I. S. Turgenev. The life and work of the writer are interesting facts on literature (grade 10) on the topic. Brief analysis of Turgenev's prose poems

Turgenev began to create in the 1st half of the 19th century. His main big play, A Month in the Country, was written in 1850. He has about 10 plays and the same number unfinished. He gravitated towards drama and this way of conveying thoughts was natural for him. He searched for his direction for a long time. At first it was an imitation of Byron.

“imprudence” 1834 Parody of the Spanish comedies Cloak and Sword

“lack of money” copied Gogol. Zhazikov is the son of a district nobleman, works as an official in St. Petersburg. I'm in debt all around. Absolute Khlestakov and his servant Matvey also look like Osip. This is very much in the style of Gogol, but not fantastic realism, but naturalism.

“Breakfast at the Leader’s” is also a continuation of the Gogol tradition

He continues to search for his style

He is greatly influenced by the French playwrights Marive O, Marim e.

“Where it is thin there it breaks.” The whole play is built on a play on words, like Marivaux’s. The play is masterfully done, the text is amazing.

“The Freeloader” is a play written for Shchepkin. Turgenev’s own style is already manifested here. It raises the social problem of poor nobles who end up as parasites of richer ones who buy estates from them. These parasites become jesters in these houses. Kuzovkin, the main character of this play, does not become a jester, everything turns out well. It so happened that for 20 years he generally lived on an estate without owners. And the play begins with the arrival of a young lady and her husband. And a neighbor who comes to visit encourages the new owners to laugh at Kuzovkin. Make a fool out of him. He is driven to the point of breakdown and in an impulse he reveals a terrible secret, that the young lady is his daughter. This is how Act 1 ends. Act 2 is a duet between father and daughter, essentially his confession. This is not just a story. He is worried about how she will accept this story. What will happen. How will they continue to live? He is even ready to say that he is lying. This story is written in such a way that Kuzovkin’s condition comes to the fore. And these are already signs of the presence of a supporting plan in drama. Usually the 2nd plan always has access to the surface. It doesn't stay hidden. And it manifests itself either in some kind of phrase or in action. Unlike the subtext, which is on the conscience of the artist, the background must be derived literary.

"Freeloader" falls under censorship ban. There are no parasites in Russia! no one ruins the nobles' nests.) As a result, Shchepkin is left without Turgenev's play. Turgenev writes “The Bachelor” for him. He also has "Provincial". These plays are good, but small.

The theater hosts 3 performances per evening. One-act vaudevilles are performed at the assembly of the auditorium and at the departure of the auditorium. And the central one is a big play. And Turgenev is not a format. For the center, his plays are small, but at the beginning and end they are too serious. Therefore, actors often used his plays in concerts. Turgenev comes to the conclusion that he failed to conquer the theater. And frees himself from this. But at this moment he suddenly writes the five-act “Month”. As he said, the play is for reading, not suitable for the theater. This is a novel in dramatic form. The law of dramaturgy is the law of alienation. The playwright must leave the play and leave the characters. And a play can therefore have many solutions. This is a plus.

There is also lyrical drama, a type of dramaturgy. That’s where the playwright remains. (Blok’s plays). If the playwright remains in the play, then the play only has 1 decision, dictated by him. This solution needs to be guessed. It is successful if the author works together with the director (Vishnevsky, Tairov “optimistic tragedy”, Blok and Meyerhold “Balaganchik”)

Despite the fact that “The Month” was written according to the laws of drama, it feels like you are reading a novel. The presence of the author is felt. From the dialogues, nature, atmosphere, morning states, and the characters’ states emerge.

This is the first work in which a second plan is written out for the entire play. You feel it almost physically.

The play begins like this. No matter how any play in world drama began, it began with parallel action. Natalya Petrovna with Rakitin and the company (Islaev’s mother, companion and German) are playing cards.

This is not yet a second plan. Later, Chekhov will give a 2nd plan with parallel action.

In Turgenev, this parallel action shows the multiplicity of events that take place on the estate. The atmosphere is shown here. The state of summer laziness, a noble house where no one works except Islaev. In the pair of N.P. and Rakitin, we feel some kind of secret life. Rakitin, who has just arrived, is trying to find out what happened in his absence.

They are reading Dumas' book The Count of Monte Cristo. They can't go beyond one sentence. They slow down all the time, moving on to another topic of conversation. The author shows by this that they do not just read, but find out their attitude. That there is tension in the relationship. N.P. leads the conversation to Belyaev as the third in their almost love relationship. This is where the tension arises. It seems that nothing has happened yet, but anxiety has already entered the text and the characters. The dialogues are especially well written. Dialogue between Verochka and N.P. She is worried that the young people are in love and N.P. doesn’t want to share it with anyone, although she doesn’t yet fully understand that she’s in love. She calls Verochka under the pretext to talk about the proposal of her neighbor Bolshintsov, but her secret desire is to understand what the relationship between Verochka and Belyaev is. By cunning N.P. gets Verochka to admit that she likes Belyaev. And he? Verochka doesn’t know, she says, maybe... And this phrase dramatically changes the situation. This is the moment when the Author suddenly releases that main interest of N.P. that main idea for the sake of which she was conducting the conversation. N.P. instantly becomes different and abruptly drives Verochka away. And with this change of mood, change of dialogue, Turgenev reveals plan 2, which existed throughout the entire scene. And in another scene, almost in the finale, Verochka tells Belyaev that N.P. in love with him. She behaves boldly and boldly, she has nothing to lose. She lost at everything. And only Belyaev and N.P. remain. and the scene further develops in a very interesting way. It seems that N.P. should confess and say that their relationship is impossible for a number of reasons, but she begins to “play” with Belyaev. She says the right things. That he should leave and they should separate. But the stage directions show that by her actions she wants to force him to confess his love to her. And when she received this recognition and screams in despair - Belyaev, stay, Rakitin appears. He also comes with his second plan. If earlier she valued Rakitin’s opinion, now, in order to save face, she says that she doesn’t understand anything. But in fact, she understands everything and understands even more than what he tells her. In N.P. the soul gradually dies. There was a surge, hope, a desire for happiness, and suddenly she forbade herself everything, cut it all off... but in the middle of the 19th century it could not have been otherwise. Having left home with Belyaev, she would have become a public woman. She cannot afford this due to the status that she has.

Turgenev writes this play like he weaves lace. And behind the foreground, which means nothing, where general words are spoken, in order to hide what is actually happening, the background is clearly felt.

The second plan is a literary device that first appears in Turgenev, which exists in order to hide that inner life, the events that are happening at this moment. And from this comes depth and volume. If we talk about what they think about, then it’s kind of flat.

Turgenev himself thought. That he is writing a play about N.P. but in fact there are many lines, just like in the novel, and the actors will show it to him on stage.

Then he will write a parody play “Evening in Sorrento” (emphasizes with the wrong ending) about Russians abroad. And with this he will finish with drama.

With this we will close the 1st half of the 19th century. But this is a convention. Alexander Nikolaevich Ostrovsky was born in the 1st quarter of the 19th century in 1823, and when “A Month” was published in 1950, Ostrovsky was already actively involved in dramaturgy. This year he releases his first poignant play, “We Will Count Our People”

None of the authors of the 19th century (Griboedov, Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol) was puzzled by such a concept as the background. There is subtext, but there is no second plan. Subtext is the business of the actor and the director, and it should be present in any play, even in ancient times. 2 plan must be written out by the author. This is a literary device. If we begin to create a second plan in their works, we thereby destroy the work.

Interest in studying the dramatic heritage of I. S. Turgenev did not develop immediately. Contemporary criticism of the writer brushed aside this problem, not seeing Turgenev’s plays as a worthy subject for conversation. “It was not comedies that made Turgenev the first Russian fiction writer, therefore, the scale that serves us to evaluate “Rudin”, “The Noble Nest” and “On the Eve” cannot be applied to them,” wrote S. Vengerov in the late 70s of the 19th century, formulating a summary of opinions , functioning since the appearance of Turgenev’s first plays in the 1840s (48; II, 62).The dramatic experiments of the famous writer were perceived as a passing fact, which did not leave a noticeable mark either in the creative biography of the classic, or in the history of the development of this type of literature.

Echoing numerous critical reviews, the author himself refused to acknowledge his dramatic abilities and, agreeing to include the plays in the Complete Works of 1869, considered it necessary to emphasize that they, “unsatisfactory on stage, may be of some interest in reading” (249; II, 481 ). V. Burenin reminded the reader of this in his work “Turgenev’s Literary Activity”: “The main drawback of all his stage works is that they were written for reading, and not for the stage: they have little action, movement, that is, such elements that make up essential side of dramatic plays."

The French critic Melchior de Vogüe agreed with him: “... this restrained voice, full of subtle shades, so eloquent in intimate reading, is not created for loud theatrical effects.”

A more attentive approach to the plays of I. S. Turgenev is planned at the turn of the century. The first to give a general high assessment of the classic's dramaturgy was the German critic and translator E. Zabel (300). Almost simultaneously, Czech researcher P. Durdik made the same assessment (297). From their point of view, it is precisely the depth of psychological development of characters that must attract the attention of the theater to Turgenev’s plays.

A. Volynsky, in the book “The Struggle for Idealism,” devotes a separate chapter to the play “The Freeloader,” which he calls “the ideal Russian comedy,” seeing in it “rich material for stage reproduction.”

In the Yearbook of the Imperial Theaters for 1903 - 1904. P. Morozov's abstract "The Comedies of I. S. Turgenev" is published, where the author reproduces the main provisions of E. Zabel's article concerning the general assessment of the writer's dramatic creativity, and examines his plays in ideological and thematic kinship with "Notes of a Hunter".

Soon, N. Kotlyarevsky’s work “Turgenev the Playwright” (122) appears, which recognizes the injustice of the formed opinion about Turgenev’s plays. However, the author of the work sees their main merit in reproducing the historical realities of his time. Having given the writer’s plays the place of museum exhibits, Kotlyarevsky directly calls Turgenev’s theater a “historical monument” (122; 261) and does not even insist on its special attractiveness: “True to his instinct as an artist, Turgenev depicted our landowner life of the forties in its most everyday form, not looking for particularly rare characters and positions in it. The picture turned out to be true, but, of course, monotonous" (122; 269). In this regard, the role of Turgenev the playwright is emphasized as “a predecessor, followed not by disciples, but by continuers of the same work and, of course, talents of greater strength and scope.”

Historical works about Turgenev of this period no longer ignore the writer’s dramatic activity. I. Ivanov considers Turgenev’s plays as a natural stage in the creative evolution of the classic, but does not go beyond the established assessments of the unstageability of Turgenev’s dramatic works (107). N. Gutyar, turning to the characteristics of the writer’s theatrical heritage, included in the context of his discussions his reviews of letters devoted to theatrical issues. Gutjar sees one of the reasons for the public’s inattention to Turgenev’s plays and the diminishment of the role of Turgenev the playwright in the censorship ordeals of the plays, in their often belated appearance in print and on stage, and even then in versions that do not correspond to the original author’s will. Gutjar does not object to the opinion about the diversity of Turgenev’s dramatic works and his prose, but emphasizes the importance of the writer’s plays for the development of Russian theater: “His dramatic works are indeed inferior to his prose, but we must not forget that they are a significant step forward after our original plays of previous years, which had only a vaudeville or stilted-dramatic character. Turgenev, somewhat earlier than Ostrovsky, opens a new period in this area" (88; 105-106).

In the dispute about the value of Turgenev's dramatic heritage at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. theater workers are actively involved. Apologist of bright stage forms, Sun. Meyerhold does not accept Turgenev's theater, calling it “too intimate,” “the lyrical epic of a great fiction writer.” But it is significant that the very fact of the existence of Turgenev’s theater is not denied, and even more indicative is a number of names that the director connected with one dramatic tradition: “Chekhov’s Theater grew from the roots of Turgenev’s Theater. Turgenev, almost simultaneously with Ostrovsky, began the second movement of the Everyday Theater - with an element of musicality.” (151; 185).

If we leave aside the nihilistic pathos of Meyerhold’s reasoning, then we can see in them several fruitful ideas for understanding the features of Turgenev’s dramatic heritage: connection with Chekhov’s theater (this idea will be actively worked out in Turgenev studies in subsequent years), incompatibility with the framework of purely everyday theater, the importance lyrical beginning. Of course, Meyerhold felt the originality of dramatic principles in the writer’s theatrical experiences. Another thing is that these principles were not aesthetically close to the director.

The lively appeal of Turgenev’s theater is proven at the turn of the century by the inclusion of the writer’s dramatic works in the current repertoire of the leading stage groups in Europe, and thereby refutes Vogüe’s dismissive remark that “some of Turgenev’s plays were performed in their time, but not a single one remained in the repertoire "(180; 47).

The pattern of turn-of-the-century theater turning to an unrecognized heritage is explained by a change in stage canons and a new approach to issues of dramatic skill. During this period, Pushkin’s idea was most visibly confirmed that “the spirit of the time requires important changes on the dramatic stage” (198; 115).

Reform trends in the performing arts at the turn of the century took shape in a pan-European theatrical movement called “new drama.” An essential feature of this movement was the inextricable connection between drama and theater. The efforts of playwrights and stage practitioners happily coincided in a common desire to find a new language of theatrical expression; drama and stage acted as like-minded people. The result of their joint searches was not only achievements in the field of contemporary artistic culture, but also the discovery of previously unnoticed values. This is exactly what happened with the dramaturgy of I. S. Turgenev.

The first who saw in the Russian writer an ally in the struggle for a new theater was A. Antoine, the famous creator of the Free Theater in Paris. In 1898, I. S. Turgenev’s play “The Freeloader” appeared in the repertoire of this creative group. Reviews of the performance unanimously noted the high performing level of the acting, which indicated the presence in the production of the principle of a stage ensemble, which was very important for the theatrical reform of the turn of the century. It was born from the work of all the creators of the play in line with a single creative concept, which arose on the basis of a careful study of the artistic world of the play. Turgenev's dramaturgy had never known such an approach. In all the splendor of his possibilities, he will be revealed in the performances of the Moscow Art Theater “A Month in the Country” (1909) and “Where it is thin, there it breaks” (1912) directed by K. Stanislavsky. This theater, at the stage of its formation, discovered the dramaturgy of A.P. Chekhov, seeing its effective beginning not in the external, but in the internal development of the conflict. The Moscow Art Theater proved the scenic quality of plays of this kind, introducing new concepts into the very poetics of drama: “subtext”, “undercurrent”, “atmosphere”, “mood”, “internal action”, thereby providing tools for the analysis of drama with internal conflict as a defining factor. dominant stage action.

On the eve of the productions of Turgenev's plays at the Moscow Art Theater, one of the theater's founders, Vl. Nemirovich-Danchenko said: “... here is a huge talent - Turgenev. His artistic ideas have not yet been fully appreciated” (166; 249). When starting to work on A Month in the Country, K. Stanislavsky understood that the old theatrical means were not suitable for this task: “If Turgenev is played with ordinary acting techniques, then his plays become unstageable. They were considered such in the old theater” ( 222; 393).

The artistic discoveries of the “new drama” movement called into question the validity of reproaches against Turgenev’s plays regarding their lack of stage presence. The time has come to talk about them as full-fledged works for the theater without an apologetic division into “high literary merits” and the lack of an effective beginning. This was evidenced by an article by P. Gnedich, in which the author noted: “We are now on the way to understanding and reproducing plays that were hitherto considered non-stage” (69; 795). P. Gnedich made the failure of Turgenev’s plays in his time directly dependent on the general state of theatrical art and the taste of the public, thereby emphasizing the “advanced” nature of the classic’s dramatic heritage. The article noted that when “the horizons of the actors and the public expanded, Turgenev’s plays also became stage-like” (69; 795).

P. Gnedich's printed speech summed up the preparatory stage of studying Turgenev's dramaturgy and outlined the need for new approaches to it.

The reasoning of P. Sakulin appears symptomatic in this regard. Characterizing the ideological foundations of the writer’s work, he includes Turgenev’s plays in the general context of creativity, seeing in them works that fully and deeply reveal the mentality of the classic: “In life there is some kind of unsolved X, some forces still unknown to us and not conquered by us control man , like a puppet. Turgenev also saw life from a similar side. His poems, plays and lyrical short stories are the poetry of mental crises and heartfelt losses" (207; 85).

The foundations of the scientific study of Turgenev's dramaturgy were laid in the 1920s in the works of B. Warneke, Y. Oksman, L. Grossman.

B. Warnecke examines Turgenev's plays in the unity of dramatic techniques, seeing in them a typological relationship with the artistic principles of the “new drama”. The researcher writes: “in terms of their technique, Turgenev’s plays do not fit into the framework of his contemporary repertoire at all, but they differ in all those features that are inherent in the “new drama”” (44; 24).

At the same time, however, Warnecke excludes “Indiscretion” from the writer’s dramatic system and does not stop at determining the significance of each play in this system. But he notes the role of Turgenev in Russian drama in creating the female image as the central character of the play. B. Warneke, speaking about Turgenev’s women in dramatic works, emphasizes that “all these images were brought by Turgenev to the Russian stage before 1851, therefore eight years before the appearance of Ostrovsky’s Katerina in 1859, and this one detail already acquires special significance for that what Turgenev gave to the Russian theater" (44; 3).

The main advantage of L. Grossman's research (82 and 83) lies in identifying the genetic relationship of Turgenev's dramaturgy with European theatrical models. Using the example of specific comparisons of plot lines, thematic motifs, and in some cases even the names of characters, Grossman demonstrates the connection of Turgenev’s plays with the dramatic genres of his time: philosophical drama of the Byronic type, vaudeville, comedy-proverb in the spirit of A. Musset, bourgeois tragedy of O. Balzac, influenced the creation of Turgenev’s psychological drama, which Grossman places at the center of the “diverse evolution” of Turgenev the playwright. The researcher notes that “the writer was able to reflect almost all the dominant theatrical types of his era.” The “organic and stable properties of the dramatic manner” of the classic are called “the Europeanism of Turgenev’s theater in the field of artistic form and then the playwright’s experimentation in various genres” (82; 52).

Yu. Oksman, having done a great deal of collecting and textual work, paid the main attention in his works on Turgenev’s dramaturgy to the historical and bibliographical aspect. He devotes one of the sections of his book “I. S. Turgenev: Research and Materials” (171) to the study of literature on the writer’s dramaturgy; the logical conclusion of the efforts undertaken are his Notes on Turgenev's plays in the ten-volume Collected Works of 1928-1930. (172). In them, Yu. Oksman summarizes existing materials and opinions about each play, sometimes entering into polemics with the presented judgments. The collected data and generalizations will be widely used in all subsequent literature about Turgenev’s dramatic heritage.

The major research of Y. Oksman, B. Warneke, L. Grossman was supported in the 20s by N. Fatov’s report on the found manuscript of the original version of “A Month in the Village” (264), N. Brodsky on Turgenev’s unrealized dramatic plans (37), A. Lavretsky's article "Turgenev and Tyutchev", in which the author interestingly discusses the development of the motif of the "fatal duel" in Turgenev's plays, believing that in them the theme of "love-struggle" is presented in comic forms" (133; 281).

A number of works on Turgenev's dramaturgy appeared in the 30s. Theater critic A. Kugel, reflecting on the topic “How to play Turgenev,” expresses the idea of ​​“the special charm of Turgenev’s plays, which lies in their gentleness and humanity” (126; 75). With a nostalgic note quite understandable for this time, the critic writes about the “charm of Turgenev’s poetry,” which the theater must learn to convey.

A completely different approach to the classic’s plays is demonstrated in the detailed article by O. Adamovich and G. Uvarov “Turgenev the Playwright” (1). Here the main criterion is the sociological aspect. The themes of the writer’s plays are called “limitedly domestic, estate” (1; 273), and one of the main shortcomings of Turgenev’s dramaturgy is seen by the authors in the depiction of “the principles of the psyche that are not socially determined” (1; 304). The paradox of this article lies in the fact that it contains many subtle observations and interesting conclusions (for example, about the impressionistic nature of Turgenev’s psychologism). Vulgar sociological rhetoric could not completely extinguish living research thought.

