightenment: fantastic events are experienced by heroes of the Enlightenment character, who, as a result of the terrible adventures they have experienced, are convinced of the existence of a world that was previously unknown suspected. Through the spiritual appearance, speech, behavior, and individual destinies of the heroes, Tolstoy seeks to paint the image of the gallant age of Louis XV, the court aristocracy, and at the same time the morals of rural Moldavia. The vividness of the reproduction of the color of the era is enhanced by the fact that the stories are written in French. All this does not make Tolstoy's stories historical (historical events and characters are mentioned quite briefly and mainly in the framing narrative), but they still contain features that he considers important for the poetics of the romantic novel.

The paragraph shows that the unified content that unfolds in the stories, along with fantastic events, already includes a novel beginning. Fantastic events develop against the backdrop of the love relationships of the heroes.

In the first stories, a powerful key, organizing element appears, stylistically marked in the text of the work and acting as a basic plot scheme. In “The Ghoul’s Family” this is Zdenka’s song, sung in her native language; in the second story, this is a family legend about the heroine’s great-great-grandmother. These elements not only reveal the plot scheme, but also help to reveal the leading motive of the duology - the motive of crime and atonement.

The research literature (,) has already noted the connection of both stories with the Gothic tradition. On this basis, Tolstoy's early fantastic prose is often defined as Gothic. In our opinion, Tolstoy perceives Gothic through the prism of its understanding by romanticism. It is from the romantics that Tolstoy inherits the fundamental polysemy of fantasy, the most complex fluctuations of meaning. The fantastic had several meanings for the romantics, but first of all, it was associated with the ability to discern the secrets of the universe and comprehend reality. In Tolstoy, the fantastic becomes an expression of the deep laws of the Universe; it acts as an active principle that drives the destinies of the heroes.

A common feature of Tolstoy's stories is also seen in the motif of the path. This motif, which runs through Tolstoy’s work, plays a plot-forming role in early fantastic prose, strengthening the connections between individual episodes, and in addition, it translates into reality the romantic idea of ​​​​the eternal dynamics of life.

The problem of family and home occupies a significant place in Tolstoy's first stories. Family ties, their emergence or disintegration, the hero’s marital status and his pedigree turn out to be important plot-forming components. Of particular importance are the ideas of moral duty and family continuity, which manifests itself in the possibility of atonement through many generations.

The third paragraph of the chapter is “The system of images in the stories “The Family of the Ghoul” and “Meeting after Three Hundred Years””– is devoted to a comprehensive analysis of the images of the heroes of the dilogy. The paragraph also compares the heroes of the dilogy and A. Hamilton’s novel “Memoirs of the Comte de Gramont”, based on which Tolstoy’s works may have been based.

The Marquis d'Urfe (“The Family of the Ghoul”) and the Duchess de Gramont (“Meeting after Three Hundred Years”) are heroes of the same era and the same circle, their cultural proximity is obvious. The images of these heroes are created by Tolstoy at the intersection of the romantic tradition and the tradition of French gallant prose of the 18th century, which reveals a subtle sense of historical flavor.

The Marquis d'Urfe, a man of his desires and passions, encounters the beyond and is convinced of its existence. The Duchess de Gramont is a real society lady, experienced in love games. However, a child’s faith in supernatural forces is alive in her soul; fantastic images from a legend she once heard appear unusually vividly in her imagination. The fantastic events that happened to the heroes do not radically change their characters, but still they discover a different area of ​​existence. The image of d'Urfe is endowed with the features of a romantic wanderer, and the collision with the fantastic world emphasizes the complexity and originality of his nature.

In addition to the images of the main characters, the dissertation specifically examines the system of doubles in both stories, which once again emphasizes the artistic unity of the works and the presence of a novelistic element in the dilogy.

In the second chapter - ““Ghoul” and “Amena” in the context of creative searches” – the genre features of the writer’s works are analyzed from the perspective of his further creative quests.

In the first paragraph - ““Ghoul” as a romantic fantasy story”– we are talking about the development in the story of the structural features and motives stated in the two earlier stories.

In the story "Ghoul", as in short stories, the frame structure of the narrative is implemented. However, the story represents a significantly more complex system of frameworks. The narrative becomes branching; the special structure of the story reveals cause-and-effect relationships between real and fantastic events, which generally corresponds to the author’s picture of the world.

The central place in the story is occupied by the family legend about Martha’s crime against her husband and the family curse that it entailed. This legend serves as the eventual and compositional core, the center to which all the lines of the narrative are somehow drawn together. It should be considered as the “ideological hub of all incidents” that underlies the plot of the story and is functionally identical to Zdenka’s song and the family legend in the early dilogy.

The story contains motifs that are cross-cutting throughout Tolstoy’s entire prose work. The paragraph discusses the motives of the path, family and home, the ideas of a person’s moral duty and life values. Unlike earlier stories, in Tolstoy's story the motive of the journey is expressed implicitly (travel through a fantasy world). At the same time, the fantastic in “The Ghoul” becomes a genre-forming principle: it permeates the entire work and determines the development of the plot.

The fantastic principle is in complex relationships with the historical. The events of “The Ghoul” unfold in a time close to the author, but the historical past is included in it in a unique way (for example, access to records in the city archive of Como). Through the colorful images of the old-fashioned Moscow foreman Sugrobina and adviser Telyaev, the Russian 18th century seems to come to life. The author's sense of history, the desire to reveal the contradictory nature of the era through human individuality is manifested very clearly here.