The same contradictions, but not in such an obvious form as in the article by O. Adamovich and G. Uvarov, are found in the work of I. Eiges about “A Month in the Village” (287). In it, the author enters into a debate with L. Grossman regarding the degree of influence of Balzac's "Stepmother" on Turgenev's "A Month in the Country". I. Eiges convincingly proves the originality of the play by the Russian classic, but at the same time he too diligently emphasizes the predominance of the “social” interest of the main character of the Russian play in her son’s young teacher, as opposed to the openly love attraction of the French woman from Balzac’s work.

But in general, this did not prevent the author of the article from drawing interesting parallels between “A Month in the Country” and “Fathers and Sons,” considering the play and the novel “internally related works.” According to I. Eiges, “A Month in the Village” is “one of Turgenev’s most significant creations, which “occupies one of the first places in his work” (287; 78).

Research interest in Turgenev's dramatic heritage continues to persist in subsequent decades. The predominant aspect in examining the writer’s plays is comparison with the dramatic works of A.P. Chekhov, which allows one to see in Turgenev’s stage experiments an anticipation of the theatrical aesthetics of the author of “The Seagull.” This point of view, which was generally formed at the beginning of the century, received a more reasoned development in the 40s in the works of A. Roskin, who put forward the question of subtext as the main problem of the poetics of Turgenev and Chekhov. “For the first time, subtext as a feeling and thought translated into poetry was realized not by Chekhov, but by Turgenev” (201; 140), the researcher points out. Subsequently, G. Berdnikov, G. Byaly, B. Zingerman, P. Pustovoit, the Polish scientist R. Slivovsky and others will turn to identifying the commonality of the dramatic principles of Turgenev and Chekhov.

The statement about Turgenev's anticipation of Chekhov's theatrical aesthetics will become an axiom in Turgenev studies; The influence of the traditions of Gogol and the “natural school” on the writer’s dramaturgy will also be attributed to the same indisputable truths. Since the 40s, not a single work on the plays of the classic can do without these statements, sometimes diverting research interest from solving the question of what exactly is the originality and originality of Turgenev’s dramaturgical system. It is no coincidence that, summing up the results of the study of the topic “Turgenev and Chekhov,” E. Tyukhova noted the need to understand the differences between the plays of Turgenev and Chekhov as an important task of Turgenev studies in the 1990s (260).

An important milestone in the study of Turgenev’s dramatic heritage was the publication in 1953 of the collection “Turgenev and the Theater,” which presented the writer’s dramatic works, his theater reviews, letters concerning issues of performing arts, and reports on theatrical productions. The collection is preceded by a detailed article by G. Berdnikov, “Turgenev the Playwright,” summarizing research on this issue. The article considers Turgenev's plays as a natural result of the development of Russian drama in the context of literary and social processes; social issues are declared their main issues. G. Berdnikov’s conclusion sounds like this: “A review of the writer’s dramatic heritage shows that Turgenev’s theater reflected the most important social issues of his time, that the features of Turgenev’s dramaturgy are dictated and explained by Russian life, the social and literary struggle of the 40s” (32; 65) . Subsequent publications by G. Berdnikov about Turgenev’s dramaturgy will also be based on this statement (29, 31 and 33).

The point of view, which can conditionally be called the “concept of social dominance,” will generally become fundamental for many years both in Turgen studies in general and in the study of his plays in particular. Within the framework of this concept, the dissertations of N. Kucherovsky “The Social-Psychological Drama of I. S. Turgenev” (1951) (132), G. Vodneva “Dramaturgy of I. S. Turgenev of the Forties” (1952) (56), L. Zhuravleva “The Drama of I. S. Turgenev” (1952) (99), N. Klimova “Turgenev the Playwright” (1965) (117); a Seminar on the works of Turgenev was compiled with the inclusion of topics on dramaturgy (98), articles were written by E. Aksenova “Dramaturgy of Turgenev” (3), G. Vinnikova “Turgenev’s Theater” (50), Notes by E. Vodneva to the writer’s plays in the twelve-volume Collected Works ( 57).

In addition to generalizing works about Turgenev’s theater, articles are published devoted to particular aspects of the classic’s dramatic heritage. L. Grossman turns to the analysis of Turgenev's dramatic plans, combining the concept of "Two Sisters", the unfinished play "The Temptation of St. Anthony" and the first published work for the stage "Indiscretion" into "Turgenev's trilogy of short plays about passion, jealousy and death, sustained in a characteristic in the manner of the famous literary hoax" (81; 552). N. Kucherovsky traces the history of the creation of the play “A Month in the Country” based on three editions of the work (131), T. Golovanov - the nature of the textual changes in “Provincial Woman” (73). The German literary critic K. Schulze reports on the first publication of “Evenings in Sorrente” in German (286), from which it turns out that thanks to the efforts of E. Zabel, who highly appreciated the dramatic talent of the Russian classic, Turgenev’s small play in Germany became known to readers earlier than in Russia.

A number of works are also published on the mutual influence of Turgenev’s plays and works of Russian and foreign literature, in addition to the traditionally mentioned Gogol and Chekhov.

Developing A. Grigoriev’s idea about the influence of Dostoevsky’s school on the creation of Turgenev’s plays “The Freeloader” and “The Bachelor,” V. Vinogradov uses their example to specifically identify in Turgenev’s work “a new system of verbal and artistic perception of the world of “poor people,” first realized and demonstrated in the early works of F. M. Dostoevsky" (51; 49). I. Serman discusses the reverse influence of Turgenev’s plays on Dostoevsky’s works, comparing Turgenev’s “Provincial Woman” with “The Eternal Husband” (214), and “The Freeloader” with “The Village of Stepanchikov and its Inhabitants” (213).

L. Pavlov finds traces of the influence of Lermontov’s dramaturgy in Turgenev’s “Carelessness” (182). In turn, M. Polyakov evaluates the play as a parody, “which deals a blow to the romantic theater from the point of view of realistic drama” (187; 123). M. Lazaria continues, following L. Grossman and Yu. Oksman, to reflect on the influence of Merimee’s work on the creation of “Indiscretion,” believing that this is “a whole school of dramatic skill, which in no case should be ignored when talking about the formation of Turgenev the playwright” ( 134; 39).

A whole literature appears that examines Turgenev’s plays in relation to the large-scale dramatic system of A. N. Ostrovsky, which forms another stable tradition in Turgenev studies. The works of A. Stein (285), L. Nazarova (162), L. Lotman (137 and 142), V. Osnovin (177), Y. Babicheva (16) are devoted to the issues of attraction and repulsion of the dramatic principles of Turgenev and Ostrovsky. Even in highlighting Turgenev’s theoretical views on dramaturgy, A. Anikst will proceed from this comparison as a determining factor in characterizing the writer’s theatrical aesthetics (6).

In works on the history of Russian literature and theater, Turgenev's plays will take pride of place as the most significant phenomenon in dramaturgy of the 40s of the 19th century before the appearance of Ostrovsky's theater, with obligatory mention of Turgenev's inheritance of the traditions of the "natural school" and the anticipation of Chekhov's theater.

In Turgen studies of the 50-70s, works appear that are not directly related to the issues of the writer’s theatrical heritage, but they draw attention to the manifestation of the dramatic principle in his prose. V. Baevsky regards the novel “Rudin” “as one huge dialogue, and descriptions and small scraps of narration in its fabric - as interspersed with the author’s speech in the direct speech of the characters, or, if you like, as the playwright’s extended remarks” (19; 136). The researcher’s opinion coincides with the observation of V. Nabokov, who noted that Turgenev’s stories “consist almost entirely of dialogues against the backdrop of various scenery” (161; 146). G. Kurlyandskaya in her article “On scenes of dramatic action in the novels of I. S. Turgenev” notes the richness of speech characteristics of the characters and draws attention to the fact that each of them “is assigned not only a certain vocabulary, certain phraseological forms, but also an individual system facial expression, drawing of characteristic gestures" (129; 229). O. Osmolovsky, having seen the scenes of dramatic action in “Fathers and Sons,” comes to the conclusion: “Turgenev’s characters unfold in a dramatic way, through a system of dramatic scenes-dialogues, which gives special depth and concentration to the depiction of crisis situations and tragic conflicts” (175; 153).

The English researcher R. Freeborn in his book “Turgenev, novelist of novelists” (298) generally highlights the dramatic principle as fundamental in the work of the Russian classic.

In the 80s, Turgen studies on the writer’s dramatic heritage were marked by the appearance of two major studies: “The Drama of I. S. Turgenev” by A. Muratov (159) and “Turgenev’s Theater” by I. Vishnevskaya (52). Literary critics and theater historians turned to the study of the writer’s plays as an important stage in the development of Russian drama and stage. The coincidence of scientific interest on the part of literary studies and theater studies is very remarkable - it testifies to the inseparability of the literary and stage merits of Turgenev’s plays, and to the fact that his dramas arouse keen interest in the theater of the twentieth century.

A. Muratov in his work proceeds from the conviction that Turgenev created an original dramatic system, which was built on a new type of action for that time, which presupposed an interest in depicting not so much vivid external events, but on the psychological reaction to these events. Muratov's research shows an interest in analyzing the dramatic structure of Turgenev's works, which made it possible to more substantively identify the degree of originality of the classic's dramatic technique than in previous works on the writer's plays. Muratov identifies two lines in the development of Turgenev's dramaturgy: the one that found its development in Ostrovsky's socio-psychological theater ("The Freeloader" and "The Bachelor") and the "Turgenev's psychological" play, which became a harbinger of Chekhov's dramaturgy. The top of this line is “A Month in the Country.” The methods of dramatic writing of first-line plays, the researcher believes, were mainly close to the theatrical aesthetics of Turgenev’s time and therefore enjoyed stage popularity. Plays written on the basis of other principles were rejected until the advent of the director's theater of the twentieth century, “which discovered the means for recreating complex mental processes on stage” (159; 38).

A more detailed development of this problem (the discrepancy between Turgenev’s dramatic poetics and the stage canons of his time) will be presented in the early 90s in the article by L. M. Arinina “Dramaturgy of I. S. Turgenev in the Russian literary process of the second half of the 19th century” (12).

How the Russian stage mastered the writer’s dramaturgy is shown in the book “Turgenev’s Theater” by I. L. Vishnevskaya. I. Vishnevskaya more than once appeared in print with articles on Turgenev’s plays, reflecting in them not only on the stage embodiment of the classic’s works, but also on the dramatic material itself. The book was the result of such considerations. Having categorically stated that “there are simply no strong traditions in the analysis of Turgenev’s dramaturgy” (52; 46), I. Vishnevskaya formulates one of the tasks of her research in a more than traditional way: “from this book there should emerge a portrait of the political playwright Turgenev, whose plays predetermined, actively began many, many social problems of his prose work" (52; 47). Based on this, the writer’s plays are considered in the work as a kind of laboratory of Turgenev’s prose. “It is here,” writes Vishnevskaya, “that Turgenev’s most important themes mature, the main typical traits of his favorite characters emerge, and the most important social contradictions of the time are outlined, so powerfully reflected later by Turgenev the novelist” (52; 44). One can agree with Vishnevskaya that in Turgenev studies not enough attention has been paid to the writer’s dramaturgy as an accumulator of themes and artistic ideas of future creativity, but identifying social problems as dominant in Turgenev’s plays can hardly be considered an urgent task of studying them.

Another research approach seems more productive: to prove the originality of the talent of Turgenev the playwright, “who created absolutely his own, new laws of theater” (52; 47).

Analyzing the most striking productions of Turgenev's plays from the beginning of the century to the end of the 70s, Vishnevskaya comprehends the innovation of Turgenev's plays by identifying the features of their dramatic structure. And in this direction, the efforts of literary and theater studies coincided, clearly identifying this problem as very relevant for the study of Turgenev’s dramatic heritage.

The existence of such a trend is confirmed by the publication of L. Lotman’s article “Turgenev’s Dramaturgy and Its Place in the History of Russian Dramatic Classics” in the collection “I. S. Turgenev in the Modern World” (141). A well-known researcher of Russian dramaturgy has more than once covered the theatrical heritage of the writer in historiographical works (138, 140 and 142): she is the author of an article on Turgenev’s dramaturgy in the academic edition of the Complete Works and Letters in 30 volumes. (139), where he states that “Turgenev created his own dramaturgical system,” and disputes about the stage quality of his plays are generated by “the deep originality of the artistic principles of his dramaturgy” (139; 529).

Once again turning to thoughts about Turgenev’s theater in the late 1980s, the researcher this time focused on identifying the cross-cutting “ideas and techniques” of Turgenev’s dramaturgy, the characteristic feature of which L. Lotman combines an everyday setting with the tension of “deep psychological conflicts” (141; 182).

A. Scholp discusses the new type of conflict presented by Turgenev in “A Month in the Country” in the book “Tchaikovsky’s Eugene Onegin” (282). Comparing the opera by P. I. Tchaikovsky and the play by I. S. Turgenev, Scholp finds much in common in the poetics of these works, primarily in the rejection of spectacular intrigue and interest in everyday reality, “the unvarnished life of ordinary people, hiding deep contradictions” (282; 43). A. Muratov addresses the identification of the peculiarities of the conflict in the plays “Where it is thin, there it breaks” and “Carelessness” (157 and 158). A. Efros, the director of the sensational play “A Month in the Country” in the 70s, in his book shares his thoughts on the specifics of the conflict in this play by Turgenev (290), and theater critic A. Smelyansky talks about the same thing, analyzing Efros’s play (217). Yu. Rybakova points out Turgenev’s ability to show in his plays “eternal conflicts in the sadness of today’s days and actions” (206; 260).

At one time, A. Skaftymov, turning to the question of the principles of constructing A. P. Chekhov’s plays, paid main attention to the consideration of the features of the conflict in them and challenged the traditional opinion about the kinship of the dramatic systems of Turgenev and Chekhov on the basis that “the nature of the dramatic conflict in Turgenev different" (215; 419), but did not present the characteristics of the conflicts in the plays of the author of "A Month in the Country". This topic will begin to be actively worked on in the 1980s.

It can be said that by the end of the decade, both in literary and theater studies, a clear tendency will form towards identifying the structural features of Turgenev’s dramatic writing, and the problem of conflict in the plays of the classic will stand out as a major one.

At the same time, another area of ​​research interest in Turgenev’s dramatic works, hitherto on the periphery of scientific attention, will take shape: several works will appear about the theatrical experiences of the writer of the 1860s, written in French.

For the first time in Russian they were published in the series “Literary Heritage” with an explanatory article by the French researcher R. Olivier (173). In the domestic Turgenian literature, L. Grossman recalled these works as “playful, but fugitive sparks of dramatic activity” (82; 62), and Yu. Oksman argued that they “in no way relate to the Turgenev Theater” (172; 231).

For the first time, the writer’s late stage experiences were included in his Collected Works only in 1986 with comments and an accompanying article by A. Gozenpud, in which the author noted “the significant literary and theatrical merits of Turgenev’s last works for the stage” (72; 632). Gozenpud will devote a separate chapter to this same topic in his book about music in Turgenev’s life, characterizing the writer as “an expert in musical dramaturgy” (71; 152).

Professor at the Canadian University of Calgary N. Zhekulin will publish a special study devoted to the history of the operetta “The Last Sorcerer” (see: 257; 69-70). It will be noted that work on the libretto in the 1860s was for Turgenev a return to dramatic activity at a new stage and proved the writer’s constancy of interest in the theater.

However, none of the works on this issue set the task of finding the unity of Turgenev’s dramatic works of the 1840s and 1860s. They continued to be considered separately from each other. The relevance of research.

In the 1990s, scientific interest in Turgenev's dramatic heritage began to fade. This is especially noticeable against the background of the theater’s increased attention to the writer’s plays and the appearance of numerous reviews of their productions.

At the International Scientific Conference dedicated to the 175th anniversary of the writer’s birth, where the task was set to take a fresh look at Turgenev’s work with clean and honest eyes, his dramaturgy was not included in the range of topics discussed.

In the last decade, two areas of scientific interest in Turgenev have been distinguished: the personality psychology of the artist himself and the ideological foundations of his work, associated both with the peculiarities of his human individuality and with philosophical views.

To some extent, in Turgen studies at the end of the twentieth century, the situation characteristic of the attitude towards the writer at the beginning of the twentieth century is reproduced, when D. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky, A. Evlakhov, Yu. Aikhenvald, A. Gruzinsky, P. Sakulin, S. Rodzevich, M. Gershenzon, a little later A. Bem, B. Zaitsev looked for answers to questions about the artistic originality of Turgenev’s work in the ontological views of the writer, in the make-up of his psyche. Moreover, since the beginning of the century, in the general assessment of Turgenev’s worldview, polar points of view have coexisted: for some, the writer’s work embodies the Apollonian principle of culture, is a symbol of harmony, clarity and integrity. This point of view was formulated most clearly by E. Renan: “His mission was completely pacifying. He was like God in the book of Job, “creating peace on high.” What in others produced discord, for him became the basis of harmony. In his broad chest contradictions were reconciled; curses and hatred were disarmed by the magical charm of his art" (108; 10). K. Mochulsky insists on this approach, believing that Turgenev, just like Goncharov and L. Tolstoy, depicts “the unshakable structure of the Russian “cosmos”, in contrast to Dostoevsky, who “screamed that this cosmos” is not eternal, that what moves underneath it chaos" (156; 219).

But for a number of researchers, the predominance of a disharmonious principle in Turgenev’s worldview is undoubtedly. A. Gruzinsky, characterizing the writer’s assessment of existence, names as the main mechanism of life, according to Turgenev, “the blind and absurd force of general destruction” (84; 224). A. Lavretsky, raising the question of the concept of love in the work of the classic, notes: “In Turgenev’s “I” becomes the embodiment of evil chaos when he is whirled by a “whirlwind” of passion” (133; 261).

The same struggle of opinions in assessing the foundations of Turgenev’s worldview exists to this day. An Iraqi researcher of the work of the Russian writer A. Salim insists on Turgenev’s conviction that “with all the mobility, fluidity, variability, a person’s character is internally harmonious” (208; 185). Zh. Askerova in her dissertation “Turgenev as a Thinker” states: “Turgenev’s worldview can certainly be considered optimistic and humanistic” (14; 15).

V. Toporov looks at the problem completely differently. As a cross-cutting theme, one can read in his work “Strange Turgenev” the intention to debunk “the prevalence of thoughts about the “Apollonian” Turgenev” (236; 8). Separating the “natural and cultural” in the writer’s personality and work (236; 32), Toporov builds a system of archetypes that organize Turgenev’s artistic world, and emphasizes that “throughout his entire work, the writer maintained a living connection with the “unconditional”, with its depth, with the authentic" (236; 102). V. Golovko’s report “Mythopoetic archetypes in the artistic system of late Turgenev”, presented at the scientific conference “Problems of worldview and method” (1993), proved the existence of a typological relationship between many ideas of Turgenev’s natural philosophy and the philosophical and aesthetic attitudes of modernism (74; 32-33 ).

A. Faustov, having dedicated a separate chapter to Turgenev in the book “Author’s Behavior in Russian Literature,” sees the peculiarities of the writer’s creative method in correlation with his everyday behavior in the fear of force, “which has no resistance, which is without vision, without image, without meaning.” " (265; 98).

Yu. Lotman, V. Markovich, and A. Batyuto have long drawn attention to the tragic attitude of Turgenev the novelist. However, dramaturgy was never taken into account in this correspondence dispute about the peculiarities of Turgenev’s perception of existence. It was either simply not taken into account or deliberately left out of the discussion, since it was considered “from the point of view of philosophical content to not represent anything fundamentally new in comparison with novels and stories” (232; 13).

This approach seems unfruitful and impoverishes the perception of the writer’s work. The purpose of the proposed study is to show the role of Turgenev’s dramaturgy in the formation of the ontological problematics of the writer’s work, presenting the theatrical works of the classic as a single philosophical and artistic system that anticipated the dramatic searches and discoveries of the twentieth century. To achieve this goal, the following tasks are set:

consider the nature of the conflict in Turgenev’s plays as the basis of the writer’s dramatic system, and therefore determine the boundaries of the theoretical concept “nature of conflict”;

show the specificity of the conflict in each of Turgenev’s plays and reveal the unity of their conflict-forming factors;

to include in the scope of research not only Turgenev’s dramatic works of the 1840s, but also theatrical experiences of the 1860s, thereby expanding the number of works included in the writer’s dramatic system.

To solve the assigned problems, structural-typological and historical-genetic approaches were used; to analyze the plays, the method of “close reading” by I. Annensky was used), which makes it possible to identify the features of Turgenev’s dramatic writing in a more substantive and conclusive manner.

The following provisions are submitted for defense:

the concept of “the nature of conflict” is a fundamental category of drama poetics, revealing the cause of the contradictions presented in a work of art in the context of the author’s ideas about the world order; the introduction of this category allows us to more clearly trace how the ontological views of the writer influence the specifics of his dramatic principles;

the theatrical experiments of I. S. Turgenev in the 1840s - early 50s and 1860s form a unified dramatic system based on the substantial nature of the conflict;

I. S. Turgenev's plays anticipate not only the emergence of Chekhov's theater, but they also show a genetic relationship with the work of other representatives of the “new drama” (A. Blok, M. Maeterlinck, A. Strindberg, the authors of “krivozerkal plays”), and also in them the features of absurdist drama are revealed and the principles of cinematic aesthetics are guessed.

The scientific and practical significance of the dissertation is determined by the possibility of using the research results in university courses on the history of Russian literature, drama theory, in special courses on Russian drama, in the works of theater scholars and creators of performances.

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Along with works devoted to abstract ethical problems, “Poems in Prose” appeared. They were created over four years (from 1878 to 1882); they were written, as the writer claimed, for himself and for a small circle of people who sympathize with this kind of thing. “Poems in Prose” consists of two sections “Senile” and “New Poems in Prose”. The first section (51 poems) was published in 1882. “New Poems in Prose” were not published during Turgenev’s lifetime. Turgenev created an entire book of prose poems, expressively identifying their characteristic features.

The poems are characterized by lyricism, recreating the spiritual structure and mood of the author. In most cases - direct autobiography and first-person narrative. Increased expressiveness of the voice, conveying sometimes joy, sometimes sadness, sometimes delight, sometimes confusion. A diary of a confessional nature.

The rhythm of prose poems is each time new, varied, and subject to the author’s intonation. Every phrase, line, paragraph, the whole thing has melody and romance.

Each prose poem, like a pebble of a certain color, is placed by the artist in its place, and if you step away and look at the whole from afar, the pebbles collected together seem like a mosaic, creating a whole picture.

Turgenev captured the best features of the Russian people, their cordiality, responsiveness to the suffering of their neighbors in the poems “Two Rich Men”, “Masha”, “Shchi”, “Hang Him!”. Here, as in “Notes of a Hunter,” the moral superiority of the simple Russian peasant over representatives of the ruling classes is shown.

Among the prose poems, the patriotic miniature “Russian Language” occupies a prominent place. The great artist of words treated the Russian language with extraordinary subtlety and tenderness. The writer called to protect our beautiful language. He believed that the future belongs to the Russian language, that with the help of such a language one can create great works.

Such human vices as selfishness, greed, anger are sharply exposed in the poems: “A Contented Man”, “Writer and Critic”, “Fool”, “Egoist”, “Enemy and Friend”, “Verget”, “Correspondent”, “ Everyday rule." Some of these poems are based on facts of life. For example, the poem “Gad” depicts the corrupt reactionary journalist B.M. Markevich. A number of prose poems are imbued with sad thoughts and pessimistic moods, inspired by the writer’s long illness.

“Love... is stronger than death and the fear of death. Only by her, only by love does life hold and move” - this is the idea of ​​the poem “Sparrow”. In the poem “We will fight again!” life affirmation is expressed even more clearly: let a deadly hawk circle menacingly over a family of playful sparrows. They are cheerful and carefree, life triumphs in them. Let death be inevitable. But one should not bow to it prematurely. We have to fight. Fighters are not afraid of death. In the finale, the author, driving away the gloomy thoughts, exclaims “We will fight again, damn it!”

In terms of genre, the cycle of “Poems in Prose” has many faces: there are such genre varieties as a dream, a vision, a miniature story, a dialogue, a monologue, a legend, an elegy, a message, a satire, and even an obituary. This variety of form, combined with the beauty and grace of the style, testifies to the high skill of the artist.

Introduction

The personality of the writer, his perception of the world and attitude to reality, emotional and life experience give rise to the uniqueness of creativity. Creative individuality is expressed through the nature of his figurative vision, creative goals, artistic method and style. The originality of a writer can be revealed by comparing his works with the creations of his contemporaries and predecessors, through the poetics of his works and the features of his artistic method. This study is an attempt to comprehend artistic skill I.S. Turgenev, penetrate into the unique world of his images, the individuality of his style.

I.S. Turgenev is a major artist who managed to discover so many extraordinary things in the ordinary, everyday world. This is one of those writers who are distinguished by an unusually subtle and organic fusion of realistically concrete epic images with lyricism.

The contrast in the works of the great artist of words is a psychological detail: contrasting are such motifs and images that are not indifferent to all or many people: youth and old age, love and hate, faith and hopelessness, struggle and humility, tragic and joyful, light and dark, life and death , moment and eternity. This work is characterized by aesthetic and philosophical aspect studying the problem indicated in the title.

As object research served “Poems in prose” by I.S. Turgenev. An appeal to the writer’s work is not only personally significant for the author of the work, but also relevant for several reasons. Poems from this cycle are little studied at school, although they attract readers with the depth of their content and their philosophical fullness. Works are perceived differently by readers and have different effects on them: emotional, aesthetic, psychological, moral. In the last years of the writer’s life, the writer was worried about the fundamental questions of existence, the “eternal” questions of life, which he poses and tries to comprehend in his prose poems. They reflect almost all the themes and motives of I.S.’s work. Turgenev, again comprehended and felt by the writer in his declining years. There is a lot of sadness in them, but a light sadness; the most vivid and artistically perfect miniatures are permeated with life-affirming notes, full of faith in man. From here target of this study: to establish that the cross-cutting motive of the Turgenev cycle is contrast, manifested both at the level of the entire cycle and at the level of one work. The real goal determined the setting next tasks:

1. analyze theoretical material related to the study of “Prose Poems” by I.S. Turgenev;
2. identify the specifics and features of the “prose poem” genre;
3. analyze individual works and identify in them the main contrasting motifs and images inherent in this cycle;
4. consider the influence of philosophical understanding of life facts on a person’s spiritual life.

When solving the above problems, the following were used methods and techniques:

1. contextual;
2. descriptive method;
3. component analysis;
4. method of internal interpretation (method of taxonomy and classification).

1. Topic of “Prose Poems” by I.S. Turgenev

The themes of the poems are extremely diverse. The researchers carefully read 77 prose poems by I.S. Turgenev and systematized them according to the principle of contrast, namely: it was noticed that among the main contrasting motifs of the works the following can be distinguished:

1. Love and friendship– “Rose”, “Azure Kingdom”, “Two Brothers”, “How beautiful, how fresh the roses were”, “The Path to Love”, “Love”, “Sparrow”.
2. Compassion, sacrifice- “In Memory of Yu. Vrevskaya”, “Threshold”, “Two Rich Men”, “You Cried”.
3. Transience of life, life and death, the meaning of life, loneliness– “Conversation”, “Masha”, “In Memory of Yu. Vrevskaya”, “Insect”, “Shchi”, “Nymphs”, “Tomorrow! Tomorrow!”, “What will I think?”, “N.N.”, “Stop!”, “Meeting”, “When I’m not there”, “When I’m alone”, “Phrase”, “Monk”, “ We will fight again”, “Drozd 1”, “Drozd 2”, “Hourglass”, “U – A...U – A!” – “Dog”, “Pigeons”, “Without a nest”, “U – A...U - Ah!”, “Old Woman”, “Two Quatrains”, “Necessity, Strength, Freedom”, “Double”.
4. All living beings are the same before mother nature– “Dog”, “Rival”, “Drozd 1”, “Sea swimming”.
5. Morality, ethics; human dignity of the Russian peasant- “A Contented Man”, “Everyday Rule”, “Fool”, “Eastern Legend”, “Gad”, “Writer and Critic”, “Beggar”, “Last Date”, “Shchi”, “Hang Him”.
6. Contradictions of the world: truth and lies; With part and tears past life, love; love and death; youth, beauty; old age- “Alms”, “Selfish”, “Feast at the Supreme Being”, “Enemy and friend”, “Prayer”, “I’m sorry”, “Curse”, “Life’s rule”, “Who to argue with”, “Brahmin”, “Truth and Truth”, “Partridges”, “My Trees”, “Rival”, “Skulls”, “Prayer”, “Cup”, “Rose”, “Alms”, “Visit”, “Thrush”, “I Arose” at night”, “Sparrow”, “Visit”, “Azure Kingdom”, “Whose fault?”, “Oh my youth”, “Stone”, “Tomorrow! Tomorrow!”, “Whose fault?”, “Oh my youth”, “When I’m gone”, “I got up at night”, “When I’m alone”, “Caught under a wheel”, “Old man”.
7. Admiration for the Russian language –"Russian language".

Researchers have noticed the frequent use of I.S. Turgenev in miniatures contrasting descriptions of nature: sky, dawn, sea, sun, clouds, clouds; The author pays close attention to description of eyes(in 12 poems); a person's appearance;in three poems the artist, using antithesis, describes dreams; image sounds. N Plants also help convey the mood in a particular work: smells, appearance, the reader’s ideas of where these flowers and trees grow: wormwood, lily of the valley, rose, mignonette, linden, poplar, rye.

2. 1. Contrast as the main motive of lyrical miniatures

All works by I.S. Turgenev is united by consideration of eternal problems that have always worried, are worried and will continue to worry society. According to L.A. Ozerova, “The collection contains many so-called eternal themes and motifs that stand before all generations and unite people of different times...” (Ozerov L.A. “Turgenev I.S. Poems in prose”, M., 1967, p. .11) Let's look at some themes and poems.

I.S. Turgenev always admired the beauty and “endless harmony” of nature. He was convinced that a person is only strong when he “leans” on it. Throughout his life, the writer was concerned with questions about man’s place in nature. He was frightened by its power and authority, the need to obey its cruel laws, before which everyone is equally equal, he was horrified by the “law” according to which, upon being born, a person was already sentenced to death. In a poem "Nature" We read that nature “knows neither good nor evil.” In response to a person’s babbling about justice, she replies: “Reason is not my law - what is justice? I gave you life - I’ll take it away and give it to others, worms and people... I don’t care... In the meantime, defend yourself - and don’t bother me!” She doesn’t care whether a person or a worm is the same creature. Everyone has one life - the greatest value.

2.1.1. All living beings are the same before mother nature

In poems "Dog", “Drozd 1”, “Sea swimming" is being considered a matter of life and death, the fleeting nature of human life, the insignificance of each individual life in the face of death. The author compares life to a flickering flame that will go out at the first “raid” of a storm. This is a timid, separate being who feels the approach of death, and “One life fearfully presses against another.” These poems again show the idea of ​​the equality and insignificance of all living beings before the “law” of nature: “two pairs of identical eyes”, “I took her hand - she stopped squeaking and rushing about.” The author puts a human and an animal side by side to emphasize the difference, but at the same time the relatedness of the hero and animals. It is for this purpose that he introduces pleonasms: “there is no difference” and “we are identical”, “We are all children of the same mother” are close in meaning and emphasize the equivalence of man and animal in the face of death and life’s trials. For the same purpose, the text uses repetition of the same phrases: the same feeling, the same light, the same life, the same unconscious thought. With the help of tropes, Turgenev revives death, gives it “life”: “a terrible, furious storm howls,” “sounds of eternity” are heard.

And the main thing in life, what you need to take care of, catch and not let go of, is youth and love. After all human life is so beautiful and so small, so instantaneous in comparison with the life of nature. This contradiction, the conflict between human life and the life of nature remains insoluble for Turgenev. “Don’t let life slip between your fingers.” This is the main philosophical thought and instruction of the writer, expressed in many “Poems...”.

2.1.2. Contradictions of the world: truth and lies; happiness and tears past life, love; love and death; youth, beauty; old age

In the language of “Prose Poems” by I.S. Turgenev strove for harmony of life and words, for naturalness, for the truth of feelings embodied in language. In this thematic group, the author widely used anaphora: “Honesty was his capital”, “Honesty gave him the right”; rhetorical questions: “What does it mean to forgive?”; rhetorical exclamations: “Yes, I am worthy, I am a moral person!”; parallelism: “I’m sorry...I’m sorry...”.

The poem “I'm Sorry”, striking in content, is built on the author's use of parallelism and antithesis (“ugliness and beauty”, “children and old people”). The contrasting tones in the poems of this thematic group very subtly replace one another, prompt the reader to think, and force him to re-read the works again and again in order to understand them more deeply. It feels as if the author knows and doubts at the same time what he is telling us about.

In poems “Visit”, “Azure Kingdom”, "Whose guilt?", “Oh my youth”“youth, feminine, virgin beauty”, “the kingdom of azure, light, youth and happiness”, “oh my youth!, my freshness” is contrasted with losses gnawing with a “silent gnawing”, “I am old age”, “the azure kingdom I saw you in a dream”, “you can only shine in front of me for a moment - in the early morning of early spring.” A large number of epithets: “the gentle scarlet of a blooming rose”, “the boundless azure sky”, “the gentle sun”, “severe rudeness”; personifications: “the fog did not rise, the breeze did not wander,” metaphors: “small ripples of golden scales”, “diving on soft waves”, “a pure soul does not understand” - in the utmost brevity of each poem, they help the writer to establish a deeply intimate contact with the reader, demonstrate sensitivity and humanity when solving various issues posed in this or that poem.

Lyrical miniatures : "Stone", "Tomorrow! Tomorrow!", "Whose guilt?", “Oh my youth”, “When I'm gone”, “I got up at night”, “When I'm alone”, “Caught under wheel", "Old man"- full of gloomy, dark colors. Turgenev contrasts these poems with bright, rosy poems imbued with optimistic moods (“Azure Kingdom”, “Village”). Usually they are all about the same love, beauty, its power. In these poems one feels that the author still believes in the power of beauty, in a happy life, which he, unfortunately, did not have (“Sparrow”). Memories of a past life (“young female souls recently poured into my old heart from all sides... it glowed with traces of an old fire”, “almost every day I lived was empty and languid - he (the person) values ​​life, hopes for it”, “you - youth, I am old”), bright, rich colors allow you to momentarily feel a surge of vitality, to experience the feelings of happiness that once excited the hero.

2.1.3. Morality, ethics; human dignity of the Russian peasant

Turgenev captured the best features of the Russian people, their cordiality, responsiveness to the suffering of their neighbors in poems “Two Rich Men”, “Masha”, “Soup soup”, “Hang him!”. Here, as in “Notes of a Hunter,” the moral superiority of the simple Russian peasant over representatives of the ruling classes is shown.

Satirical pathos pervades that part of the prose poems in which money-grubbing, slander, and self-interest are debunked. Such human vices as selfishness, greed, anger are sharply exposed in the poems: “A Contented Man”, “Writer and Critic”, “Fool”, “Egoist”, “Enemy and Friend”, “Verget”, “Correspondent”, “ Everyday rule." Some of these poems are based on facts of life. For example, the poem “Gad” depicts the corrupt reactionary journalist B.M. Markevich. A number of prose poems are imbued with sad thoughts and pessimistic moods inspired by the writer’s long illness.

However, no matter how sad and painful the impressions of the writer’s personal life were, they did not obscure the world before him.

2.1.4. Love and friendship

Often, in order to show the fleeting nature of life, I.S. Turgenev compares the present and the past. After all, it is at such moments, remembering his past, that a person begins to value his life...( "Double"). Indeed, how masterfully Turgenev creates the image of jubilant youth - “the kingdom of azure, light, youth and happiness” - in the poem “Azure Kingdom” he contrasts this bright kingdom with “dark, difficult days, the cold and darkness of old age”... And everywhere, everywhere this philosophical idea, which was already mentioned a little earlier: to show all the contradictions and overcome them. And this was fully reflected in “Prayer”:“Great God, make sure that two and two are not four!” “Oh the ugliness...of cheaply acquired virtue.”

In this thematic group there are contrasts: rose and tears, the azure kingdom and sleep, love and hatred, love can kill the human “I”.

The use of participial phrases, used mainly in written speech, seemed interesting; they fill the works with nobility and tenderness: “returning to the living room, suddenly stopping.”

Poem "Sparrow"- the most vivid and wonderful “study from life” - life-affirming and cheerful, glorifying an ever-living life and self-sacrifice. Despite its small volume, Turgenev’s work contains a huge philosophical generalization. A small scene makes the author think about the perpetual motion machine of the world - Love. The loving, selfless impulse of a little bird, accidentally seen by a Russian writer, allows you to think about wisdom and love.

Love occupied an exceptional place in the writer’s work. For Turgenev, love is always a strong passion, a powerful force. She is able to withstand everything, even death: “Only by her, only by love does life hold and move.” It can make a person strong and strong-willed, capable of heroic deeds. For Turgenev, there is only love - sacrifice. He is sure that only such love can bring true happiness. In all his works, I.S. Turgenev presents love as a great test of life, as a test of human strength. Every person, every living creature is obliged to make this sacrifice. Even a bird that has lost its nest, for which death seemed inevitable, can be saved by love, which is stronger than will. Only she, love, can give strength to fight and sacrifice herself.

In this poem you can see an allegory. The dog here is “fate”, an evil fate weighing down on each of us, that powerful and seemingly invincible force. She was approaching the chick just as slowly, like that spot from the poem “The Old Woman”, and simply put, death is slowly creeping up, “creeping” right towards us. And here the old woman’s phrase “You won’t leave!” is refuted. You will leave, even as you leave, love is stronger than you, it will “close” the “toothed open mouth” and even fate, even this huge monster can be pacified. Even it can stop, back away...recognize the power, the power of love...

Using the example of this poem, we can confirm the words written earlier: “Poems in prose” is a cycle of oppositions. In this case, the power of love opposes the power of evil, death.

2.1.5. Compassion, sacrifice

One of the best political prose poems is rightfully considered "Threshold". “The Threshold” was published for the first time in September 1883. It was written under the impression of the trial of Vera Zasulich, an honest and selfless Russian girl who shot the St. Petersburg mayor F.F. Trepov. She is on the threshold of a new life. The writer creates a noble image of a revolutionary woman, ready to endure any suffering and hardship in the name of the happiness and freedom of the people. And she steps over this symbolic threshold.

“... and the heavy curtain fell behind her.

Stupid! – someone rasped from behind.

Holy! - flashed back from somewhere.”

With what contrast is conveyed the attitude to the same fact, phenomenon, event on the part of two completely different people!

“Threshold” makes every reader think about his life, comprehend and, if necessary, rethink it.

2.1.6. Transience of life, life and death, the meaning of life, loneliness, fate

“Poems in Prose” is a cycle - a contrast, a contrast between life and death, youth and old age, good and evil, past and present. These motives “come into conflict” with each other. I.S. Turgenev often collides them, intertwines them, and in the end the author strives to merge everything contradictory (“Double”).

ON THE. Dobrolyubov wrote about Turgenev’s prose: “...this feeling is both sad and joyful: there are bright memories of childhood, irrevocably flashed, there are the proud and joyful hopes of youth. Everything has passed and will not happen again; but the person who, even in memory, can return to these bright dreams has not yet disappeared... And it is good for him who knows how to awaken such memories, to evoke such a mood of the soul.” (Dobrolyubov N.A. Collected works in three volumes, vol. 3, M., 1952, p. 48.) Indeed, it can be noted that many prose poems, which at first glance are pessimistic and gloomy, actually awaken in a person “a state of spiritual height and enlightenment.” The so-called Turgenev lyricism gives the writer’s works an extraordinary sincerity. We write all this to the fact that it is in such poems, where the past and present collide, that this lyricism is fully manifested.