In the second paragraph of the chapter - “The fantastic as the genre basis of the story “Ghoul””– the significance of the definition of “The Ghoul” as a romantic fantasy story is substantiated.

In romantic literature, the fantastic becomes a way not only to recreate the popular worldview, but also to comprehend reality and human consciousness. Dark, “night” fantasy, characteristic of late romanticism, is associated by most researchers with the desire to penetrate into the essence of a terrible, disharmonious reality. Romantics are interested in transcendental spheres, the mysteries of the universe and its secret laws that manifest themselves in everyday life. The story realizes Tolstoy's romantic worldview, in which the ability to see the surroundings fantastically occupied a very important place. Thus, the familiar world appears infinitely deep and mysterious.

Tolstoy's early works are full of fantastic images, genetically derived from many sources, including ancient mythology, Little Russian folklore, and literary tradition. The fantastic in Tolstoy has an ambivalent nature. On the one hand, “dark” forces destroy Rybarenko and Antonio and threaten the lives of Vladimir, Dasha, Runevsky, but, on the other hand, the intervention of the fantastic leads to the fact that the lovers are safely united and retribution for the ancient betrayal is accomplished. But it cannot be said that the fantastic is finally leaving reality. The ending of the story is ambiguous: despite the fact that the plot ends happily, Runevsky is deeply imbued with faith in otherworldly forces and fantastic worlds.

In the story “The Ghoul,” the dark fantasy is personified in a whole series of characters whose nature is dual: for example, the foreman turns out to be a cursed beauty, the state councilor turns out to be a ghoul. The description of these characters is not without romantic irony. The image of the Black Domino, which has not previously been considered by researchers, stands out. The dissertation examines the infernal nature of this character and proposes the following interpretation: invading the human world, evil becomes even more terrible and destructive because the form it takes is indistinguishable from the human. The extreme blurriness of this image allows us to “suspect” the Black Domino in every person. Black Domino is "anyone", no one, and therefore - everyone, anyone, everyone. Any person you meet can turn out to be the bearer of a dark, hostile principle, and this is the tragic pathos of Tolstoy’s philosophy.

The fantastic in “The Ghoul” comes as close as possible to everyday life, becoming inseparable and practically indistinguishable from it. Tolstoy widely uses the technique of “everyday life” of fantasy, and the intensification of the terrible in the spirit of the Gothic tradition is closely intertwined with the romantic irony that often accompanies the introduction of the fantastic: the jewelry bought by Rybarenko from a smuggler is wrapped in human bones, including a child’s skull, and at the same time An ordinary pistol becomes an effective weapon in the fight against ghost vampires.

In the cause-and-effect relationships between the events occurring in the story “The Ghoul,” the relationship between the fantastic and the real is clearly manifested. The author still gives priority in relation to the causality of events to the fantastic. This corresponds to the romantic understanding of life as a miracle and largely reflects the worldview of Tolstoy himself. “The affirmation of the greatest “miracle” of life, birth, death, the “miracle” of creation and creativity - this is precisely the pathos of romanticism and the reasons for its greatest charm and popularity.”

Third paragraph called “The system of images of the story “Ghoul””.

Creating a developed system of images, Tolstoy is based on the principle of duality of characters and at the same time their different psychological reactions: heroes find themselves in similar situations testing the fantastic, because in Tolstoy’s understanding the fantastic is “an astral force, an executor of decisions, a force that serves both good and evil.” " The different behavior of the characters helps to reveal their characters.

The dissertation compares three characters (Runevsky, Rybarenko and Vladimir), and clarifies their roles in the artistic world of the story. In our opinion, the romantic motive of high madness is associated with the image of Rybarenko. The hero acts as an exponent of the mentality of an entire era, but this era is coming to an end. On the other hand, in the image of Rybarenko the vitality and relevance of romantic ideals and aspirations is affirmed.

The main character of the story, Runevsky, is given by Tolstoy in evolution. At the beginning of the story, he is an ordinary secular young man, but as he joins the fantastic world, he plays his role in resolving the family curse. The dissertation traces the change in the hero's worldview as the plot develops. The dialectical nature of Runevsky’s image reflects attention to the inner world of man, which originated in the literature of romanticism and developed in realistic literature.

The image of Dasha is of particular research interest. The heroine does not have any features that could be called portrait. It does not have a specific appearance, it is like a vague vision. But, starting to paint the image in a romantic vein, Tolstoy later follows a different path: resorting to psychological analysis, he strives to concretize the image, to give it greater lifelikeness.

In the fourth paragraph - “Genre and problems of the novel passage “Amen””– the genre is clarified and the artistic features of the latest work in the series of Tolstoy’s fantastic prose are explored.

In our opinion, relying on the literary tradition, systematizing his own artistic discoveries, Tolstoy sums up certain results of his literary activity and creates an extraordinary work in terms of structure, genre and conflict.

Compared to previous works, the historical basis of "Amena" deepens. Tolstoy turns to a very difficult, in many ways tragic time in ancient history: the era of early Christianity. The flavor of this era is recreated in the details of the setting, the characters of the characters, and their behavior. At the same time, the historical time reflected in “Amen”, without losing its specific features, acquires a mythological character. The motives for the moral decline of Rome and the suffering of early Christians are intricately combined with fantastic motives. The mythological nature of time in “Amen”, as well as the eternal problems of friendship, love, betrayal and repentance developed in the passage, determine the universality of the theme. In a particular episode, general patterns of historical development are traced; history appears in its movement and manifests itself in the lives of specific people. An important idea for the author is developed that the history of mankind is an inextricable process, and events that happen once do not pass without a trace, but have lasting consequences.