The poems of this group are so rich in content that researchers have placed them in different groups.

2.1.7. Admiration for the Russian language

Among prose poems, patriotic miniatures occupy a prominent place "Russian language". The great artist of words treated the Russian language with extraordinary subtlety and tenderness. I.S. Turgenev has a wonderful formula: language = people. Having spent most of his life abroad, an expert in many foreign languages, I.S. Turgenev never ceased to admire the Russian language, calling it “great and powerful,” pinning hopes on it for a bright future for Russia: “but one cannot believe that such a language was not given to a great people.” The writer called to protect our beautiful language. He believed that the future belongs to the Russian language, that with the help of such a language one can create great works.

2. 2. Contrast as a means of penetration into the images of the heroes of “Poems in Prose”

In the history of Russian literature, there was, perhaps, no other such major writer as Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev, who would have loved the nature of his native land so sincerely and tenderly and reflected it so fully and variably in his work. Having spent many years abroad, separated from Russia, the writer suffered not only because of illness, but also because he could not visit his Spassky-Lutovinovo. With enormous artistic power reflected I.S. Turgenev depicts the dim and inconspicuous beauty of the nature of the middle zone in “Poems in Prose.”

Description of eyes:

“Alms” - “the eyes are not radiant, but light; the gaze is piercing, but not evil.”

“Visit” - “huge, black, light eyes laughed.”

“Shchi” - “the eyes are red and swollen.”

“Two brothers” - “brown eyes, glazed, with thick eyelashes; insinuating look”; huge, round, pale gray eyes.”

“Sphinx” - “your eyes – these colorless, but deep eyes also speak... And their speeches are just as silent and mysterious.”

“How beautiful, how fresh the roses were...” - “how simple-hearted and inspired the thoughtful eyes are,” “they look briskly at me with their bright eyes.”

“Stop!” - “your gaze is deep.”

“Thrush” - “iridescent sounds... breathed eternity.”

“I got up at night” - “a plaintive sound arose in the distance.”

“When I’m alone” - “not a sound...”.

“Caught under a wheel” - “this splashing and moaning of yours are the same sounds, and nothing more.”

“U-ah... U-ah!” - “strange, not immediately understood by me, but alive... human sound...”

“Nature” - “the earth around me groaned dully and trembled.”

“There is no greater sorrow” - “sweet sounds of a young voice.”

“Village” - “the whole sky is filled with an even blue.”

“Conversation” - “a pale green, light, silent sky above the mountains.”

“The end of the world” - “the gray, monochromatic sky hangs over her like a canopy.”

“Visit” - “the milky white sky quietly turned red.”

“Azure Kingdom” - “above your head there is a boundless, same azure sky.”

“Nymphs” - “the southern sky was transparently blue above him.”

“Pigeons” - “red, low, clouds rushing, like clouds torn to shreds.”

Description of the person's appearance:

“Village” - “fair-haired guys, in clean, low-belted shirts...”, “curly children’s heads.”

“Masha” - “tall, stately, well done.”

“Beggar” - “poor, decrepit old man.”

“Last date” - “yellow, dried out...”

“Visitation” - “winged little woman; a wreath of lilies of the valley covered the scattered curls of the round head.”

Harmony and tenderness of tones, a skillful and subtle combination of light and shadow characterize Turgenev’s style both in depicting people and paintings of nature. He connects his landscapes with a person’s mood, with his spiritual appearance. In miniatures, the landscape either highlights the hero’s state of mind, or the landscape sketch is permeated with philosophical reflections. There are more bright, joyful, hopeful colors than sad, melancholy ones.

GRADUATE WORK

Psychopoetics I.S. Turgenev – novelist

(based on the work of the 1850s - early

1860s)

Performed:

Chukhleb Irina Aleksandrovna

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..4

Job qualifications

The originality of Turgenev’s psychologism in the aspect of structural and genre features of the writer’s novels of 1850-1860………………………………..10

1.1 Problems of studying psychopoetics in modern literary criticism……………………………………………………………… 10

1.2 Typological and individual in the genre system and in the characterology of Turgenev’s novel………………………………………………………..14

1.3 Specifics of Turgenev’s psychologism…………………………………….23

Psychological disclosure of the inner world of man in Turgenev’s novels of 1850…………………………………………………………………………………38

2.1 Features of secret psychologism in Turgenev’s novel………………38

2.2 The role of moral and psychological conflict in the novels “Rudin” and “The Noble Nest”………..……………………………………………………41

The evolution of psychologism in the novels of I.S. Turgenev

about "New people."………………………………………………………………..46

3.1. The type of public figure of the era of the late 50s and early 60s in the novels “about “New People”………………………………………………………………..……46

3.2. Transformation of the role of love-psychological conflict in novels

“About “New People”……………………………………………………………….49

3.3. The evolution of the principles of psychological disclosure of the “inner man” in novels of the late 1850s and early 1860s. ("The day before,

Fathers and Sons")………………………………………………………………………………53

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………65

Bibliography………………………………………………………………..…..68

Introduction

The social and aesthetic value of a person is determined by the measure of his psychological complexity and spiritual wealth, and the main aspect of character reproduction is strictly psychological. (Of course, a person’s inner world cannot be reduced to his psychology. But it is through the hero’s psychology that his inner world is most deeply and clearly, convincingly and holistically revealed in art). (25, p.16).

As researchers note, the problem of psychologism is complex in nature. In it, object and subject are closely connected and at the same time the role of the subject is extremely great.

The problem of psychologism is interesting and aesthetically significant because it is in it that the internal contradictions of the individual are very acute and clearly revealed and manifested, which at the same time reflects and carries within itself the contradictions and conflicts of the era and society. (12.82)

A person in literature is represented as a character, as a certain type of behavior, feeling and thinking.

Researchers note that it is necessary to differentiate and distinguish the concepts of “psychologism” and “psychological analysis”, since they are partially combined, are not fully synonymous and do not coincide in meaning. The concept of “psychologism” is broader than the concept of “psychological analysis”; it includes, for example, a reflection of the author’s psychology in a work. The same cannot be said about psychological analysis, which has a totality of its means and necessarily presupposes an object to which it should be directed. “The appearance of psychological analysis in a work,” notes V.V. Kompaneets, “its form and typology most often depend on the conscious attitude of the writer, on the nature of his talent, personal properties, on the situation in the work, etc. At the same time, characterizing psychological analysis as a conscious aesthetic principle, one should apparently not absolutize the intentionality of the artist’s choice of certain properties” (28, p. 47).

Psychological analysis arises at a relatively high stage of the artistic development of mankind and manifests itself only in certain social and aesthetic conditions.

There is no agreement among researchers on the interpretation of the very content of the concept of “psychological analysis.” So, for S. G. Bocharov, who is interested in “psychological characteristics” in the sense in which, for example, they talk about L. N. Tolstoy and Dostoevsky as great artist-psychologists, the object of psychological analysis is the “inner world”, as something in itself that occupies the artist, capable of attracting his independent and special interest (9, p. 17).

Some researchers understand by psychologism the depiction of human characters in literature, but not just any depiction, but only one in which the character is constructed as a “living value.” In this case, the character reveals its various, sometimes contradictory, facets: the character appears not unilinear, but otherwise planned. At the same time, these researchers include in the concept of psychologism the image of a person’s own inner world, i.e. his and his experiences, an understanding of character as a complex multidimensional unity, on the one hand, and a depiction of the character’s inner world, on the other; appears here as two aspects, two facets of psychologism.

The image of a person’s inner world – psychologism in the proper sense of the word – is a way of constructing an image, a way of reproducing, comprehending and evaluating a particular life character.

Some researchers, for example, A.I. Jesuitov, look for the reasons that give rise to psychologism outside the boundaries of the work. He notes that “in the process of development of literature, periods of increased interest in psychologism on the part of the writers themselves, as well as literary criticism and literary scholars, are followed by periods when interest in psychologism almost declines.” The researcher comes to the conclusion that the “social and aesthetic basis” for increased attention to psychologism and its revival and development in literature is, first of all, “a certain independence and independence of a person’s inner world in relation to the living conditions around him.” Such a situation in public life does not always develop, but only in certain socio-aesthetic conditions, when a certain system of relations between the individual and society has already taken shape, or when it is decisively affirmed and defended in a sharp and open struggle... psychologism as an aesthetic principle, as a measure of human value recedes into the background... When a historically new type of relationship between society and the individual begins to only gradually be established or modified and the old psychologism is improved, it appears on the stage as an aesthetic feature. The tendency of alternating “ebbs and flows” noted by the researcher coincides mainly with those socio-historical processes that the author points to as the reason for the appearance or absence of psychologism. However, A.I. Jesuitov limits himself to only stating this fact, without explaining it (25, p. 18).

A. B. Esin objects to him, noting that “the direct and immediate correlation of such a stylistic quality as psychologism with objective social reality inevitably simplifies the real picture of the interaction of literature with public life.” The author proposes to look for a new link that stands between social reality and psychologism and the mediating influence of the former on style and, in particular, on psychologism (22, p. 54).

Relevance of the topic.

The novels of I.S. Turgenev have more than once become the object of analysis from the point of view of the specifics of artistic psychologism. Among the predecessors we should mention the names of such famous researchers as G.B. Kurlyandskaya, G.A. Byaly, P.G. Pustovoit, A.I. Batyuto, S.E. Shatalov and others. Until now, much attention has been paid to the features of the writer’s “secret psychologism” and to the analysis of the forms of its expression in I.S. Turgenev’s idiostyle. By updating the “external” manifestations of psychologism, exploring the poetics of the psychological portrait, scientists have already raised the question of the “inner man” in the portrayal of Turgenev, the novelist. However, as it seems to us, the problem of the “inner man” in the light of psychopoetics, that is, in the “thought-word” correlation, has not yet been studied as deeply and comprehensively as other aspects of Turgenev’s psychologism. This determines the relevance of the chosen topic.

Without pretending to be a multifaceted study of this topic, we see the purpose of your work is to show, on the basis of the already existing scientific developments of Turgenev’s psychologism, the writer’s skill in depicting the diversity and complexity of the processes occurring in the hero’s soul and verbalized according to the laws of artistic generalization. In other words, we consider psychopoetics in its characterological function.

Research material: novels by I.S. Turgenev about “superfluous” and “new people” of the 1850s – early 1860s (“Rudin”, “The Noble Nest”, “On the Eve”, “Fathers and Sons”).

Object of study– psychologism of artistic prose of the 19th century.

Subject of study - psychopoetics of Turgenev - a novelist, the specificity of Turgenev's psychologism and its manifestation in the structure of a literary text, psychological disclosure of characters, in the "thought - word" system.

The following follows from the goal formulated above: research objectives:

Study theoretical literature on the problem of psychologism and, in particular, psychopoetics;

Consider the evolution of the system of psychologism of Turgenev the artist based on the material of novels of the 1850s - early 1860s;

Analyze the functional role of psychologism in the aspect of psychopoetics;

Consider the originality of Turgenev's psychologism in the aspect of structural and genre features of the writer's novels of the 1850s - early 1860s;

To explore the plot, composition, and stylistic features of Turgenev’s novels in the process of studying the ideological and structural role of moral and psychological conflict in these works.

Research methods: typological, complex, comparative; The work also uses a systematic approach and principles of research into descriptive poetics.

Methodological basis of the work are the works of A.B. Esina, A.I. Isuitova, E.G. Etkinda, A.S. Bushmina, V.V. Kompaneitsa, G.D. Gacheva, S.G. Bocharova, O.I. Fedotova and others on the problems of the figurative specificity of literature, the poetics of psychologism. The same methodological ideas contained in the historical and literary works of G.A. were also used. Byaly, G.B. Kurlyandskaya, S.E. Shatalova, A.I. Batyuto, P.G. Pustovoit and other Turgenevologists.

Practical significance of the work lies in the possibility of using its materials in literature lessons in the X grades of secondary schools.

Approbation:

The work was tested at a methodological seminar at school No. 11. Pervomaiskoye, Ipatovsky district, Stavropol region.

CHAPTER 1.

The originality of psychologism in the aspect of structural and genre features of the novels by I.S. Turgenev –X– beginning of 1850-1860.

1.1. Problems of studying psychopoetics in modern literary criticism.

In the 19th century, there was a widespread introduction into fiction of socio-psychological and ideological-moral themes and motifs, which were first developed in realistic novels and stories.

A. Jesuitov, considering the problem of psychologism in literature, noted the ambiguity of the very concept of “psychologism,” reducing it to three main definitions: 1) psychologism “as a generic sign of the art of words”; 2) “as a result of artistic creativity, as an expression and reflection of the psychology of the author, his characters and, more broadly, social psychology”; 3) psychologism “as a conscious and defining aesthetic principle (25, p. 30). Moreover, it is this last meaning that is dominant in psychological analysis. “The problem of psychologism is interesting and aesthetically significant because it is in it that it is extremely acute, dramatic and visual the internal contradictions of the personality are revealed and manifested, which at the same time reflects and carries within itself the contradictions and conflicts of the era and society” (25, p. 55).

In the literature after the “natural school” there is a widespread shift of attention from the environment, from typical circumstances to character, which, of course, is a psychological phenomenon. By the 40-50s of the 19th century. Those general cultural processes and patterns that favor the development of psychologism also clearly emerged. Firstly, the value of the individual is steadily increasing and at the same time the measure of his ideological and moral responsibility is increasing. Secondly, in the process of social development, the historically emerging type of personality itself becomes more complex, because the system of social relations - the objective basis of the wealth of each individual person - develops and becomes enriched. A person’s connections and relationships become more diverse, their range is wider, and the relationships themselves are inherently more complex. As a result, the personality existing in realistic historical reality becomes potentially more complex. It is clear that these processes directly and directly stimulate the development of psychologism.

The 19th century is a qualitatively new stage in the development of psychologism. In the work of realist writers, revealing the roots of the depicted phenomenon and establishing cause-and-effect relationships become important. “One of the main questions becomes how, under the influence of what life factors, impressions, through what associations, etc., certain ideological and moral foundations of the hero’s personality are formed and changed, as a result of what events, reflections and experiences the hero comes to comprehend this or that another moral or philosophical truth” (23, 1988, p. 60). All this naturally leads to an increase in the proportion of psychological images in the work.

The realistic method involves depicting the individual not only as a product of certain circumstances, but also as an individual entering into active, broad and diverse relationships with the outside world. The potential wealth of character, born in his connections with reality, leads to a deepening of psychologism and an increase in its role in literature.

“Psychologism is an integral property of literature; it plays a big role in depicting character as a complex unity of objective and subjective, natural and unique” (Golovko, 1992, p. 110).

In order for psychologism to arise, a sufficiently high level of development of the culture of society as a whole is necessary, but most importantly, it is necessary that in this culture the unique human personality is recognized as a value. Such an understanding of man and reality became possible in the 19th century, where psychologism reached the highest peaks in knowledge and mastery of the inner world of the individual, setting the highest moral demands for man.

“Literary psychologism is an artistic form,
embodying the ideological and moral quest of the heroes, the form in which literature masters the formation of human character and the ideological foundations of the individual. This, first of all, is the cognitive, problematic and artistic value of psychologism” (23, 1988, p. 28).

In psychological drama, psychologism occupies a leading position; it is its meaningful form, which carries a certain problematic, ideological load. This is not a part, not an element of the artistic structure of the drama. Psychologism in it is a special aesthetic property that permeates and organizes all the elements of the form, its entire structure, all the conflicting positions.

The main focus in psychological drama is not on any external manifestations, but on the inner life of the characters. Psychologism here acts as an expression of the innermost inner life of a person. The characters of a psychological drama can be divided into two main groups (and the social sign in this case plays a secondary role), belonging to different psychological types: the first group is “people of the external world” and the second is the “inner world” (60, 1999). Representatives of the first group are deprived of reflective consciousness; they are “clichéd” types, devoid of spiritual depth. People of the external type are complex natures, acting in their “unresolution” and “detachment” from any manifestations of reality, not finding their place in it. They enter into a kind of conflict not only with society, but also with themselves, becoming unwitting victims of “free will”, the bearers of which they sometimes consider themselves to be.

In addition, the introduction of psychologism into the internal structure of psychological drama introduces a re-emphasis on the characters. Most often there is no single hero; there are several of them and each of them carries a personal drama. “A psychological drama becomes a work with a polyphonic sound (the “voices” of the characters sound equivalent). Psychological drama is primarily polyphonic, not monologue structure" (Osnovin, 1970, p. 248).

We can say that psychologism in drama represents a certain principle of organizing its artistic elements into a certain unity, which constitutes the integrity and originality of psychological drama.

Features of psychological drama as a genre variety.

Drama (in particular, psychological drama as its genre variety) enters the literary arena at a time when the process of forming a new “idea of ​​man” is underway. After all, it is the “idea of ​​man” that evolves, determining the diachrony of the genre system and the dynamics of literature. “The philosophical “idea of ​​man,” characteristic of a certain historical and literary era, causally determines the dominance of genres of a certain literary kind, the flourishing and development of those that are most disposed to adequately implement this idea” (Golovko, 2000, p. 8).

1.2 Typological and individual in the genre system and characterology of Turgenev’s novel.

Such works as “Eugene Onegin”, “Hero of Our Time”, “Dead Souls” “laid” a solid foundation for the future development of the Russian realistic novel. The artistic activity of Turgenev as a novelist unfolded at a time when Russian literature was looking for new ways, turning to the genre of socio-psychological, and then socio-political novel.

The new, great ideological and artistic task that Turgenev faced in the 1859s - to show the “turning moments” of Russian life - could not be solved by means of “small” literary genres. Realizing this, I. S. Turgenev turned to a new genre for himself, accumulating individual elements that he found necessary for the artistic construction of his novels, in the process of previous creative work in the field of poems, short stories, sketches, stories, and drama.

Apparently, there are no genuine artists who are not interested in the inner world of their heroes. V. G. Belinsky generally could not imagine a great artist without “the ability to quickly comprehend all forms of life, to be transferred to every character, to every personality.” Developing this idea, N. G. Chernyshevsky emphasized in his dissertation: “One of the qualities of a poetic genius is the ability to understand the essence of character in a real person, to look at him with penetrating eyes.”

N.G. Chernyshevsky also wrote that “psychological analysis is perhaps the most essential of the qualities that give strength to creative talent.” Knowledge of the human heart, the ability to reveal its secrets to us - after all, this is the first word in the character of those writers whose works we re-read with amazement. Starting from the mid-19th century, psychological analysis in Russian literature acquired a new quality: heightened artistic attention to the psychological development of the individual, as a subject of depiction, became a general trend in the development of critical realism, which was explained by profound socio-historical changes.

V.A. Nedzvetsky classifies Turgenev’s novels as a type of “personal novel” of the 19th century (41, p. 54. Russian social-universal novel of the 19th century: Formation and directed evolution. – M., 1997). This type of novel is characterized by the fact that, both in content and structural terms, it is predetermined by the history and fate of “modern man”, developed and aware of his individual rights. The “personal” novel is far from unlimitedly open to everyday prose. As N.N. Strakhov noted, Turgenev, as far as he could, sought and depicted the beauty of our life (51, Critical articles about I.S. Turgenev and L.N. Tolstoy. – Kyiv., 2001. p. – 190). This led to the selection of predominantly spiritual and poetic phenomena. V.A. Nedzvetsky rightly notes: “...The artistic study of the fate of man in an indispensable connection and correlation with his practical duty to society and the people, as well as the universal development of problems and collisions naturally gave the Goncharov-Turgenev novel that broad epic breath...” (51, p.189- 190)

Many researchers note that I. S. Turgenev’s novel in its formation and development was influenced by all the literary forms in which his artistic thought was expressed (essay, story, drama, etc.).

As the observations of many researchers have shown (N.L. Brodsky, B.M. Eikhenbaum, G.B. Kurlyandskaya, S.E. Shatalov, A.I. Batyuto, P.G. Pustovoit, M.K. Kleman, G. A. Byaly, G. A. Tseitlin, etc.) the connections between Turgenev’s novel and his story should be considered the most strong and permanent. In terms of genre, I. S. Turgenev’s novel gravitates towards a story due to its peak composition, clearly marked by the point of highest tension. Literary scholars sought to understand the closeness of Turgenev's novel to the story. According to Tseitlin, it was no coincidence that Turgenev called his novels stories: they really stand on the line between these genres, where, unlike the epic novel, the tragedy novel, we find here a novel-story. And this hybridity of the genre determines many features of the structure of Turgenev’s novel - its simplicity, conciseness, harmony.

Turgenev's novel is unthinkable without a major social type. This is one of the significant differences between Turgenev's novel and his story. A characteristic feature of the structure of Turgenev’s novel is the emphasized continuity of the narrative. Researchers note that novels written during the heyday of the writer’s talent are replete with scenes that seem incomplete in their development, full of meaning that is not fully revealed. The main goal of I. S. Turgenev is to draw only the main features of the spiritual appearance of the hero, to talk about his ideas.

The demands of social life and the logic of his own artistic development led Turgenev to the need to overcome the “old manner” of the essayist. Having published “Notes of a Hunter” as a separate edition in 1852, Turgenev decided to “get rid of... this old manner,” as he said in a letter to K. S. Aksakov on October 16 (28), 1852. Turgenev repeated this decision to leave the “old manner” with even greater certainty in a letter to P.V. Annenkov dated November 28 (9) of the same year: “We must go the other way - the road - “you need to find it - and bow out forever to the old manner” ( P., 11.77)

Overcoming the “old manner”, Turgenev sets the task of understanding the hero in his social role, in the aspect of correlation with the whole era. Thus, Rudin acts as a representative of the era of the 30-40s, the era of philosophical hobbies, abstract contemplation and at the same time a passionate desire for the social; service, “cause”, with a clear understanding of his responsibility to his homeland and people. Lavretsky is an exponent of the next stage in the social history of Russia - the 50s, when the “action” on the eve of the reform acquired the features of greater social concreteness. Lavretsky is no longer Rudin, a noble educator, detached from any soil; he sets himself the task of “learning to plow the land” and is moral to influence people’s life through its deep Europeanization. In the personality of Bazarov, Turgenev already embodied the essential features of outstanding representatives of the democratic circle of the 60s. As a materialist natural scientist who despises idealistic abstractions, as a man of “unbending will” who is aware of the need to destroy the old in order to “clear the place,” the nihilist Bazarov belongs to the generation of commoner revolutionaries.

Turgenev paints representatives of his time, so his characters are always confined to a certain era, to a certain ideological or political movement. Rudin, Bazarov, Nezhdanov are associated with certain stages of the class struggle in the history of Russian social development. Turgenev considered a characteristic feature of his novels to be the presence in them of historical certainty associated with his desire to convey “the very image and pressure of time.” He managed to create a novel about the historical process in its ideological expression, about the change of historical eras, about the struggle of ideological and political trends. Turgenev's novels became historical not by theme, but by the method of depiction. With keen attention to the movement and development of ideas in society, Turgenev is convinced of the unsuitability of the old, traditional, calm and extensive epic narrative for reproducing modern vibrant social life: “...the critical and transitional time that we are experiencing, there can be two refuge of the epic" (P., I, 456). The task of catching the ideological and political trends of the time, of capturing the “breakdown of the era” turned Turgenev to the creation of a novel-story, to an original compositional and genre structure.

The special type of novel created by Turgenev is associated with this ability to notice the emerging life, to correctly guess the uniqueness of the turning points of Russian social history, when the struggle between the old and the new becomes extremely intensified. The transition of social life from one state to another occupies the dialectical writer. He managed to convey the ideological and moral atmosphere of each decade of social life in Russia in the 1840s-1870s, creating an artistic chronicle of the ideological life of the “cultural layer” of Russian society of this period. In the preface to the collection of novels in the 1880 edition, he wrote: “The author of Rudin, written in 1855, and the author of Novi, written in 1876, are the same person. During all this time I I strove, as far as I had the strength and skill, to conscientiously and impartially portray and embody in the proper types both what Shakespeare calls “the body and pressure of time,” and that acutely changing physiognomy of the Russian people of the cultural layer, which primarily served as the subject of my observations” ( XII, 303).

The task of reproducing the transitional moments of Russian history, the desire to keep up with the fleeing “last wave of life” and “to catch the rapidly changing physiognomy” of the Russian intelligentsia, gave Turgenev’s novels a certain sketchiness, placing them on the border of the story in terms of concentration of content, clearly marked points of highest tension, highlighting the peak moments of the plot history, concentration around one character. It is no coincidence that Turgenev called his novels stories, sometimes large stories, sometimes widespread short stories, which, however, conveyed “the poems of our social life.” Consciously avoiding “fragmentation of characters” (Belinsky) and common everyday scenes, Turgenev at the same time presented his heroes-characters specifically - historically, creating an image of the era with the help of a few well-chosen details. A. Maurois wrote about the work of Turgenev as a novelist: “Turgenev’s art was often compared with Greek art. The comparison is correct, because among the Greeks, like Turgenev, a complex whole is indicated by the hint of a few excellently chosen features. Never before Turgenev had a novelist demonstrated such complete economy of means: You wonder how Turgenev could give a complete impression of duration and completeness with such short books.”

The special structure of Turgenev's novel is undoubtedly associated with a deepening into the patterns of social reality, therefore, with the philosophical and historical views of the writer, with the recognition of the dialectical development of natural and social reality. Having gone through the school of dialectical thinking under the leadership of the Hegelian Werder, Turgenev knew that the movement of history takes place through the struggle of opposite principles from lower to higher, from simple to complex, with the repetition of positive content at the highest level of the lower

In his literary critical articles, Turgenev more than once emphasized the role and significance of the critical principle in the historical movement of mankind. Negation was also considered as a moment of transition from the old to the new: upon its entry into the field of social development, the negative principle is “one-sided, ruthless and destructive,” but then loses its ironic force and is filled with “positive content and turns into reasonable and organic progress” (I , 226). In the historical movement of mankind, the writer saw, first of all, the action of the law of negation. He believed that each phase of social history, through the struggle of internal opposites, comes to self-negation, but at the same time its positive content is organically assimilated by representatives of a new, higher stage of development. The present, leaving the historical stage, transfers its rational principles to the future and is thus enriched in the future. This is how the continuity of generations is carried out, according to Turgenev, whose novels are imbued with faith in the significance of ongoing history, although the writer was also characterized by traits of philosophical pessimism. The idea of ​​negating the old, obsolete and affirming the new, victorious was of decisive importance for the structural and genre organization of Turgenev’s novel. He believed his task as a novelist was to guess “the moments of turning point, the moments in which the past dies and something new is born” (P., III, 163).

In an effort to elevate the art of the novel, close to the story, Turgenev tried to convey “the truth of human physiognomy”; he was interested only in ordinary events, the true scale and natural proportions of life phenomena, guided by the classical sense of proportion and harmony. This denial of adventure-plot entertainment in Turgenev’s novels was noted by G. Maupassant: “He adhered to the most modern and most advanced views regarding literature, rejecting all the old forms of the novel, built on intrigue, with dramatic and skillful combinations, demanding that they give life,” only life – “pieces of life”, without intrigue and without rough adventures.”

Not an entertaining intrigue, not a rapid development of events, but “internal action” is characteristic of Turgenev’s novels - the process of discovering the spiritual content of a person and his conflict with the environment.

Despite their novelistic nature, Turgenev's novels are distinguished by the necessary epicness. It is created precisely by the fact that the leading characters go beyond intimate and personal experiences into the wide world of spiritual interests. Rudin, Lavretsky, Insarov, Bazarov, Solomin, Nezhdanov and others concentratedly reflect on the problem of the “common good”, on the need for radical transformations in people's life. The inner world of the heroes absorbs the aspirations and thoughts of an entire era - the era of noble enlightenment, like Rudin and Lavretsky, or the era of democratic rise, like Bazarov. The image of the hero acquires a certain epic quality, because it becomes an expression of national identity, some fundamental tendencies of people's life, although Turgenev reveals the character of the hero not in broad scenes of social practice, but in scenes of ideological dispute and intimate experiences. The history of these experiences is unusually meaningful and therefore love is born on the basis of internal ideological agreement, because it puts lovers in a conflictual relationship with the immediate social environment. Because of this, love becomes a test of the moral value of heroes. It is no coincidence that the narrative in Turgenev’s novels ends with a “dramatic explosion,” as M. Rybnikova correctly noted.

Turgenev’s faith in the spiritual wealth of the Russian people, in their moral superiority over the landowners, also contributed to the epic comprehension of life. Depicting in his novels the social history of people of the “cultural stratum,” Turgenev evaluates this world of the noble and common intelligentsia from the position of the author of “Notes of a Hunter,” i.e., the consciousness of the great moral forces hidden in the people.

The way to achieve epic scale in Turgenev's novel is a special refraction of the principle of historicism: a complex interpenetration of chronological aspects occurs in the novel. The present time, in which the action unfolds, is thoroughly permeated by the past, which explains the origins and roots of the depicted phenomena, events, and characters. The Russian novel in general, especially Turgenev's, is characterized by an emphasized connection of times and a close interweaving of chronological plans. The characters of the heroes in their integrity and development emerge in Turgenev through retrospectives (biographies and projections into the future (epilogues)), therefore those “extensions” that were perceived in criticism as “miscalculations” and “shortcomings” of the author have an epic meaningful meaning and contribute to the germination story into a novel.

Turgenev achieves epic breadth by shifting time layers and using large time breakthroughs. The present unfolds smoothly and leisurely in accordance with the content of the depicted actions and events, the past and future are given sketchily, fluently, casually, and concentratedly.

Turgenev - strove for the utmost dynamism of the first introductory episodes, to ensure that the characters showed themselves directly, in dialogic scenes. But these latter, as a rule, are combined with preliminary, albeit very concise and expressive socio-psychological characteristics. The dynamic beginning is often replaced by biographical digressions, which are sometimes very significant. For example, in “The Noble Nest” this retreat into the past is realized throughout many chapters (VIII-XVI); however, this retreat in this novel acquires independent meaning in the context of the whole. Having widely expanded the social and everyday background that explains the dramatic story of Lisa and Lavretsky, Turgenev in Chapter XVII returns to the narrative in the present. Life in the novel “Smoke” is such a complex interweaving of the present and the past.

Accumulating with “additions” that reveal the perspective of character and give a wide panorama of life, the love-psychological story becomes more complex in its structure, acquiring epic content. In addition, the core of Turgenev's novel is far from being reduced to an intimate psychological collision: personal history is always accompanied by scenes of dramatic action, which represent ideological clashes between social antagonists or an ethical and philosophical conversation between like-minded people. Love itself in Turgenev's novel appears deeply humanized, born from spiritual sympathies, which is why scenes of ideological conversation organically fit into the history of intimate and personal relationships. The lover becomes a teacher for Turgenev’s girl, answering the question of how to do good.

The writer's attention is focused on the various ideological mediations of the love story. Already in episodes
from the present time Turgenev goes beyond the "big
story." Scenes of ideological conversation, complicated by psychological motives, form the basis of the novel and largely determine its structural and genre uniqueness.
The form of dialogue in Turgenev’s novels always appears justified, necessary, because with its help they depict
people whose relationships appear to be intrinsically significant,
significant. Interlocutors and in scenes of ideological dispute,
in an intimate conversation are given in comparison, in comparison with each other
friend. Turgenev inevitably turns to the form of dialogue
the purpose of depicting the ideological and psychological antagonism of Rudin and Pigasov, Bazarov and Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov,
Lavretsky and Panshin, Sipyagin and Solomin, as well as for the purpose of depicting people who are spiritually close - Rudin and Lezhnev, Lavretsky and Mizalevich, Liza and Lavretsky, Shubin and Bersnev, Litvinov and Potugin. Using forms of dialogical speech, Turgenev depicts clashes of typical characters expressing the essential historical trends of the time. The scene of an ideological dispute, expressing the ideological relationships of its participants, Russian intellectuals of the 40-70s, is of significant importance in the composition of Turgenev’s novels. Being interested in the history of the ideological differences of his heroes, Turgenev contrasted them with each other not only along the line of ideology, but also along the line their individual psychological content. The differences between Turgenev's interlocutors on theoretical issues are always differences between typical characters presented in the unity of their ideological and moral character. In the scenes of the dispute, Turgenev acts as a psychologist, keenly interested in the mental characteristics of the antagonists. Polemical dialogue becomes a form of revealing not only the content of the theoretical position of the characters, but also their socio-psychological originality.

So, an important difference between Turgenev’s novel and a story is rooted in the nature of its construction. When compared with Turgenev's story, his novel looks like a complex and at the same time very harmonious plot and compositional system with a clearly established internal relationship between all its sometimes contradictory elements.

1.3 Specifics of I. S. Turgenev’s psychologism.

In the second half of the 19th century, when a huge number of ideas and thoughts made their way into all forms of social consciousness, the tendency towards ever deeper penetration into the inner world of man became especially obvious in Russian realistic literature.

The discovery of the complex sphere of human thoughts and feelings is the main aspect of the realistic method of artistic creativity, and the psychologically reliable disclosure of the inner world of a person based on his connections with the outside world has long been a lasting artistic achievement.

The research literature has long raised the question of the great significance of I. S. Turgenev’s contribution to the treasury of human studies.

Back in the 18th century in the 50s, N. Ch. Chernyshevsky formulated a definition of many types of psychological analysis based on the analysis of the psychological manner of L. Tolstoy: “Count Tolstoy’s attention is most of all drawn to how some feelings and thoughts develop from others; he is interested observe how a feeling immediately arising from a given situation or impression, subject to the influence of memories and the force of combinations represented by the imagination, passes into other feelings, again turns to the previous starting point and again wanders, changing along the chain of memories, as the thought born of the first sensation leads to other thoughts, gets carried away further and further, merges dreams with actual sensations, dreams of the future with reflection on the present.Psychological analysis can take different directions: one poet is increasingly occupied with the outlines of characters; another - the influence of social relations and everyday clashes on characters; a third – connection of feelings with actions; fourth – analysis of passions; Count Tolstoy is increasingly the mental process itself; its forms, its laws, the dialectic of the soul, to express it with a specific term.

A contemporary of I. S. Turgenev, critic P. V. Annenkov, wrote that Turgenev was “undoubtedly a psychologist,” “but secret.” Turgenev’s study of psychology “is always hidden in the depths of the work,” he continues, “and it develops with it, like a red thread threaded through fabric.”

This point of view was shared by a number of critics during Turgenev’s lifetime, and it received recognition in the subsequent period - right up to the present day. In accordance with this point of view, Turgenev’s psychologism has an objective-resulting character: the mental, internal, hidden, although it is comprehended, is not through a kind of unveiling of the secrets of the soul, when a picture of the emergence and development of the hero’s feelings is revealed to the reader, but through the artistic realization of them in external manifestations in posture, gesture, facial expressions, behavior, etc.

Knowledge of the human heart, the ability to reveal its secrets to us - after all, this is the first word in the characteristics of each of those writers whose works we re-read with amazement."

Since the middle of the 19th century, psychological analysis in Russian literature has acquired a new quality: heightened artistic attention to the psychological development of the individual as the subject of depiction has become common. the trend in the development of critical realism, which was explained by profound socio-historical changes. The second half of the 19th century is the era of breaking the foundations of the old, patriarchal serfdom Russia, when “the old was irrevocably collapsing before everyone’s eyes, and the new was just taking shape.” The process of historical movement accelerated. “In a few decades, transformations took place that took entire centuries in some European countries,” wrote V.I. Lenin about this era. Serf Russia was replaced by capitalist Russia. This economic process was reflected in the social sphere by a “general rise in the sense of personality.”

The deepening of psychological analysis in Russian literature of the mid and second half of the 19th century, associated with a new solution to the problem of personality, found its individually unique expression in the works of Turgenev and Goncharov, Tolstoy and Dostoevsky. These writers are united by the desire to understand the inner world of man in its contradictory complexity, constant change and the struggle of opposing principles. They viewed personality psychology as multi-layered, in the correlation of fundamental properties and superficial formations that arose under the influence of a socially vicious environment. At the same time, the method of psychological analysis was carried out by our wonderful writers individually and in a unique way, in accordance with their understanding of reality, with their concept of man.

A comparative ideological and artistic characterization of related writers as representatives of the main, opposing and at the same time inextricably linked trends in Russian psychological realism of the 19th century is of great importance for understanding not only the individual uniqueness of each of them, but also the laws of the literary process.

According to M. B. Khranchenko, “typological unity does not mean simple repetition of literary phenomena, it presupposes their relatedness - the similarity of some essential internal features.” For writers of the psychological movement, Russian critical realism, it is especially characteristic to depict diverse conflicts between the individual and society, in contrast to writers of the so-called sociological movement, who are interested in conflicts caused by deep contradictions between the needs of the nation, people and the dominant social structure, the autocratic serfdom system.

The inner world of heroes becomes the object of close artistic study in works of a psychological direction. “The history of the human soul” was recognized by Lermontov as “almost more interesting and useful than the history of an entire people.” L. Tolstoy believed that the main goal of art was to “express the truth about the soul of man.” He considered art to be a microscope, which the artist points at the secrets of his soul and shows these secrets common to all people. “Images of passions” completely occupied Goncharov. He constantly depicted “the process of varied manifestations of passion, that is, love,” because “the play of passions will give the artist a rich material of living effects, dramatic situations and imparts more life to his creations.”

The “inner man” existed in the new literature of Europe even before the appearance of this phrase. Literature—and, of course, philosophy—understood what was happening “inside” in different ways; the perception of thought and the relationship between thought and the word designed to express and verbalize it changed. By psychopoetics, Etkind understands the area of ​​philology that examines the relationship between thought and word, and the term “thought” here and below means not only logical inference (from causes to effects or from consequences to causes), not only the rational process of understanding (from essence to phenomenon and vice versa), but also the entire totality of a person’s inner life. Thought (in our usual usage of words) conveys the content that Jean-Paul put into the concept of “inner man”; however, we will use this combination often, bearing in mind the diversity and complexity of the processes occurring in the soul. To begin with, we note that verbalization, that is, the expression of thought by external speech, is significantly different in different cultural and stylistic systems.

“The inner man” and psychology - this problem is considered by E. Etkind as relevant. He noted that Zhukovsky was looking for “verbal means - to express the inexpressible. Russian narrative poetry and novel prose of the 19th century strives to combine the world of the “inner man” conquered by the romantics with the psychologism they rejected. The romantics rejected character - Novalis decisively declared: “So-called psychology is laurels that have taken the places in the sanctuary that belong to the true gods.” Writers of the 19th century, having overcome romanticism, began to rehabilitate psychology. N. Ya. Berkovsky noted: “Characters are unacceptable for romantics, because they constrain the personality, set limits for it, lead it to a certain hardening.”

Russian prose (and before it, Pushkin’s “novel in verse”) is increasingly and decisively removing this erroneous idea. None of our great novelists has even a trace of such “hardening”: the psychology of the heroes of Goncharov and Turgenev, Dostoevsky and Tolstoy, Garshin and Chekhov is distinguished by flexibility, multifaceted depth, variability, and unpredictable complexity. Each of them has their own idea of ​​the internal dominant: for Goncharov it is the struggle of the natural essence of a person with bookishness; in Dostoevsky - the birth in the consciousness of an irresistibly growing idea that subjugates the entire person, leading to a split personality, to pathological “dualism”; in Tolstoy - the struggle between spiritual and sinful-carnal forces inside the body and soul, a struggle that determines both love and death; in Chekhov there is a conflict between the social role and the truly human in a person. These cursory formulas are necessarily lightweight; the reader will find more detailed and serious judgments in the proposed book (Etkind E.G. Inner man and external speech.: Essays on the psychopoetics of Russian literature of the 18th-19th centuries - M., 1999. - 446 p.).

Of course, psychological writers were not supporters of pure psychologism, passive contemplative immersion in the inner world of the hero as a self-sufficient and pointless flow of associative connections. Through personality psychology, they revealed the essence of social relations. The history of intimate and personal experiences made it possible to identify the moral and psychological states of representatives of antagonistic social forces and tendencies. No wonder V. G. Belinsky wrote: “Now novels and stories depict not vices and virtues, but people as members of society, and therefore, by depicting people, they depict society.”