Amen implements a double frame structure. From the point of view of genre, the text inserted into the frame is a philosophical literary parable, which combines a description of specific events and an allegorical layer containing religious and moral instruction. The crime committed by Ambrose is a crime against conscience, against general moral laws, the exponent of which is Christianity. Tolstoy departs from the tradition of early romanticism, which idealized antiquity, and finds himself closer to the religious ideas of the late romantics.

Further in the paragraph, the complexity and ambiguity of constructing the image of the main character of “Amena” Ambrose is subjected to special consideration. At first glance, his glare and behavior evokes associations with the image of an infernal villain: Ambrose tells a terrible instructive story. But gradually it becomes clear that the hero of this story is himself, and a dissonance arises between the conventional Gothic appearance and the complex inner world of man. The character of Ambrose is revealed in dynamics that reflect the complex transitional era in the history of mankind.

The third chapter - “Prince Silver as a romantic historical novel”– constitutes a study of the artistic world and genre nature of the novel “Prince Silver”.

The first paragraph is “On some patterns of development of Russian historical prose”– dedicated to the genre of historical novel in Russian literature and in the work of Tolstoy.

The dissertation defends the idea of ​​the regularity of the appearance of the historical novel in Tolstoy’s work, since interest in history, attention to historical flavor was already present in his early works. Historicism is naturally asserted in Tolstoy’s works.

Tolstoy's deep interest in history is associated with its understanding in romanticism. For the romantics, history was an expression of the idea of ​​life moving, happening before our eyes; the history of romance was understood as a dynamic process (,). In their works, romantics artistically comprehend reality, including historical reality, trying to penetrate into the patterns operating in it, emphasizing its complex and contradictory nature.

The development of the Russian historical novel is most often associated with the works of W. Scott. However, it is incorrect to explain the appearance of the historical novel in Russian literature only by European influence. Throughout the 18th century. Russia is actively joining the European cultural context, gradually moving from mechanical borrowing to meaningful and selective continuity. In this regard, the need for national self-identification, turning to one’s own history and culture, searching for one’s roots and original ideas in all spheres of public life is becoming increasingly obvious. Thus, the emergence of the genre of historical story, and then the historical novel, in Russian literature turns out to be quite natural. It seems logical to turn to the history of Tolstoy: a consistent romantic, he saw in history a reflection of life in progress, as well as the causes of many of the problems and difficulties of modern Russian society.

In the second paragraph - “Principles of romantic historicism"– based on existing research, some features of Tolstoy’s historical concept are clarified

As is known, Tolstoy retained his interest in national history and culture throughout his entire work. History provided Tolstoy with ample opportunities both for artistic creativity and for expressing his philosophical, ethical, aesthetic, and civic position. However, the most important in Tolstoy’s works are moral conflicts. History in its dynamics becomes both the embodiment and development of these conflicts, revealing the close connection between past eras and the present. In the novel “Prince Silver,” Tolstoy explores in artistic form the moral meaning of the era of Ivan the Terrible and comes to the conclusion that the lessons of history do not pass without leaving a trace. Tolstoy affirms the idea of ​​the connection between generations and the responsibility of one generation for what was done by the previous one. This idea, developed in the novel, has its origins in early fantastic prose.

Tolstoy, like many Russian writers, in the past was interested in bright, strong, strong-willed personalities, which were often not found in modern times. The novel presents a thorough (almost painstaking) study of the personality of Ivan the Terrible. Silver's character is manifested in his actions, which are carried out at the behest not so much of the mind as of the heart. The character of Godunov, whose life position, on the contrary, is fundamentally rationalistic, is revealed in disputes with Serebryany. A love conflict helps to understand Vyazemsky’s image, while Skuratov’s is a family conflict. And although the methods of psychologism that Tolstoy resorts to are different, through the images of all the heroes of the novel, the complexity and ambiguity of the transitional era in the history of Russia is expressed in one way or another.

As researchers have repeatedly noted, Tolstoy, while working with multiple sources when creating works and insisting on observing even historical spelling, still handles history itself quite freely. It allows for anachronisms and a peculiar montage of historical time. For Tolstoy, as a romantic writer, the highest moral meaning of history and its movement were of paramount importance, and not at all external historical verisimilitude. In romantic art, the most important thing is not the truth of fact, but the truth of the ideal, the fateful aspiration of history, its pattern and highest meaning. Tolstoy sees this meaning in overcoming evil with good, love, and forgiveness.

In the third paragraph - “Moral conflict and problems of the novel “Prince Silver””– the problems of the novel are analyzed and the transformation of themes, ideas and motives of early prose in the novel is traced.

Considering the conflict of “Prince Silver”, we note its romantic nature. In the novel, enthusiasm and despotism collide: acts for the benefit of people, which Serebryany commits without hesitation, are contrasted with the crimes of Ivan the Terrible, who deliberately suppresses both individual people and the entire Russian people in general.

Special attention in the dissertation is paid to the ending of the novel. The dissertation proves its complex, “promising” nature: the emergence of the theme of the conquest of Siberia, further Russian history, the depiction of the heroism and prowess of the Russian people create a brighter historical perspective and soften the gloomy image of the cruel age of Ivan the Terrible. The creation of a bright historical perspective is considered in the dissertation as a striking feature of the romantic historical novel.

In the novel, Tolstoy continues to develop the themes, ideas, and motives that he stated in his fantastic works, and resorts to some already proven artistic techniques.

Thus, in the organization of the novel one can feel traces of the framework structure characteristic of early fantastic prose. In the preface and at the end of the novel, the author's narrative principle is powerfully manifested, cementing the artistic unity of the work.