The psychological drama of the individual was socially determined, generated by some significant processes in social history. But, as G. Pospelov noted, in works of art of the psychological movement, and in the characters of the heroes, only “symptoms” of the social circumstances that created them manifest themselves, in contrast to works of the sociological direction, in which typical circumstances appear directly.

The psychologism of I. S. Turgenev’s prose has repeatedly attracted the attention of researchers, including the author of this monograph. Back in the 1954 article “The Artistic Method of Turgenev the Novelist (based on the novels “Rudin”, “The Noble Nest”, On the Eve”, “Fathers and Sons”)”, and then in the book “The Method and Style of Turgenev the Novelist”, forms of psychological analysis in Turgenev's works in connection with his worldview and method.Portrait drawing, the originality of the psychological detail, the content of the author's position, the nature of the narrative style - I studied everything in connection with the forms of Turgenev's psychological analysis.

Among the works specifically devoted to the specifics of Turgenev’s artistic style, one should name A. G. Tseitlin’s long-standing book “The Mastery of Turgenev the Novelist,” published by “Soviet Writer” in 1958. A significant part of G. Byaly’s monograph “Turgenev and Russian Realism” is devoted to the study of the writer’s novels from the point of view of the connection between their ideological content and the features of the artistic form, in the perspective of ideological, political and ethical-philosophical worldview. The components of style are considered in accordance with the person, taking into account the concept of character, Turgenev’s solution to the problem of personality, which gives the analysis an organic unity, despite the diversity and diversity of the material involved.

In the books “Problems of the Poetics of I. S. Turgenev” (1969), “The Artistic World of I. S. Turgenev” (1979), S. E. Shatalov practically continues the traditions of his predecessors, considering the evolution of Turgenev’s psychologism from an objective, external image of the soul to a more deep analytical penetration into the inner world of a person. In addition to the above-mentioned monographic works, there are also separate articles devoted to the forms of psychological analysis in one or another of Turgenev’s works.

Turgenev was an opponent of that introspection that so sharpened Tolstoy's powers of observation, teaching him to look at people with a penetrating gaze. According to N.G. Chernyshevsky, Tolstoy “extremely carefully studied the secrets of the life of the human spirit in himself,” this knowledge “gave him a solid basis for studying human life in general, for unraveling the characters and springs of action, the struggle of passions and impressions.” Turgenev felt in this concentrated attention to himself the reflection of an extra person: “I’m so tired and tired of all these subtle reflections and reflections on my own feelings.” Turgenev associated the old “psychological fuss” that constituted Tolstoy’s “positive monomania” with the capricious, obsessive and fruitless introspection of the “superfluous man.” This concentration of the “Russian Hamlet” on his purely individualistic experiences seemed to the writer petty, selfish, leading to disunity with humanity.

Turgenev rightly objected to the detailed description of insignificant phenomena of the psyche in the works of Tolstoy’s epigones, and to their use of the method of psychological decomposition. When the pursuit of subtle halftones becomes an end in itself, then psychological analysis becomes subjectively one-sided. Turgenev advised N. L. Leontiev: “Try... to be as simple and clear as possible in the matter of art; your trouble is some kind of confusion, although true, but too small thoughts, some unnecessary wealth of posterior ideas, secondary feelings and hints. Remember that no matter how subtle and complex the internal structure of some tissue in the human body, skin, for example, is, its appearance is clear and uniform" (P., II, 259). Turgenev wrote to him: “...your techniques are too subtle and exquisitely clever, often to the point of darkness” (P., IV, 135). Welcoming the gift of psychological analysis of L. Ya. Stechkina, Turgenev finds that this gift “often turns into some kind of painstaking nervousness,” and the writer then falls into “pettiness, into caprice.” He warns her against the desire to “catch all the fluctuations of mental states”: “everyone with you cries incessantly, even sobs, feels terrible pain, then immediately an extraordinary lightness, etc. I don’t know,” Turgenev concludes, “how many You have read Leo Tolstoy; but I am sure that for you the study of this - undoubtedly the first Russian writer - is positively harmful."

Turgenev appreciated the amazing power of psychological analysis inherent in Tolstoy, the fluidity, mobility, dynamism of his mental picture, but at the same time he had a negative attitude towards the endless decomposition of feelings in Tolstoy’s works (P., V, 364; VI, 66; VII, 64-65, 76 ). Turgenev regarded the form of direct depiction of a mental process as “a capriciously monotonous fuss in the same sensations,” as “the old habit of conveying vibrations, vibrations of the same feeling, position,” as “psychological fuss.” It seemed to him that thanks to the petty decomposition of feeling into its component parts.

This dissatisfaction with the microscopic analysis of the “soul” was not accidental for Turgenev: it is connected with the deepest foundations of his worldview, with a certain solution to the problem of personality.

Tolstoy coped well with the task of dynamic transformation of inner speech. Transforming idiomatic Inner Speech into syntactically organized and understandable for others, Tolstoy created a literary imitation of Inner Speech, trying to preserve its features - undifferentiated and condensed. But to Turgenev this transformation of the undivided flow of verbal thinking into speech understandable to everyone did not seem correct and, most importantly, possible. He was not satisfied with Tolstoy's transition from internal to external speech, as a rationalistic invasion into that area of ​​human consciousness that is not subject to analytical decomposition and designation.

Turgenev was to some extent right when he protested against the rationalistic understanding of the “spirituality” of the human personality, against the verbal, therefore logical, depiction through the means of internal monologue of a psychic flow, still vague and completely unconscious at the earliest embryonic stages of its development. In any case, Turgenev's conviction that the first movements of nascent life, the first unconscious manifestations of consciousness are not amenable to precise verbal designation - is completely consistent with the provisions of modern scientific psychology.

Turgenev's negative attitude towards the method of rational designation of all phases of the mental process becomes clear, especially in the light of the achievements of L. S. Vygotsky in the field of studying thinking and speech.

Protesting against those who consider the relationship between thought and word as independent, independent and isolated processes, as well as against those who identify these processes, L. S. Vygotsky at the same time recognizes that “thought and word” are not interconnected by the original communication This connection arises, changes, grows in the course of the very development of thought and speech." In the same work "Thinking and Speech" the scientist writes: "We did not agree with those who consider inner speech as something that precedes external speech, as its inner side . If external speech is the process of transforming a thought into a word, the materialization and objectification of a thought, then here we observe a process in the opposite direction, a process that seems to come from the outside in, the process of evaporation of speech into thought. But speech does not disappear at all in its internal form. Consciousness does not evaporate at all and does not dissolve in pure spirit. Inner speech is still speech, that is, a thought associated with a word. But if a thought is embodied in a word in external speech, then the word dies in internal speech, giving birth to a thought. Inner speech is, to a large extent, thinking in pure meanings..." Expressing his idea as a result of carefully conducted experiments, L. S. Vygotsky notes: "This flow and movement of thought does not coincide directly and directly with the development of speech. Units of thought and units of speech are not the same. One and the other processes exhibit unity, but not identity. They are connected to each other by complex transitions, complex transformations, but do not cover each other like straight lines superimposed on each other. The easiest way to be convinced of this is in those cases when the work of thought ends unsuccessfully, when it turns out that the thought did not go into words, as Dostoevsky says.”

The process of the emergence of feelings and thoughts seems to Turgenev to be a mysterious laboratory, closed to any writer. The first movements of emotionality do not tolerate cold analytical dissection: they are mysterious and cannot immediately become conscious. Turgenev expressed his cherished convictions in the indecomposability of the mental process, which proceeds hidden, precisely in the first stages of its development in connection with the intimate experiences of Liza and Lavretsky: “Lavretsky surrendered himself entirely to the will that captivated him - and rejoiced; but words will not express what was happening in a pure soul girls: it was a secret for herself. No one knows, no one has seen and will never see how a grain, called to life and blossoming, fills and ripens in the bosom of the earth" (VII, 234). This comparison of an abstract psychological concept with a grain pouring and ripening in the bosom of the earth reveals Turgenev’s understanding of the process of emerging feeling as not subject to external observation.

Turgenev is deeply convinced that it is impossible to define with an exact word what is in itself elusive, incomprehensible due to the richness of shades and the complexity of internal contradictory unity, due to the lack of awareness of these still emerging, just emerging feelings. That is why Turgenev refused a microscopic analysis of the vague, undifferentiated flows of a person’s internal emotional life, and mainly depicted, through the means of an internal monologue, mature and fully conscious feelings, completely completed thoughts, i.e., after all, the results of a mental process. It is no coincidence that by means of epithets and their concatenation, he conveyed stable signs of the spiritual make-up of his heroes in the situation of a given moment, when depicting their changing moods.

It should be noted: the sphere of the subconscious and various levels of consciousness greatly occupied Turgenev the psychologist, but to identify these spheres he almost did not use the means of internal monologue. But we will address this topic below.

Turgenev and Tolstoy are antipodes in their psychological method, in their ideological, creative, ethical and philosophical position.

Tolstoy's sober realism, completely alien to romantic idealization, was reflected in the methods of psychological analysis, in the desire to decompose the entire process of the origin and development of feelings, in a precise word to designate the deepest immediate movements of consciousness. With his merciless analysis, Tolstoy got to the last depths of personality, clearly revealing the very first manifestations of inner consciousness, even the most diffuse. During the mental process, Tolstoy was occupied with the most unstable connections and relationships of the smallest particles of mental life, their bizarre couplings and transformations, in a word, the complex pattern of the internal, mental. Through an exhaustive analysis, the writer moved towards a synthetic representation of the moral and psychological structure of the personality of the literary hero, who is experiencing a complex history of liberation from the yoke of class class ideas and norms.

Tolstoy’s rationalistic position, which was primarily reflected in the depiction of the elementary particles of the microcosm of mental life, undoubtedly irritated Turgenev, who considered the deep essence of the human personality to be rationally incomprehensible and therefore not subject to decomposition into the smallest indivisible elementary particles. The psychology of elementary particles seemed to him “a monotonous fuss in the same sensations.” He acted as a convinced opponent of the enlightenment, rationalistic approach to the human personality, to its “spirituality,” that is, an opponent of Tolstoy’s “dialectics of the soul,” stripping the veils of a person’s mental life to its simplest components.

Deprived of boundless faith in the power of word and reason, in their ability to express what is in itself mysterious and not subject to external definition, i.e. designation, Turgenev, in full agreement with romantic aesthetics, believed that only music conveys the greatest spontaneity of human emotionality. Thus, summing up the lonely, familyless and joyless life of Sanin, who suddenly unexpectedly found a cross given to him by Gemma, and received her reply letter from America, Turgenev clearly notes: “We do not undertake to describe the feelings experienced by Sanin while reading this letter. There are no such feelings satisfactory expression: they are deeper and stronger - and more immediate than any word. Music alone could convey them" (XI, 156).

The emotional element of music puts a person in direct relationship with the verbally inexpressible flow of inner life, with all the wealth of overflows and transitions of feelings, illuminated by the light of a certain consciousness; introduces him to the ideal, raises him above ordinary human life. Musical art becomes for Turgenev the perfect language of the heart, the passionate impulse of the mysterious stranger from the story “Three Meetings”, the sublime love of Liza and Lavretsky. Poetic love of a Russian girl! could only be expressed by the wondrous, triumphant sounds of Lemme’s composition. Attention to the world of the inner man receives a romantic coloring in Turgenev's works, associated with the desire for a synthetic image, as well as for a “generalized symbolic reflection of individual mental states.”

Turgenev's concept of personality, whose origins go back to the romantic philosophical idealism of the people of the 40s, leads us to an understanding of the internal organic connections of the writer's creative method with the forms of his psychological analysis. Turgenev's realistic method becomes romantically active due to the understanding of personality as mysterious, mysterious and incomprehensible in its substantial basis. “After all, only that which is strong in us is what remains a half-suspected secret for us,” says the writer, explaining Marianne’s closeness, which she was completely unconscious of, to romance and poetry (XII, 100).

Protesting against the literary imitation of the most diffuse stages of inner speech, still associated with the subconscious depths of our spiritual self, Turgenev created the theory of “secret psychology”, according to which “the psychologist must disappear in the artist, just as a skeleton disappears from view under a living and warm body, to which it serves as a strong but invisible support." “The poet must be a psychologist,” Turgenev explained to K.N. Leontyev, “but a secret one: he must know and feel the roots of phenomena, but represents only the phenomena themselves - in their flourishing or withering” (P., IV, 135).

chapter 2

Psychological disclosure of the inner world of man in the novels of I. S. Turgenev about"extra people."

2.1 Features"secret psychologism"in Turgenev's novel.

The originality and strength of Turgenev's psychologism lies in the fact that Turgenev was most attracted to those unsteady moods and impressions that, merging, should give a person a feeling of fullness, richness, joy of a direct sense of being, pleasure from the feeling of one's merging with the world around him.

S. E. Shatalov at one time explained the lack of research into the psychological method of I. S. Turgenev by the fact that the conditions were not yet fully ripe for posing and resolving this issue at the modern scientific level. The study of the psychological method of even Dostoevsky and L. Tolstoy began relatively recently; As for Turgenev, and for that matter Herzen, Goncharov, Leskov and many other artists of the 19th century, the modern reader is forced to be content either with the works of authors who have lost their significance, who tended to psychologism, or to summarize the incidental remarks scattered in works about the mastery of Russian classics.

As A.I. Batyuto noted, Turgenev’s methods of psychological disclosure of characters are in close accordance with the form of his novels, that they are an integral part of it. Turgenev depicts the psychological process, as if walking next to the reader, instructing him to guess about many things in the hero’s mental life. For these purposes, the researcher believes, Turgenev uses the method of “secret revelation of mental movements.” The writer constructs his analysis in such a way that, without talking about the background of mental phenomena, he still gives the reader the opportunity to get an idea of ​​its essence.

In Turgenev’s novels, the method of depicting the character’s inner life is also subordinated to the solution of the main question - the historical significance of the hero. Turgenev reveals only such features of the character’s inner world that are necessary and sufficient for their understanding as social types and characters. Therefore, Turgenev is not interested in the sharply individual features of the inner life of his heroes and does not resort to detailed psychological analysis.

Unlike L. Tolstoy, Turgenev is much more interested in the general than the specific, not in the “mysterious process,” but in its obvious visible manifestations.

The main psychological feature that determines the entire development of the inner life of the characters, their fate, and therefore the movement of the plot, is the contradiction between worldview and nature.

He depicted the emergence, development of feeling and thought, choosing the strength or weakness of nature, its passion, its romantic contemplative element, or its moral strength and reality. Moreover, these qualities were considered by him in their growth, changes and all kinds of transformations, but at the same time, as we know, data fatally determine the fate of their carriers. Psychological analysis in Turgenev's novels was not static, but the spiritual evolution of the characters was distinguished by the radicality of their interests. It was not the process of spiritual development of the heroes, but the struggle of opposing principles in his mind that interested Turgenev the artist. And it is precisely this struggle of opposite principles in man, which cannot exist in unity, that remains insoluble for Turgenev’s heroes and leads only to a change in psychological states, and not the birth of a qualitatively new attitude to the world. Turgenev’s belief in the indecomposability of human processes is associated with his theory of “secret psychology.”

The theory of “secret psychology” assumed a special system of artistic embodiment: a pause of mysterious silence, the effect of an emotional hint, etc.

The most profound course of inner life deliberately remained unsaid, captured only in its results and external manifestations. Trying to be extremely impartial, Turgenev invariably took care of maintaining a distance between the author and the character.

As G. B. Kurlyandskaya writes, “Turgenev acted as a conscious opponent of finding a clear definitive designation for those simplest particles of mental life that form the deep basis of human psychology.”

At the same time, this conscious and fundamental refusal to depict the mysterious process of the birth of thoughts and feelings does not mean at all that Turgenev was a writer of statistical characteristics that convey only stable signs of human character. Turgenev's historical and philosophical worldview was reflected in his concept of man as a participant in social history. The characters in Turgenev's novels are always representatives of a certain phase of social development, exponents of the historical trends of their time. Personal and general are different spheres for Turgenev. Natural inclinations and inclinations associated with nature, educated by a long process of generations, often do not correspond to the conscious needs of a person. With his moral consciousness he belongs entirely to the emerging future, and by nature he is connected with the present, which is already captured by destruction and decay. Turgenev the psychologist is therefore interested not in the history of the soul, but in the struggle of opposing principles in the hero’s mind. The struggle of opposing principles, which can no longer exist in unity, remains indestructible for Turgenev’s heroes, and only leads to a change in psychological states, and not to the birth of a qualitatively new attitude towards the world. The struggle of the opposite, that is, the conscious moral and social aspirations of the heroes with some of their innate, eternal qualities, is portrayed by the writer as unsuccessful: everyone has a unique nature, everyone is irresistible.

2.2 The role of moral and psychological conflict in the novels "Rudin", "The Noble Nest".

Rudin is a genius; he belongs to those characters who are put forward into the public arena when a historical need arises for them; personal properties correspond to the role they are called upon to play in history. Turgenev portrays him as a person of a thinking type - a theorist, a “Russian Hamlet”, but shows that the Russian reality foreign to him and heroes like him forces them to act in a role of activists unusual for their character.

Psychologism depends on the socio-psychological type that is reproduced by the artist in the images of heroes. Separated from the people by force of historical circumstances, Rudin was doomed to be groundless, to wander around his native land. In his own words, he “wandered not only with his body, but with his soul. “Where I haven’t been, what roads I haven’t walked.” Rudin's internal socio-psychological drama, the duality of thoughts and feelings, words and deeds in him, has been noted more than once in criticism. This drama was the result of the socio-historical circumstances of the timeless era, when the best representatives of the noble intelligentsia turned out to be “smart useless people”, “superfluous people”.

Rudin's internal spiritual conflict is a complete disagreement between his contemplative and inactive character and the moral sensitivity that calls Rudin to serve his homeland and people. Rudin understands that domination over minds alone is both fragile and useless. The predominance of the head, rational over property to direct and vivid feeling and action characterizes Rudin as a typical representative of the noble intelligentsia of the 30s - 40s. He suffers from a “cursed habit” of “breaking down every movement of his life and that of others into its component elements.” The internally divided Rudin reaches for the ideal of spiritual integrity, a passionate, passionate life, recommends living simply and directly: “the simpler, the tighter the circle in which runs through life, the better." Representatives of the rising democratic intelligentsia of the 60s understood that the noble enlighteners of the 40s turned out to be untenable in the practical application of their ideas to business, partly because the ground was not yet sufficiently prepared for the full implementation of their ideas, partly because, having developed more with the help abstract thinking, rather than life, which provided only negative elements for their views and feelings, they lived most of all with their heads; the preponderance of the head was sometimes so great that it disturbed the harmony in their activities, although it cannot be said that their hearts were dry and their blood was cold. Rudin's socio-psychological drama is associated with certain historical conditions, the period of the 1830s - early 1840s in the life of Russia, when the noble intelligentsia surrendered to abstract philosophical quests that led away from the living contradictions of real life.

The type of “superfluous person” was also placed at the center of Turgenev’s next novel, “The Noble Nest.” He endowed this hero with semi-democratic origins, physical strength, mental integrity and the ability for practical activities. An acute sense of the speed of historical movement, the change in social forces that carry out this movement, confronted the writer with the need to observe and analyze new characters and types emerging in society. Interest in the people, the desire to be useful to them, to find their place in the historical life of the country, the main meaning of the development of which should be the improvement of the people's life, based on knowledge of the needs and aspirations of the people, are characteristic of Lavretsky. Lavretsky is a thinker. Conscious of the need for action, he considers it his concern to develop the meaning and direction of this action. The novel “The Noble Nest” contains many moments that should emphasize the Hamletism of the main character. In the fate of Lavretsky, as in the fate of Rudin, Turgenev shows the spiritual drama of the idealistic noble intelligentsia of the 30s - 40s, cut off from the people's soil, although, as D.I. Pisarev correctly noted, “Lavretsky’s personality bears a clearly marked stamp nationality. He is never betrayed by Russian unpretentious, but strong and common sense practical sense and Russian good nature, sometimes angular and awkward, but always sincere and unprepared. Lavretsky is simple in expressing joy and grief...” Lavretsky sincerely strives to be useful and necessary to his homeland. But he can no longer console himself with those noble illusions with which Rudin supported his existence; his thoughts are turned to real life, to getting closer to the people. “We need to plow the land,” he says. Lavretsky proclaims the need to return the intelligentsia “from idealistic heaven to real reality.”

It was necessary to preserve and carry the “living soul” through the long years of serfdom that corrupts man, and not only carry it, but also awaken this soul in others with your words, even in the form of the most general and abstract, but sublime truths, as in “Rudin ", or the poetic paintings of the "Noble Nest" filled with moral purity. Historically, the task was, on the one hand, to reject with compensation and protest everything imbued with slave ideology and morality, and on the other, to explain the humanistic ideal, to see happiness in life and not in profit or career, not in slavery, but in aspirations to beauty, to truth, to goodness, in awareness of duty, in closeness to the people, in love for the homeland. The heroes of Turgenev's novels of the 50s were the best Russian people of that time, who did not allow others to completely become rigid and degenerate.

An acute sense of the speed of historical movement, the change in social forces that carry out this movement, confronted the writer with the need to observe and analyze new characters and types emerging in society. While highlighting the weaknesses of the “extra people,” Turgenev at the same time points out that they played a positive role in the social life of his time.

A love-psychological conflict plays a major ideological and artistic role in Turgenev’s novels. N. G. Chernyshevsky also notes what is inherent in all Turgenev’s novels: through a love story, to reveal the significance of the hero in public life.

The core of each Turgenev novel is the personal drama of the hero. Turgenev the novelist tests his heroes, first of all, not on the big, but on the small arena of life, making them participants in a complex love-psychological conflict.

However, the behavior of the hero in a “small” love-psychological drama with a narrow circle of participants turns out to be a decisive test for him not only as a hero of a “small” love-psychological drama, but also for a participant in another “big” socio-historical drama behind it. Turgenev the novelist proceeds from the idea that the personal and social properties of people are inextricably linked with each other. Therefore, the behavior of Turgenev’s hero in the face of his beloved woman and other people around him reveals not only his personal, but also social properties, the possibilities inherent in him, and serves as a measurement of his historical significance. Thanks to this behavior of the hero in the “small” arena and features in a personal love-psychological drama, it helps the novelist answer the question about the social value of the hero, about his ability to serve the needs of the life of society and the people. The hero of the novel "Rudin" turns out to be weak and untenable in love, and the lack of immediate feeling reveals the contradiction, the internal fragmentation of his nature, not only because, preaching freedom, he gives in to routine and is ready to come to terms with reality, but also because at this moment he ceases to represent that social element of youth “idealism”, risk, which was expressed in the very style of his sermons, corresponded to his disorder, internal freedom from the influence of conservative principles of life and attracted young people to him. Rudin prefers to talk about love than to love, and love itself is one of the winning philosophical topics for him.

The main features of people of the “Rudin type” were revealed at the moment of the decisive test for him - the “test of love”, through which, determining the true value of the heroes, Turgenev usually “put” them through his tests. Rudin could not stand this test: very spirited in words, at the moment when the need arose to show determination in practice, he turned out to be weak and cowardly. He was confused and immediately retreated in front of a serious obstacle

CHAPTER 3

EVOLUTION OF PSYCHOLOGISM IN I.S. TURGENEV’S NOVELS ABOUT"NEW PEOPLE".

3. 1. The type of public figure of the era of the late 50s and early 60s in novels about “new people”.

1. As an artist who quickly responded to all the major events of contemporary social life, Turgenev felt the need to create the image of a new hero capable of replacing passive noble intellectuals such as Rudin and Lavretsky, whose time had passed. Turgenev finds this new hero among the common democrats and strives to describe him with maximum objectivity in two novels - “On the Eve” (1860) and “Fathers and Sons” (1862). The posing of the question about a new figure in Russian history is preceded in “On the Eve” by a kind of philosophical overture - on the topic of happiness and duty (15, Turgenev and Russian realism. - L.: Sov.pisatel, 1962, p. 183). In "On the Eve" we see the irresistible influence of the natural chaos of social life and thought, to which the very thought and imagination of the author involuntarily submitted," wrote N.A. Dobrolyubov in the article "When will the real day come?" ""On the Eve" is the first novel in in which the social value of the hero is undeniably affirmed, and at the same time this is the first novel with the figure of a commoner at the center. The new hero is characterized as the direct opposite of Rudin and Lavretsky: there is not a shadow of egoism or individualism in him, the desire for selfish goals is completely alien to him. All the qualities of an individual character necessary for a historical figure who sets as his goal the struggle for the liberation of his native country are present: “inflexibility of will,” “concentrated deliberation of a single and long-standing passion,” etc. in the novel “On the Eve”, the reflective and suffering “superfluous people” are replaced by a man of strong character and determination, inspired by the great idea of ​​​​the struggle for the freedom of his homeland, to which he subordinates his entire life. Insarov is completely a man of a new era. “In him,” notes researcher S.M. Petrov, “there is no corrosive Hamletism, no painful reflection, no tendency to self-flagellation. (44, I.S. Turgenev. Creative Path. – 5th ed. – M., 1978).

He is not keen on the music of eloquence, which was so typical of “superfluous people” like Rudin or Beltov.

Insarov, if we apply Dobrolyubov’s characterization of the new generation of new people, “no, he knows how to shine and make noise. In his voice, it seems, there are no screaming notes, although there are very strong and solid sounds. In Insarov there is also no consciousness of the discord between word and deed.( 21, Collected works in 9 volumes, -M).

This integrity of personality, born of devotion to a great cause, gives it strength and greatness. The novel "On the Eve" meant that new commoner democrats were becoming heroes of Russian literature. Turgenev's novels of the 1860s differ from previous themes; social issues became of great importance in them. Its manifestations are clearly noticeable in the novel "Fathers and Sons." In "Fathers and Sons" Turgenev returns to the "centripetal" structure of the novel. The embodiment of the historical movement, the historical turning point in the novel is one hero. “At the same time, in “Fathers and Sons” for the first time Turgenev develops a novel, the structure of which is determined by the confrontation of conscious and political forces” (36, –L., 1974).

2. Life observations convinced Turgenev that the democrats, with whom he disagreed ideologically, were a large and growing force that had already demonstrated itself in many areas of public activity. Turgenev felt that it was from a democratic environment that the hero expected by everyone should emerge. The heroes of the first two novels were close and understandable to Turgenev. Now he was faced with the task of artistic embodiment as heroes of the new era of people of a completely different type than the characters from among the noble intelligentsia of the 30s and 40s. There is an opinion that “trying to capture and condense the features of a new social type in the images of Insarov and Bazarov, the artist could not feel its essence deeply enough, and was unable – due to the novelty of the character – to completely transform into it” (56, –M., 1979 ).

The psyche of people like Bazarov and Insarov remained to a certain extent “closed” for him, because “you have to be Bazarov yourself, but this did not happen to Turgenev,” believed D.I. Pisarev. And that is why the critic believed that here “we do not find a psychological analysis, a related list of Bazarov’s thoughts, we can only guess what he thought and how he formulated his beliefs to himself. In the process of the evolution of Turgenev’s psychologism,” notes researcher S.E. .Shatalov, - a kind of splitting occurred. When depicting the main and secondary characters, something close to the artist, the psychological analysis invariably deepened and became more and more refined over the years. When depicting various incarnations of some types - mainly new ones - a return to indirect psychologism is revealed Turgenev was interested in these new types, he sensitively grasped their not yet fully defined features. He gave figurative certainty, perhaps not so much to the scattered features of the behavior of real persons, but to the expectations and hopes associated with the new hero.

Considering the problems of Turgenev's novels of the late 50s and early 60s, we notice that Turgenev still strived for a truthful reflection of everything new and progressive in Russian life. “To accurately and powerfully reproduce the truth, the reality of life, is the highest happiness for a writer, even if this truth does not coincide with his own sympathies,” he wrote (11.ХУ, p.349). The novels "On the Eve" and "Fathers and Sons" showed that new people - common democrats - are becoming heroes of Russian literature. Turgenev's merit lies in the fact that he was the first in Russian literature to note their appearance and their ever-increasing role already at the end of the 50s.

3.2. Transformation of the role of love-psychological conflict in novels"about "new people"

The love-psychological collision continues to play a major ideological and artistic role in I. S. Turgenev’s novels about “new people,” although its functions are much weaker than in previous novels, and in “Fathers and Sons” the center of gravity shifts to collisions that reveal the social problems, as a result of which the love-psychological conflict is relegated to the background. Its structural-forming function also changes in connection with the evolution of the genre system. This, in turn, is due to a change in issues.

In the novel "On the Eve" for the first time, love appeared as unity in beliefs and participation in a common cause. The history of the relationship between Insarov and Elena Stakhova is not only a story of selfless love based on spiritual community; Their personal life is closely intertwined with the struggle for bright ideals, for loyalty to a great public cause.

In “On the Eve,” as well as in “Rudin” and “The Noble Nest,” the character of not only the main characters, but also the secondary ones, is revealed through a love-psychological collision. The depth and power of love, the very forms of its manifestation are characterized by the personalities of the heroes - Shubin, Bersenev, Insarov. Careless and frivolous Shubin, although he sometimes suffers from Elena’s indifference, loves her as shallowly as his artistic pursuits are shallow. Lyubov Berseneva is quiet, tender, sentimentally sluggish. But then Insarov appears, and love captures Elena with such force that she becomes scared. The selfless and boundless feeling that gripped her, the awakening of passion in her, her courage - all this corresponds to the strength of character and wealth of Insarov’s personality. Turgenev paints completely different, never seen in his works, scenes of love, a new type of relationship between the heroes of the novel. Having fallen in love with Elena, Insarov runs not from weakness of character, like “superfluous people,” but from his strength. He is afraid that love for a girl, whom he has not yet had reason to look at as a person capable of sharing his life’s work, will interfere with him. And Insarov does not even allow the thought of “betraying his work and his duty in order to satisfy his personal feelings” (U111.53). These are all, again, familiar features of the moral character of a commoner democrat of the 60s. It is noteworthy that Elena’s attitude towards Insarov is somewhat different from that of the heroes of Turgenev’s first novels. Natalya is ready to bow before Rudin. Elena “felt that she did not want to bow to Insarov, but to give him a friendly hand (U111.53). Elena is not just Insarov’s wife - she is a friend, like-minded person, a conscious participant in his cause.

And it is natural that, in contrast to Rudin and Natalya, Lavretsky and Liza, Insarov and Elena find their happiness, their life path is determined by the high idea of ​​​​feat in the name of the happiness of the people. The harmonious correspondence between the ideal and Elena’s behavior is most noticeably reflected in the scenes of the novel dedicated to depicting the origin and development of her feelings for Insarov. Noteworthy in this regard is Ch. Х1У, in which, after Insarov’s next story about Bulgaria, the following dialogue takes place between him and Elena:

“Do you love your homeland very much?” she said timidly.

“This is not yet known,” he answered, “But when one of us dies for her, then it will be possible to say that he loved her.”

So, if you were deprived of the opportunity to return to Bulgaria,” Elena continued, “would it be very difficult for you in Russia?”

“I don’t think I could stand it,” he said.

Tell me,” Elena began again, “is it difficult to learn the Bulgarian language?”

Insarov... spoke about Bulgaria again. Elena listened to him with devouring, deep and sad attention. When he finished, she asked him again:

So you would never stay in Russia? And when he left, she looked after him for a long time" (U111, 65-66). The sad intonation of Elena’s questions is caused by the knowledge that her love is not able to keep Insarov in Russia, and the fear that her own admiration for sacrificial heroism may remain unrequited , and the thirst for active good is unquenched. At the same time, in every question of Elena one feels a cautious but persistent search for the right path leading to a strong connection with Insarov. This dialogue receives a natural continuation and natural development in Chapter XY111.

"So will you follow me everywhere?

Everywhere, to the ends of the earth. Wherever you are, there I will be.

And you are not deceiving yourself, you know that your parents will never

won't agree to our marriage?

I'm not fooling myself, I know that.

Do you know that I am poor, almost a beggar?

That I am not Russian, that I am not destined to live in Russia, that you will have to break all your ties with your fatherland, with your relatives?

I know I know.

You also know that I have devoted myself to a difficult, thankless task, that I... that we will have to be exposed not only to dangers, but also to hardships, humiliation, perhaps?

I know, I know everything... I love you.

That you will have to give up all your habits, that there, alone, among strangers, you may be forced to work... She put her hand on his lips.

I love you, my dear "(U111.92). Elena is characterized by an extraordinary thirst for activity, determination, the ability to ignore opinions and environmental conditions and, most importantly, an irresistible desire to be useful to the people. Smart, focused in her thoughts, she is looking for a strong-willed person, integral, seeing a broad perspective in life and boldly moving forward.

In the novel, Turgenev presents various types of Russian life on the eve of the fall of serfdom. “All of them, with their historical content,” as researcher S.M. Petrov points out, “correlate with the main theme of “On the Eve,” which determined the location of the main characters around Elena as the compositional center of the novel.”

Even N.A. Dobrolyubov considered the image of Elena to be the focus of the novel. This heroine, according to the critic, embodies “the irresistible need for a new life, new people, which now covers the entire Russian society, and not even just the so-called “educated” one... “The desire for active good is in us, and there is strength; but fear, lack of self-confidence, and, finally, ignorance: what to do? - constantly stops us... and we are still looking, thirsting, waiting... waiting for at least someone to explain to us what to do.”

Thus, Elena, who, in his opinion, represented the younger generation of the country, her fresh strength is characterized by spontaneity of protest, she is looking for a “teacher” - a trait inherent in Turgenev’s active heroines. Despite the tragic denouement, “On the Eve” breathes with the affirmation of reason, progressive thought, courage and heroism. Elena embodied new trends. Turgenev believed that the denouement of the work had not yet fully explained the direction of further development of the characters depicted and had not clearly defined their destinies. He turns to the epilogue, where in Elena’s heavy thoughts about her and Insarov’s guilt before heaven “for the grief of a poor lonely mother,” the theme of the impossibility of long-term happiness for a person is heard. “Elena did not know,” Turgenev concludes, “that the happiness of each person is based on the misfortune of another.” Unlike the first two novels, in “On the Eve” Turgenev develops a novel structure of the “scenes from life” type, which combines the features of a chronicle and a confessional story: most of the hero’s life (sometimes all of it) is covered in scenes separated by large chronological gaps and grouped around plot core. In basic prices, a certain psychological situation (most often based on a love conflict) with its inherent internal movement is reproduced with maximum completeness. In "On the Eve" Turgenev continues to use the love-psychological collision as a means of moral characterization and assessment of his heroes, their relationships, the strength and wealth of their inner world; characters are revealed in this collision. As in previous novels, the love-psychological conflict in “On the Eve” “misses” a lot of social content.

"Fathers and Sons" is a vivid example of a socio-psychological novel. The great social problems that worried Russian social thought in the 1860s and were reliably reflected by Turgenev in Fathers and Sons placed this novel both politically and artistically above the writer’s other novels. Turgenev shifts the center of gravity to collisions that reveal social issues, as a result of which the love affair is pushed back almost to the middle (Х1У-ХУ111). The love-psychological conflict in the novel is so compact that it fits into only five chapters, although its role is important.

Turgenev, for whom true love has always been a high criterion, showing the contradiction between Bazarov’s statements about love and the great feeling that flared up in him for Odintsova, strives not to humiliate Bazarov, but, on the contrary, to elevate him, to show that in these seemingly dry, callous Nihilists harbor a much more powerful force of feeling than in Arkady, who “broke down” in front of Katya. Bazarov briefly defines the latter’s love as “blancmange.” In the fate of the leading democrat commoner, as noted in criticism, love rarely played an all-determining, much less a “fatal” role; and it is no coincidence that in “Fathers and Sons” Turgenev assigns a secondary place to the love plot.

And Bazarov was affected by the mighty power of love, the triumph of youth. “In conversations with Anna Sergeevna, he expressed his indifferent contempt for everything romantic even more than before: and, left alone, he felt the romance in himself with indignation.” “His blood burned as soon as he remembered her; he could easily cope with his blood, but something else took possession of him, which he never allowed, which he always mocked, which outraged all his pride” (1X, 126 ).

In "Fathers and Sons" for the first time in Turgenev, the love-psychological conflict does not play a structural role. The structure of Turgenev's new novel is determined by the confrontation of social and political forces capable of entering into contacts only in skirmishes and "combat actions" of an ideological order. Having examined the role of love-psychological conflict in Turgenev’s novels about “new people,” we notice that, as in previous novels, it performs a number of functions. Through a love-psychological collision, characters are revealed; in “On the Eve” it “misses” a lot of social content and performs a structural-forming function. In "Fathers and Sons" the role of the love-psychological conflict is greatly weakened, because the center of gravity shifts to collisions that reveal social issues.

3.3.Evolution of the principles of psychological disclosure of the “inner man” in novels of the late 1850s and early 1860s. ("The Eve, Fathers and Sons")

As an artist, Turgenev is distinguished by his interest in the details of the movement of character, not only under the determining influence of the environment, but also as a result of the rather stable independent internal development of the heroes.

Psychological analysis in novels about “new people” acquires a new quality: it becomes noticeably more complicated thanks to the author’s resort to the technique of internal speaking, although this technique is to some extent found in Turgenev’s previous novels.

During the work on novels about “new people”, the evolution of Turgenev’s psychological method is noticeable: “indirect analysis,” notes researcher S.E. Shatalov, “is acquiring greater precision, objective tangibility and prominence; the combination of various techniques for describing heroes from the outside” increasingly creates an illusion simultaneous penetration inside."

But this evolution did not mean a departure from some principles of analysis of the inner world and a transition to others, but the development of tendencies inherent in Turgenev’s psychological method from the very beginning, the mastery of the possibilities inherent in it. This process can be defined as the accumulation of creative experience and growth of the writer's artistic skill. Turgenev used to the limit the possibilities of psychological analysis in objective storytelling, which turned out to be available to Russian literature by the 1860s. And it is no coincidence that Herzen in the spring of 1860. in "The Bell" he will call Turgenev "the greatest modern Russian artist." In the novels “On the Eve” and “Fathers and Sons,” the evolution of Turgenev’s psychological method continues as a result of the artist’s own creative development and taking into account the experience of Russian and foreign literature.

In novels about “new people” - due to the novelty of the character - Turgenev uses a variety of means of psychological analysis - and among them are those that were encountered sporadically in early novels and stories, or were not used at all.

First of all, these are notes, letters, diaries. For example, excerpts from Elena’s diary are grouped in such a way that a holistic picture of the development of her feelings for Insarov is created. Dreams and unaccountable impulses are introduced - so unsteady that their connection with surrounding circumstances is unclear.

In "The Eve", as the researchers note; the writer strongly emphasizes the correspondence or inconsistency of the landscape with the internal states of the characters. Landscape frames acquire a psychological function. Thus, Elena’s doubts and hesitations are shaded and revealed by special landscape correspondences: “Before the morning she undressed and went to bed, but could not sleep. The first fiery rays of the sun hit her room... “Oh, if he loves me!” she suddenly exclaimed and, not ashamed of the light that illuminated her, opened her arms (U111.88). When does she go on a date with Insarova (for which he decided not to appear), there follows a landscape warning of the disappointment awaiting her: "... she wanted to see Insarov again. She walked, not noticing that the sun had long since disappeared, obscured by heavy black clouds, that the wind was gustingly rustling in the trees and swirling her dress, that dust suddenly rose and rushed in a column along the road... Lightning flashed, thunder struck... Rain poured in streams ; the sky surrounded itself (U111.90).

During the period of work on the novel “On the Eve of the Day,” previously not entirely clear corners and spheres of the human psyche became accessible to Turgenev.

The very idea acquired greater socio-political clarity and sharpness. The arsenal of psychological analysis tools has become richer. “Socio-political problems from now on in Turgenev’s novels determine the relationships between the characters and reveal something new in their inner world that was not previously depicted by writers,” notes researcher S.E. Shatalov.