Another structural feature of Tolstoy’s early fantastic prose, realized in the novel, is the nodal element. In the novel, this is a scene of witchcraft-prophecy at a mill. The key element in Tolstoy’s works is the point in the development of the plot from which the further course of events and the fate of the heroes can be seen. The presence of key elements is an important principle of organization of Tolstoy’s prose works.

A number of motifs from Tolstoy’s early prose are refracted in an original way in the novel. “Prince Silver” is structured as a travel novel. Silver moves actively throughout the action; We get to know him and part ways on the road. Silver's journey, which has no visible final goal, is not meaningless. At every stage of the journey, the hero does what his moral duty dictates, loyalty to the king, devotion to the fatherland. Silver is an enthusiastic hero, and active movement is an important aspect of his image. Each time, acting as his conscience and honor tell him, Silver begins a new stage of his journey, with his actions in each situation unconsciously contributing to the establishment of goodness and justice.

The death of Serebryany, which caused bewilderment among Tolstoy’s contemporaries, seems to us natural. The hero himself admits: “My thoughts have gone crazy...<…>now everything in front of me has darkened; I no longer see where the lie is and where the truth is. All good perishes, all evil overcomes!<…>Often, Elena Dmitrievna, Kurbsky came to my mind, and I drove away these sinful thoughts from myself, while I still had a goal for my life, while I had strength; but I no longer have a goal, and my strength has reached its end...” The destruction of state foundations, the collapse of the ideals of fair government, and national disasters are perceived by Serebryany as a personal catastrophe. Throughout the novel, the hero follows his ideals, “the dictates of a noble heart,” but those events that he witnesses or participates in do not pass without a trace for him. By the end of the novel, the hero finds himself face to face with the need to reconsider his priorities and reassess spiritual and civic values. Serebryany's imminent death frees him from moral torment, which could turn into betrayal (of the fatherland or his ideals) and madness. Thus, throughout his entire life, Silver remains faithful to the ideals of honor, nobility and active goodness. Tolstoy's idea of ​​the integral existence of an integral personality was most fully embodied in the novel “Prince Silver”.

The motifs of family and home occupy an important place in the novel. The families depicted in the novel “Prince Silver” are characterized by dysfunctional conditions, but conflicts between members of the same family are based, as a rule, not on family, but on moral grounds (for example, the conflict between Maxim Skuratov and his father). The novel shows the process of disintegration of family ties, coupled with the motifs of homelessness and wandering, characteristic of the romanticism of the Byronic period.

Romantic fiction, which determines the main content of Tolstoy's early prose, also occupies an important place in his novel. The fantastic and real-historical principles are not opposed, but actively interact with each other, giving rise to the organic world of a work of art, the originality of which is ensured by the implementation of the author’s expanded concept of reality. Compared to early prose, where fantasy was explicit (terminology), in the novel it becomes veiled, but does not lose its significance. Firstly, the key element of the novel is associated with the interpenetration of the fantastic and the real. Secondly, the fantastic reflects the beliefs of people of the 16th century and helps to recreate the national and historical flavor of the novel.

In conclusion, the results of the dissertation research are summed up. Consideration of genre evolution led us to the conclusion that Tolstoy’s prose is a holistic phenomenon; it reveals the constancy of his aesthetic principles and literary interests. There was no sharp transition between the stages of Tolstoy’s work: what appeared in his novel was contained in his early prose works.

The main provisions of the dissertation are reflected

in the following publications:

Publications in peer-reviewed scientific publications included in the register of the Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation:

1. Gromova: on the issue of creative evolution // News of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after. . Series: Social Sciences and Humanities. – No. 000. – St. Petersburg: Russian State Pedagogical University named after. , 2011. – No. 000. – P. 54 – 61.

2. Gromova and the problems of prose // Bulletin of Tver State University. Series: Philology. – Tver: Tver. state University, 2011. – Issue. 3. – P. 206 – 210.

Publications in other publications:

3. Speaking of literary hoaxes and the Count’s creative quest (based on the stories “The Ghoul’s Family” and “Meeting after Three Hundred Years”) // Romanticism: Facets and Fates. Uch. zap. NIUL CYPRUS TvSU. – Tver: Tver. state univ., 2008. – pp. 44-48.

4. Gromov’s images in the story “Ghoul” in the context of the Russian historical and literary movement from romanticism to realism // World of Romanticism: materials of the International. scientific conference "The World of Romanticism". – Tver, May 26 – 29, 2008 – Tver: Tver. state univ., 2008. – T.13(37). – P. 253 – 258.

5. Grom’s fiction in early prose // Word: collection. scientific works of students and graduate students. – Tver, 2009. – Issue. 7. – pp. 18 – 23.

6. Gromov’s dualism and spatial organization of prose // World of Romanticism: collection. scientific tr.: To the 95th anniversary of the professor’s birth and the 50th anniversary of the romantic school he created. – Tver: Tver. state Univ., 2009. –T– P. 210-219.

7. Gromov’s fantasy and fiction in the aesthetics of Western European romantics // Romanticism: facets and destinies: Scientific notes. REC CYPRUS TvSU. – Tver: Scientific book, 2010. – Issue 9. – P.19–25.

8. Thunder’s nights in prose // Romanticism: facets and destinies: study. zap. REC CYPRUS TvSU. – Tver: Scientific book, 2010. – Issue 9. – pp. 81-86.

9. Gromov of Moscow in the novel “Prince Silver” // Moscow in Russian and world literature: abstract. report II International Scientific Conference. – Moscow, RAS IMLI named after. , 2010. – P.8 – 9.

10. Gromova Skopins-Shuiskys in creative comprehension // Materials of the regional scientific conference “Tver Book: Old Russian Heritage and Modernity”. – Tver, 2010. – P.37 – 49.

11. Gromova’s prose hero in the context of the theory of passionarity. // Materials of the International Scientific Conference “V Akhmatov Readings. , : Book. Piece of art. Document". – Tver: Tver. state University, 2009. – P.74 – 81.

12. “Amena” to the problem of the hero // Bulletin of Tver State University. Series: Philology. – Tver: Tver. state University, 2010. – Issue. 5. – P.176 – 180.

Tver State University

Editorial and Publishing Department

Tver, st. Zhelyabova, 33.

Tel. RIU: (48

Fedorov fantastic prose and traditions of romanticism in Russian prose of the 40s: abstract of the dissertation... candidate of philological sciences. – M., 2000. – 33 p.

See: Fedorov. Op.

Literary manifestos of Western European romantics / ed. . – M.: Nauka, 1980. – P. 411.

Zhirmunsky romanticism and modern mysticism. – St. Petersburg: Akhyuma, 1996.

Kartashov’s fiction in the romantic works of the forties // World of Romanticism: collection. scientific works – Tver: TvGU, 2003. – T– P. 87.

Tolstoy's production of the tragedy "" // Tolstoy's works in 4 volumes - M.: Pravda, 1980. - T. 3. - P. 446.

See: Reizov’s novel of the 19th century. – M.: Higher School, 1977. – P. 9 – 31.

Memoirs of the Comte de Gramont. – M.: Khud. lit., 1993.

Kartashov into the theory of romanticism. –Tver: Tver State University, 1991. –S. 53.

Tolstoy to from 01.01.01 // Tolstoy. op.–T. 4. – P. 353.

According to most biographers, “Amena” was written in 1846. See about this: ,: Biography and analysis of his main works. – St. Petersburg: I. Zagryazhsky, 1909; Kondratiev: materials for the history of life and creativity. – St. Petersburg: Lights, 1912; “The heart is full of inspiration...”: Life and creativity. – Tula: Priok. book ed., 1973.

Tolstoy Silver // Tolstoy. Op. – T. 2. – P. 372.

Artistic method - this is the principle (method) of selecting the phenomena of reality, the features of their assessment and the originality of their artistic embodiment; that is, method is a category related to both content and artistic form. It is possible to determine the originality of one or another method only by considering the general historical trends in the development of art. In different periods of the development of literature, we can observe that different writers or poets are guided by the same principles of understanding and depicting reality. In other words, the method is universal and is not directly related to specific historical conditions: we are talking about the realistic method and in connection with the comedy of A.S. Griboyedov, and in connection with the work of F.M. Dostoevsky, and in connection with the prose of M.A. Sholokhov. And the features of the romantic method are revealed both in the poetry of V.A. Zhukovsky, and in the stories of A.S. Greena. However, there are periods in the history of literature when one or another method becomes dominant and acquires more specific features associated with the characteristics of the era and trends in culture. And in this case we are already talking about literary direction . Directions in a wide variety of forms and relationships can appear in any method. For example, L.N. Tolstoy and M. Gorky are realists. But only by determining to which direction the work of one or another writer belongs, we will be able to understand the differences and features of their artistic systems.

Literary movement - manifestation of ideological and thematic unity, homogeneity of plots, characters, language in the works of several writers of the same era. Often writers themselves are aware of this affinity and express it in so-called “literary manifestos”, declaring themselves a literary group or school and giving themselves a certain name.

Classicism (from Latin classicus - sample) - a movement that arose in European art and literature of the 17th century, based on the cult of reason and the idea of ​​the absolute (independent of time and nationality) nature of the aesthetic ideal. Hence, the main task of art becomes the closest possible approximation to this ideal, which received its most complete expression in antiquity. Therefore, the principle of “working according to a model” is one of the fundamental principles in the aesthetics of classicism.

The aesthetics of classicism is normative; “disorganized and willful” inspiration was contrasted with discipline, strict adherence to once and for all established rules. For example, the rule of “three unities” in drama: unity of action, unity of time and unity of place. Or the rule of “purity of genre”: whether a work belongs to a “high” (tragedy, ode, etc.) or “low” (comedy, fable, etc.) genre determined its subject matter, the types of characters, and even the development of the plot and style. The opposition of duty to feeling, rational to emotional, the requirement to always sacrifice personal desires for the sake of the public good is largely explained by the enormous educational role that the classicists assigned to art.

Classicism received its most complete form in France (the comedies of Moliere, the fables of La Fontaine, the tragedies of Corneille and Racine).

Russian classicism arose in the 2nd quarter of the 18th century and was associated with educational ideology (for example, the idea of ​​​​the value of a person beyond the class), characteristic of the successors of the reforms of Peter I. Russian classicism, already at its very beginning, was characterized by a satirical, accusatory orientation. For Russian classicists, a literary work is not an end in itself: it is only a path to the improvement of human nature. In addition, it was Russian classicism that paid more attention to national characteristics and folk art, without focusing exclusively on foreign examples.

Poetic genres occupy a large place in the literature of Russian classicism: odes, fables, satires. Various aspects of Russian classicism were reflected in the odes of M.V. Lomonosov (high civic pathos, scientific and philosophical themes, patriotic orientation), in the poetry of G.R. Derzhavin, in the fables of I.A. Krylov and in the comedies of D.I. Fonvizina.