In novels about “new people”, already familiar techniques are used to reveal characters, for example, the technique of repetition. In a dialogue with Pavel Petrovich immediately before the duel, Bazarov limits himself to repeating only the ends of phrases (and not his own, but his interlocutor’s). However, in this, according to Turgenev, the whole of Bazarov is revealed at a given moment. In each of his casually pronounced response words one can feel a complacent contempt for the ritual of a duel, primly respected by Pavel Petrovich; irony shines through, both at the enemy’s address and at one’s own address. Recalling the reasons for the duel, Pavel Petrovich says:

"We can't stand each other. What else?

“What more?” Bazarov repeated ironically.

As for the very conditions of the fight, since we will not have seconds - because where can we get them?

Exactly where can I get them?"

And just before the duel:

"Can we get started?

Let's get started.

I assume you don't require any new explanations?

I don't require...

Would you please choose?

I deign to" (1X,134).

With the help of all the same repetitions, which undoubtedly have the significance of unique methods of psychological analysis, designed to be extremely minimal, but nevertheless quite sufficient, the desire of Bazarov and Odintsova to get closer to each other, their secret, ever-increasing excitement is shown.

However, in the overwhelming majority of cases, Tolstoy’s widespread repetitions in Turgenev’s work are objectively opposed not by these truncated repetitions, but by the techniques of silence, pause, often a kind of psychological, semantic overload of a single phrase, and sometimes even individual words.

Thus, in the novel “On the Eve” a short-term recovery of the sick Insarov from a delirious state is depicted: “Mignonette,” he whispered, and his eyes closed.”0 a lonely word is full of deep psychological meaning, which can be fully appreciated only by remembering the description of Elena’s first date with Insarov him at the apartment. Having seen Elena off, Insarov thought: “Isn’t this a dream?” But the subtle smell of mignonette, left by Elena in his poor, dark room, was reminiscent of her visit. The word “mignonette” in Insarov’s mouth means that the thought of Elena did not leave him throughout his serious illness. There are simply no other words on “this topic” in the novel. The technique of a long ace or silence, which is also found in Turgenev’s previous works, is filled here with special content.

Here Bazarov, in a conversation with Arkady (chapter 1X), makes a risky statement: “Hey... you still attach importance to marriage; I didn’t expect this from you.” What Bazarov said is left as if without attention.

But a different point of view is still felt in the subtext - it is made clear... by default: “the friends took a few steps in silence” - and then turned the conversation in a different direction...

In ch. In "Fathers and Sons" Fenechka enters the terrace - for the first time under Arkady, and "Pavel Petrovich frowned sternly, and Nikolai Petrovich was embarrassed." Fenechka just entered and left - nothing more, but after that "silence reigned on the terrace for several moments" , disrupted only by the arrival of Bazarov

In Chapter XIX, motivating his departure from Odintsova’s estate, Bazarov

says with irritation that he “didn’t hire her.” “Arkady became thoughtful, and Bazarov lay down and turned his face to the wall. Several minutes passed in silence” (1X, 156).

Both like Odintsov, but both try to hide it from each other

my feelings.

In Chapter XXY. referring to his relationship with Bazarov, Arkady asks his interlocutor: “Have you noticed that I’ve already freed myself?”

from under his influence?" Instead of explaining what she thought

at the same time Katya (“Yes, I have freed myself, but I won’t tell you about it yet, because you are youthfully proud”). Turgenev limits himself to pointing out a psychological pause in the dialogue: “Katya remained silent.” (1X,165). With the help of this means of psychological analysis, the figure of the main character emerges.

Having met Arkady and Bazarov, Nikolai Petrovich takes them to Maryino; on the way, Arkady becomes softened: “What, but the air here! How nice it smells! Really, it seems to me, nowhere in the world does it smell like it does in these parts! And the sky is here. .. Arkady suddenly stopped, cast an indirect glance back and fell silent." (1X, 13). This is the first hint that Bazarov is “an enemy of all outpourings,” and Arkady is embarrassed to be himself in his presence. Soon after this, Nikolai Petrovich begins to read poetry from Eugene Onegin, but Bazarov interrupts his recitation with a request to send matches. This is the second secret (but more specific) psychological characteristic of Bazarov as an irreconcilable opponent of “romanticism.” It is not without reason that after some time Bazarov will tell Arkady: “Your father is a nice fellow,” but “he reads poetry in vain.”

Thus, in these novels of Turgenev, the central theoretical position of his “psychology” is realized: the writer “must know and feel the roots of phenomena, but represents only the phenomena themselves.”

Turgenev's "secret" psychological analysis is stingy and "superficial" only at first glance. With the help of such an analysis, Turgenev convinces, for example, that Bazarov is only seemingly a mocker, a skeptic and a heartless student. This is evidenced by the scenes of Bazarov’s explanation with Odintsova. Omissions, fragments of phrases, slow speeches, pauses show that both are constantly walking on the edge of an abyss. But in the end, it turns out that it is the “nihilist” who is capable of great, sincere feelings. The harsh humanity and restrained strength of Bazarov’s experiences are evidenced by such laconic speeches before his death: to the desperate call of his father: “Eugene! ... my son, my dear , dear son!” - Bazarov answers slowly, and for the first time tragic and solemn notes sound in his voice: “What, my father?” (1X, 163).

In this regard, it is appropriate to recall Turgenev’s characteristic judgment about the methods of psychological analysis, expressed in a review of Ostrovsky’s play “The Poor Bride.” “Mr. Ostrovsky, in our eyes, so to speak, climbs into the soul of each of the persons he created,” states Turgenev, “but we Let us allow ourselves to notice to him that this undoubtedly useful operation must be performed by the author in advance. His faces must already be in his complete power when he brings them out in front of us. This is psychology, they will tell us, perhaps, but the psychologist must disappear in the artist, just as a skeleton disappears from the eyes under a living and warm body, for which it serves as a strong but invisible support... To us, Turgenev concludes, what is most dear to us are those simple, sudden movements in which the human soul expresses itself loudly..." (P. XU111.136).

Due to the novelty of his character, Turgenev turns to a technique that would seem outdated for the 19th century - to introduce the hero’s diary into the text of the narrative. But the whole question is how to enter. Elena's diary not only reduces the number of pages of the novel introducing the reader to her character and moods, but, apparently, eliminates some of them altogether through substitution. In addition, the diary consists of quick passages (original scenes), with each of them preceded by an ellipsis. “All this, as researcher A.I. Batyuto notes, emphasizes the milestone-like nature of the depiction of Elena’s spiritual development, creating the illusion of its cinematic continuity.”

Turgenev conveys the complex mental state of his heroes through the drawing of external movements. So, after a night meeting with Bazarov and an intimate psychological conversation with him, Odintsova turned out to be agitated. Her complex mental state - the awareness of the futility of her passing life, the desire for novelty, the fear of the possibility of passion - is conveyed by Turgenev through the drawing of the heroine’s external movements: “Bazarov quickly walked out. Odintsova, impulsively rising from her chair, walked with quick steps towards the door, as if wanting to return Bazarov... Lamp it burned for a long time in Anna Sergeevna's room, and for a long time she remained motionless, only occasionally running her fingers over her hands, which were slightly bitten by the night cold." (1X, 294-295). Gestures carry a large psychological load in Turgenev's novels. Behind them lies a whole a flow of thoughts and feelings unexpressed in words, which, thanks to characteristic details, are guessed by the reader. Based on the intimate and personal experiences of Bazarov, on his positive human nature, Turgenev refutes the nihilistic denial of romance. He shows that Bazarov, despite nihilistic prohibitions, deeply and strongly feels ". The tragedy of love leads Bazarov to a feeling of emptiness, bitterness and some kind of poison. The most deep, internal, sick and thoroughly denied is manifested in the manner of behavior, in the external appearance of the hero, in what does not depend on his volitional effort. On the contrary, Bazarov's aspiration to remain in the upper plane of nihilistic consciousness is expressed in words, his conversations with Arkady."

Moreover, these two moments - the discovery of an internal state of mind through external movements and facial changes, and the verbal affirmation of previous, nihilistic views associated with the desire to close the sources of romantic life in oneself - are given by the author side by side, in an evaluative comparison.

In Turgenev, as emphasized above, a portrait becomes a means of revealing the basic socio-psychological characteristics of a personality. The static portrait of Elena Stakhova also expresses the main psychological feature of her personality - namely, internal mental tension, passionate, impatient quest. "She had recently passed her twentieth year. She was tall, her face was pale and dark, large gray eyes under round eyebrows, surrounded by tiny freckles, a forehead and nose completely straight, a compressed mouth and a rather sharp chin. Her dark blond braid hung low on thin neck. In her whole being, in the attentive and slightly timid expression of her face, in her clear but changeable gaze, in her smile, as if tense, in her quiet and uneven voice, there was something nervous, electric, something impetuous and hasty , in a word, something that could not please everyone, that even repelled others. Her hands were narrow, pink, with long fingers, and her legs were also narrow; she walked quickly, almost swiftly, leaning forward a little. (U111.32) .

The history of the sequential development of the images of the main characters begins with the writer’s appeal to the technique of “preliminary, an uncommon, few-time foreshadowing as in Dostoevsky’s novels, but psychologically expressive.”

Thus, the image of E. Stakhova appears for the first time in the sphere of Shubin’s subjective expressive speech. To Bersenev’s question about the work on the bust of Elena, Shubin answers with despair: no, brother, it’s not moving. This face can drive you to despair. Look, the lines are clean, strict, straight; it seems not difficult to grasp the resemblance. It wasn’t like that... It’s not given like a treasure in your hands. Have you noticed how she listens? Not a single feature is touched, only the expression of the gaze changes, and the whole figure changes from it. “(U111.10).

Speaking about Elena's appearance, Shubin reveals the complexity of her spiritual self. Preliminary remarks about the main characters are replaced by a sketch image at the first moment of their appearance in scenes of dialogical speech.

Brief characteristics of minor characters also acquire greater psychological depth. Uvar Ivanovich, Venetian actors, Rendic - all these are living people, but inanimate circumstances; In two or three traits Turgenev notices an understanding of the very essence of their inner world.

As researcher A.I. Batyuto notes, especially expressive

similar characteristics in the novel "Fathers and Sons": Kukshina, Fenechka - all the minor characters are clearly outlined. Researchers of the work of I.S. Turgenev have noted that it would be a mistake to present the evolution of Turgenev’s psychologism in the novels “On the Eve” and “Fathers and Sons” as a completely uniform development, homogeneous in all its manifestations.

Thus, Professor S.E. Shatalov notes that “... trying to capture and condense in the images of Insarov and Bazarov the features of the new

social type, the artist could not feel its essence deeply enough, and was unable - due to the novelty of the character - to completely transform into it. "

Thus, in the process of the evolution of Turgenev’s psychologism, a peculiar split occurred. When depicting most of the main and minor characters, something close to the artist, the psychological analysis invariably deepened and became more and more refined over the years. When describing the various incarnations of certain types - mainly new ones - a return to indirect psychologism is revealed. Noting the evolution of Turgenev's psychologism in line with Russian psychological realism, one cannot help but note a kind of reverse flow in its forward flow. This is due to the very content of new social types or new subjects of psychological research.

3 A C L U C H E N I E.

Considering issues devoted to the study of the problem of the originality of psychologism in the novels of K. S. Turgenev of the 1850s - early 1860s, we came to the conclusion that the problem we raised, despite the significant achievements of Soviet literary criticism in this area, requires further study.

We consider the psychological skill of a writer in connection with his ideological and aesthetic tasks. Psychologism is determined by the concept of man and reality of each artist and is a means and form of typification, i.e. the system of psychologism is associated with the writer’s artistic method.

We tried to study the problem of the originality of psychologism in the novels of I.S. Turgenev from the 1850s to the early 1860s in the aspect of analyzing the writer’s creative method.

In the first chapter of the work, we summarized the data of Turgen studies on the structural and genre features of Turgenev’s novel of the 50s and early 60s; the problems of “secret” psychologism are considered in the aspect of identifying typological and individual principles in Turgenev’s socio-psychological novel. Turgenev is one of the most prominent representatives of the psychological movement of Russian critical realism; and the features of the writer’s psychologism appear most clearly when compared with typologically related systems of psychologism. Thus, we have raised the question of the role of the writer’s creative individuality in the literary process of the 1850s - 1860s.

It is not by chance that this problem is examined using the example of novels of the 1850s and early 1860s. In the late 1830s - early 1840s, Russia embarked on the path of transformation from a feudal monarchy to a bourgeois one. A revolutionary situation was being prepared in the country. Lenin characterized this era as an era of breaking the foundations of the old patriarchal feudal Russia, when “the old was irrevocably collapsing before everyone’s eyes, and the new was just being laid.” A new social force appeared on the historical arena - the revolutionary-democratic intelligentsia. Turgenev persistently thought about the nature and means of social transformation and about the positive hero who would contribute to its implementation. The main characters of Turgenev's novels express the new aspirations of the new Russia.

The idea of ​​development, the idea of ​​progress has always been close to I.S. Turgenev. Turgenev's great merit is the creation and development of a special type of novel - a social novel, which promptly and quickly reflected new and, moreover, the most important trends of the era. The main characters of Turgenev's novel are the so-called “superfluous” and “new” people, the noble and mixed-democratic intelligentsia, who for a significant historical period predetermined the moral, ideological and political level of Russian society, its aspirations and aspirations.

Social issues in Turgenev's novels received artistic embodiment in the depiction of the quest of the individual. It is no coincidence that the artist of the psychological movement strives for significant psychological development of character and uses love-psychological conflict for this.

We consider psychologism as a dynamic system; The evolution of psychologism is caused by the development and complication of the problems of Turgenev’s novel.

We tried to show that the love-psychological collision in novels about “new people” loses its structural and formative functions, which are so characteristic of it in the novels “Rudin”,

“The Noble Nest”, since the character of the new hero, his social and moral positions could not be revealed within the framework of a traditional conflict. In connection with the change in the nature of character in the novels “On the Eve” and “Fathers and Sons,” the forms and means of psychological analysis are evolving and enriched.

We cannot agree with those researchers who consider Turgenev to be a writer who reached artistic heights only by approaching the “dialectics of the soul” of L. Tolstoy. Turgenev's psychological analysis was deep, original and effective in understanding the inner world of man.

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Composition

Turgenev went down in the history of not only Russian, but also world literature as an unsurpassed psychologist and artist of words. The writer is known primarily as the author of the immortal novels “Fathers and Sons”, “The Noble Nest”, “Rudin” and others. Few people know his prose poems, full of lyricism and deep reflections on life, and other prose works.

Defining the main feature of his creative path, Turgenev said: “I strove, as far as I had the strength and skill, to conscientiously and impartially portray and embody what Shakespeare called the very image and pressure of time.” The classic managed to show in his work the purity of love, the power of friendship, passionate faith in the future of his Motherland, confidence in the strength and courage of the Russian people. The work of a true artist of words involves many discoveries, and Turgenev is proof of this.

The stories “The Steppe King Lear”, “Klara Milich”, the story “The End of Tchertopkhanov” belong to the late period of the classic’s work and are of particular interest, both in terms of style and plots. This is another attempt by the writer to find his hero. What is striking in these works is the depth of revelation of the inner world of the Russian person. Turgenev is trying to uncover the mystery of the Russian soul. He puts heroes in unusual situations and thus forces them to act according to the dictates of their hearts. Turgenev interprets the biblical commandment “Do not be proud” in his own way. Pride is a mortal sin, which is why in all these stories the main characters die.

At first glance, there is nothing mystical in the story “King of the Steppes Lear”, although the life’s ups and downs of the main character Kharlov are not devoid of mystery. The author, first of all, is interested in the motivations of the actions of the main character - Martyn Petrovich Kharlov, a pillar nobleman.

Sensing the approach of death, he decided to divide the property between his daughters. As a result, this did not bring anything good. Beloved daughters kick their father out of the house, he tragically dies trying to take revenge on them.

The tale of King Lear and his daughters is known in a number of literary versions. The most famous is the historical drama by W. Shakespeare “King Lear”. Turgenev could not ignore this plot either. Like the great English playwright, Turgenev is trying to show what motivates the heroes when they perform certain actions. The theme of the depravity of pride is illustrated by the example of the fate of Kharlov. Both classic works are united by the motif of daughters’ ingratitude, thirst for profit, and the vicious power of money.

The story “Klara Milich” unfolds a mystical plot, completely uncharacteristic of Turgenev with his reputation as a sharp social exposer and realist. The story has a second title - “After Death”. It is based on a life story, which the author has repeatedly emphasized. This work is related to a number of earlier creations by the classic.

This story reflected his idea about the influence of mystical forces on humans that do not depend on the will of people. This is not mysticism in the usual sense, but a kind of “two worlds” that originates from the romantics. This work tells how Yakov Aratov meets a certain actress, who then commits suicide. But something is gnawing at the hero and he decides to find out the reason for this action of Klara Milich. As a result, a portrait of Clara falls into the hands of the hero. And from that moment on, Jacob has visions. He understands that he has a lot in common with this woman, that they are both pure in soul and body, that they are made for each other. And in order to be together he needs to die, but death no longer frightens him.

This work by Turgenev is both thematically and stylistically close to Gogol’s “Portrait”. In them, elements of mysticism play an important role in the fate of the heroes. Gogol's story tells how an old portrait falls into the hands of a young, poor artist, with the help of which he became rich, while ruining his talent. Thus. In both works, the mystical element is the portrait. However, heroes are not deprived of the opportunity to control their destiny. Fantastic situations are necessary for writers in order to more deeply expose the psychological motives of certain actions. Also reflected here is the belief that the image of a person carries part of his soul. In addition, these works are connected by the motif of missed opportunities. However, they cannot be completely identified. Turgenev reveals a love plot, albeit in a very unusual way, and Gogol turns to the theme of the power of money.

The main character of Turgenev's story undergoes the traditional test of love. Based on the plot, it is quite difficult to say whether Yakov can stand it. Clara represents the traditional image of Turgenev's girl. In the lives of such women, feeling plays a huge role, but it is also imbued with thought. And although her name is in the title, the heroine is of less interest to both the author and the reader.

“The End of Chertopkhanov” is Turgenev’s attempt to continue “Notes of a Hunter,” in which the writer, from the perspective of a liberal nobleman, examines the problems of the Russian village in the post-reform era. This is the story of the landowner Tchertopkhanov, who, saving a Jew, receives as a gift a magnificent horse, which became the cause of his death.

A significant place in the work is occupied by the description of the horse. It was important for Turgenev to show with psychological authenticity how gradually the horse in the hero’s mind displaces his loved one. Thus, the writer reveals the character of the hero, whose main feature was the desire to surpass others, to possess the envy of others.

The horse is described in a realistic manner. With the help of emotional and evaluative epithets and comparisons, the author emphasizes not only the thoroughbred, beauty, endurance of the horse, but also the special disposition and sedateness. He had “wool with a silver tint, not old, but new, with a dark gloss.” He had ambition: “Fire, as there is fire, is just gunpowder - and the dignity is like that of a master.” And such a horse is given an unusual name - Malek-Adem. Such detailed detailing allows the writer to show the reason for Tchertop-hanov’s special affection for his favorite, for his “last superiority.”

Turgenev in many of his works gives a description of nature. Landscape sketches perform various functions: they frame the narrative, help reveal the character of the characters, act as a moral commentary, and highlight experiences. Most often, the writer gives a description of the nature of the central Russian strip of Russia, which he has known since childhood. Turgenev's landscapes are distinguished by precision of drawing, deep lyricism, and vital spirituality. They are characterized by simplicity and naturalness, a special selection of epithets and comparisons, emotional richness and psychologism.

The creativity of I. S. Turgenev is characterized by the strength and sharpness of thought, the height of ideals, the high morality and spiritual purity of the heroes. The special ways Turgenev found to combine prose and poetry taught later writers a lot and remain relevant both today and for writers of the future. And despite the fact that the works of this writer have been familiar since childhood and have been “overgrown” with numerous scientific comments, the writer’s work remains mysterious and incomprehensible.