Sentimentalism (from santimentas - feeling) - a literary movement in Western Europe and Russia at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century, characterized by the elevation of feeling to the main aesthetic category. Sentimentalism became a kind of reaction to the rationality of classicism. The cult of feelings led to a more complete disclosure of the inner world of man, to the individualization of the images of heroes. It also gave rise to a new attitude towards nature: the landscape became not just a backdrop for the development of action, it turned out to be in tune with the personal experiences of the author or characters. The emotional vision of the world required other poetic genres (elegy, pastoral, message), and other vocabulary - figurative words, colored with feeling. In this regard, the author-narrator begins to play a large role in the work, freely expressing his “sensitive” attitude towards the characters and their actions, as if inviting the reader to share these emotions (as a rule, the main one is “touchedness,” that is, pity, compassion ).

The aesthetic program of Russian sentimentalism is most fully reflected in the works of N.M. Karamzin (story “Poor Liza”). The connection between Russian sentimentalism and educational ideas can be seen in the works of A.N. Radishchev (“Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”).

Romanticism - creative method and artistic direction in Russian and European (as well as American) literature of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. The main subject of the image in romanticism is the person, the individual. A romantic hero is, first of all, a strong, extraordinary nature, a person overwhelmed by passions and capable of creatively perceiving (sometimes transforming) the world around him. The romantic hero, due to his exclusivity and unusualness, is incompatible with society: he is lonely and most often in conflict with everyday life. From this conflict a kind of romantic dual world is born: the confrontation between the sublime world of dreams and dull, “wingless” reality. The romantic hero is located at the “intersection point” of these spaces. Such an exceptional character can only act in exceptional circumstances, therefore the events of romantic works unfold in an exotic, unusual setting: in countries unknown to readers, in distant historical eras, in other worlds...

Unlike classicism, romanticism turns to folk-poetic antiquity not only for ethnographic, but also for aesthetic purposes, finding a source of inspiration in national folklore. In a romantic work, the historical and national coloring, historical details, and background of the era are reproduced in detail, but all this becomes only a kind of decoration for recreating the inner world of a person, his experiences, and aspirations. In order to more accurately convey the experiences of an extraordinary personality, romantic writers depicted them against the backdrop of nature, which uniquely “refracted” and reflected the characteristics of the hero’s character. Stormy elements - the sea, a blizzard, a thunderstorm - were especially attractive to romantics. The hero has a complex relationship with nature: on the one hand, the natural elements are akin to his passionate character, on the other hand, the romantic hero struggles with the elements, not wanting to recognize any restrictions on his own freedom. The passionate desire for freedom as an end in itself becomes one of the main things for the romantic hero and often leads him to tragic death.

V.A. is traditionally considered the founder of Russian romanticism. Zhukovsky; Romanticism manifested itself most clearly in the poetry of M.Yu. Lermontov, in the works of A.A. Fet and A.K. Tolstoy; at a certain period of his work, A.S. paid tribute to romanticism. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, F.I. Tyutchev.

Realism (from realis - material) - a creative method and literary direction in Russian and world literature of the 19th and 20th centuries. The word “realism” is often used to describe different concepts (critical realism, socialist realism; there is even the term “magical realism”). Let's try to highlight the main features of Russian realism of the 19th-20th centuries.

Realism is built on the principles of artistic historicism, i.e. he recognizes the existence of objective reasons, social and historical patterns that influence the personality of the hero and help explain his character and actions. This means that the hero may have different motivations for his actions and experiences. The pattern of actions and the cause-and-effect relationship between personality and circumstances is one of the principles of realistic psychologism. Instead of an exceptional, extraordinary romantic personality, realists place at the center of the narrative a typical character - a hero, whose features (for all the individual uniqueness of his character) reflect certain general characteristics of either a certain generation or a certain social group. Realist authors avoid an unambiguous assessment of heroes and do not divide them into positive and negative, as is often the case in classic works. The characters’ characters are given in development; under the influence of objective circumstances, the heroes’ views evolve (for example, the path of Andrei Bolkonsky’s quest in L.N. Tolstoy’s novel “War and Peace”). Instead of unusual, exceptional circumstances, so beloved by romantics, realism chooses ordinary, everyday living conditions as the setting for the development of events in a work of art. Realistic works strive to most fully depict the causes of conflicts, the imperfection of man and society, and the dynamics of their development.

The most prominent representatives of realism in Russian literature: A.N. Ostrovsky, I.S. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov.

Realism and Romanticism- two different ways of seeing reality, they are based on different concepts of the world and man. But these methods are not mutually exclusive: many achievements of realism became possible only through the creative development and rethinking of the romantic principles of depicting the individual and the Universe. In Russian literature, many works combine both methods of depiction, for example, the poem by N.V. Gogol’s “Dead Souls” or the novel by M.A. Bulgakov "The Master and Margarita".

Modernism (from the French moderne - newest, modern) - the general name of new (non-realistic) phenomena in the literature of the first half of the 20th century. The era of the emergence of modernism was a crisis, a turning point, marked by the events of the First World War, the rise of revolutionary sentiments in different European countries. In the conditions of the collapse of one world order and the emergence of another, during the period of intensifying ideological struggle, philosophy and literature acquired particular importance. This historical and literary period (in particular, poetry created between 1890 and 1917) was called the Silver Age in the history of Russian literature.

Russian modernism, despite the variety of aesthetic programs, was united by a common task: the search for new artistic means of depicting a new reality. This desire was most consistently and definitely realized in four literary movements: symbolism, futurism, acmeism and imagism.

Symbolism - a literary movement that emerged in Russia in the early 90s of the 19th century. It is based on the philosophical ideas of Nietzsche and Schopenhauer, as well as the teachings of B.C. Solovyov about “The Soul of the World”. The symbolists contrasted the traditional way of understanding reality with the idea of ​​creating worlds in the process of creativity. It is art, in their opinion, that is capable of recording the highest reality that appears to the artist at the moment of inspiration. Therefore, creativity in the understanding of the symbolists - the contemplation of “secret meanings” - is accessible only to the poet-creator. The value of poetic speech lies in understatement, in concealing the meaning of what is said. As can be seen from the very name of the direction, the main role in it is given to the symbol - the main means capable of conveying the seen, “caught” secret meaning of what is happening. The symbol becomes the central aesthetic category of the new literary movement.

Among Symbolists, it is traditional to distinguish between “senior” Symbolists and “junior” Symbolists. Among the “senior” symbolists, the most famous are K.D. Balmont, V.Ya. Bryusov, F.K. Sologub. These poets declared themselves and a new literary direction in the 90s of the 19th century. “Younger” Symbolists Vyach. Ivanov, A. Bely, A.A. Blok came to literature in the early 1900s. The “older” symbolists denied the surrounding reality, contrasted dream and creativity with reality (the word “decadence” is often used to define such an emotional and ideological position). The “younger” believed that in reality the “old world”, which had outlived its usefulness, would perish, and the coming “new world” would be built on the basis of high spirituality and culture.

Acmeism (from the Greek akme - blooming power, the highest degree of something) - a literary movement in the poetry of Russian modernism, which contrasted the aesthetics of symbolism with a “clear view” of life. It is not without reason that other names for Acmeism are clarism (from the Latin clarus - clear) and “Adamism” after the biblical forefather of all people Adam, who gave names to everything around him. Supporters of Acmeism tried to reform the aesthetics and poetics of Russian symbolism; they abandoned excessive metaphoricality, complexity, one-sided passion for symbolism and called for a “return” to the exact meaning of the word, “to the earth.” Only material nature was recognized as real. But the “earthly” worldview of the Acmeists was exclusively aesthetic in nature. Acmeist poets tend to turn to a single everyday object or natural phenomenon, poeticize individual “things,” and abandon socio-political themes. “Longing for world culture” - this is how O.E. defined Acmeism. Mandelstam.

Representatives of Acmeism were N.S. Gumilev, A.A. Akhmatova, O.E. Mandelstam and others, who united in the “Workshop of Poets” circle and grouped themselves around the Apollo magazine.

Futurism (from Latin futurum - future) - a literary movement of an avant-garde nature. In the first manifesto of the Russian futurists (they often called themselves “Budetlyans”) there was a call to break with traditional culture and reconsider the significance of the classical artistic heritage: “Dump Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, etc. and so on. from the Steamboat of Modernity." The futurists declared themselves opponents of the existing bourgeois society and sought to recognize and anticipate in their art the coming world revolution. Futurists advocated the destruction of established literary genres, deliberately turned to “reduced, vulgar” vocabulary, and called for the creation of a new language that did not limit word creativity. Futurist art put the improvement and renewal of the work's form in the foreground, while the content either faded into the background or was considered insignificant.

Russian futurism became a distinctive artistic movement and was associated with four main groups: “Gilea” (cubo-futurists V.V. Khlebnikov, V.V. Mayakovsky, D.D. Burlyuk, etc.), “Centrifuge” (N.N. Aseev , B.L. Pasternak and others), “Association of Ego-Futurists” (I. Severyanin and others), “Mezzanine of Poetry” (R. Ivnev, V.G. Shershenevich and others).

Imagism (from English or French image - image) is a literary movement that arose in Russian literature in the first years after the October Revolution. The most “left-wing” imagists proclaimed the main task of poetry to be “eating meaning by an image,” and followed the path of the intrinsic value of the image, weaving a chain of metaphors. “A poem is... a wave of images,” wrote one of the theorists of imagism. In practice, many imagists gravitated towards an organic image, fused in mood and thought with the holistic perception of the poem. Representatives of Russian imagism were A.B. Mariengof, V.G. Shershenevich. The most talented poet, who theoretically and practically went far beyond the scope of the manifestos of imagism, was S.A. Yesenin.

What creative method, based on the principles of artistic historicism, is leading in the work of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin?

Answer: realism.

Indicate the name of the literary movement that arose in Russia in the 2nd quarter of the 18th century, to which the work of M.V. is traditionally attributed. Lomonosova, D.I. Fonvizin and G.R. Derzhavina.

Answer: classicism.

Which of the named poetic genres is a genre of sentimentalist poetry?

2) ballad

3) elegy

4) fable

V.A. is called the founder of which literary movement in Russian literature? Zhukovsky?

Answer: romanticism.

Which literary movement, recognizing the existence of objective socio-historical patterns, is leading in the work of L.N. Tolstoy?

Answer: realism.

Indicate the name of the literary movement that arose in Russian literature in the 30-40s of the 19th century and sought to objectively depict the reasons for the imperfection of socio-political relations; direction to which the work of M.E. belongs. Saltykov-Shchedrin.

Answer: realism/critical realism.

In the manifesto of which literary movement at the beginning of the 20th century it was stated: “Only we are the face of our Time” and proposed to “throw Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy and others off the Steamboat of Modernity”?

1) symbolism

2) acmeism

3) futurism

4) imagism

At an early stage of his work, A.A. Akhmatova acted as one of the representatives of the literary movement

1) acmeism 2) symbolism 3) futurism 4) realism

The Silver Age in Russian literature is the period of development of literature, in particular poetry.

1) after 1917

2) from 1905 to 1917

3) late 19th century

4) between 1890 and 1917

Starting his poetic career, V.V. Mayakovsky acted as one of the active representatives

1) acmeism

2) symbolism

3) futurism

4) realism

At one of the stages of S.A.’s creative path. Yesenin joined the group of poets 1) Acmeists

2) symbolists

3) futurists

4) imagists

In Russian poetry K.D. Balmont acted as one of the representatives

1) acmeism

2) symbolism

Composition

In Tolstoy's Sevastopol stories, the method of artistic depiction of war was already clearly defined, which manifested itself in full force on the pages of War and Peace. In them (and those close to them at the time - Caucasian stories) the typology of soldier and officer characters that is so widely and fully revealed in many chapters of the epic novel is clearly outlined. Having deeply realized the historical significance of the feat of the defenders of Sevastopol, Tolstoy turns to the era of the Patriotic War of 1812, which culminated in the complete victory of the Russian people and their army. In the Caucasian and Sevastopol stories, Tolstoy expressed his conviction that human character is revealed most fully and deeply during times of danger, that failures and defeats are the most powerful test of the character of a Russian person, his perseverance, firmness, and endurance. That is why he began War and Peace not with a description of the events of 1812, but with a story about the unsuccessful foreign campaign of 1805:

* “If,” he says, “the reason for our triumph (in 1812) was not accidental, but lay in the essence of the character of the Russian people and troops, then this character should have been expressed even more clearly in the era of failures and defeats.”

As we see, in “War and Peace” Tolstoy sought to preserve and develop the techniques of revealing the characters of the heroes that he used in his early works. The difference lies primarily in the scale of the task. The future Olenin in the story “Cossacks”. Tolstoy began to create the novel, experiencing an exceptional creative surge: “I am now a writer with all the strength of my soul, and I write and think about it as I have never written or thought about it before.”

In letters to loved ones sent at the end of 1863, Tolstoy said that he was writing “a novel from the times of 1810 and 20” and that it would be “a long novel.” On its pages, the writer intended to capture fifty years of Russian history: “My task,” he says in one of the unfinished prefaces to this novel, “is to describe the lives and conflicts of certain individuals in the period from 1805 to 1856.” He points out here that in 1856 he began writing a story, “the hero of which was supposed to be a Decembrist returning with his family to Russia.” In order to understand his hero and more fully imagine his character, the writer decided to show how he took shape and developed. For this purpose, Tolstoy several times moved the beginning of the action of the planned novel from one era to another - increasingly earlier (from 1856 to 1825, and then to 1812 and, finally, to 1805)
This enormous-scale plan was given the title by Tolstoy - “Three Pores”. The beginning of the century, the time of youth of the future Decembrists - the first time. The second is the 20s with their peak - the uprising of December 14, 1825. And finally, the third time - the middle of the century - the ending of the Crimean War, which was unsuccessful for the Russian army; sudden death of Nikolai; return from exile of the surviving Decembrists; the wind of change that awaited Russia, which was on the eve of the abolition of serfdom.

In the course of working on the implementation of this enormous plan, Tolstoy gradually narrowed its scope, limiting himself to the first period and only briefly touching upon the second period only in the epilogue of the work. But the “shortened” version also required enormous effort from the author.

In September 1864, an entry appeared in Tolstoy’s diary, from which we learn that he did not keep a diary for almost a year, that during this year he wrote ten printed sheets, and is now “in a period of correction and reworking” and that this is a state for him “ painful." In this preface, written at the end of 1863, he again returns to the same questions of artistic method that he posed in the above diary entries of the 50s and early 60s. What should an artist be guided by when covering historical figures and events? To what extent can he use “fiction” in order to connect “images, pictures and thoughts,” especially if they “were born of themselves” in his imagination?

In this first draft of the preface, Tolstoy calls the planned work “a story from the year 12” and says that his plan is filled with “majestic, deep and comprehensive content.” These words are perceived as evidence of the epic nature of his plan, which was determined already at the very early stage of work on War and Peace. If the writer had decided to create a family novel chronicling the lives of several noble families, as researchers have long believed, then he would not have faced the difficulties that he talks about in the unfinished drafts of the preface to War and Peace. As soon as Tolstoy transported his hero to the “glorious era of 1812 for Russia,” he saw that his original plan would have to undergo a radical change. His hero came into contact with “half-historical, half-public, half-fictional great characters of a great era.” At the same time, Tolstoy was faced with the question of depicting historical figures and events. In the same draft of the preface, the writer speaks with hostility about “patriotic essays about '12,” which evoke in readers “unpleasant feelings of shyness and distrust.”

Tolstoy criticized official, jingoistic works about the era of the Patriotic War of 1812 long before he began writing War and Peace. Creating one of the most patriotic works of world literature, Tolstoy denounced and exposed the false patriotism of official historians and opinionated fiction writers who glorified Tsar Alexander and his entourage and belittled the merits of the people and commander Kutuzov. All of them depicted the victory of the Russian army over the armies of Napoleon in the style of victory reports, the spirit of which Tolstoy hated even during the time of his participation in the defense of Sevastopol.

Beginning his stories about the defenders of Sevastopol, Tolstoy warned the reader: “You... will not see the war in a correct, beautiful, brilliant system with music and drumming, with fluttering banners and prancing generals, but you will see the war in its real expression - in blood, in suffering , in death."