How excavations become a tourist attraction - archeology in a new way. Archaeological excavations: locations. Where are excavations taking place in Russia? Excavations are called

4.1. Archaeological excavations are field archaeological work carried out for the purpose of a comprehensive study, accurate recording and scientific assessment of an archaeological monument with a full description of its topography, stratigraphy, cultural layer, structures, archaeological material, dating, etc.

4.2. Based on the generally accepted principles of the preference for the physical preservation of objects of archaeological heritage as evidence of historical eras and civilizations, enshrined in federal legislation and contained in international treaties to which the Russian Federation is a party, archaeological monuments that are in danger of destruction during construction are subject to excavation first of all. - economic work, or exposure to other anthropogenic and natural factors.

Conducting archaeological excavations at archaeological heritage sites that are not in danger of destruction is possible if the application for an Open Sheet contains a reasoned scientific justification for the need to conduct research to solve fundamental scientific problems.

4.3. Carrying out stationary excavations of an archaeological monument must be preceded by a stage of detailed examination of both the archaeological monument itself and the surrounding area, familiarization with historical, archival and museum materials relating to these objects, as well as the mandatory preparation of an instrumental topographic plan on a scale of at least 1:1000 and a comprehensive photographic recording of an archaeological monument.

4.4. The choice of location for excavation at an archaeological site when conducting field work according to the Open Sheet according to Form No. 1 is determined by the scientific objectives of the research. In this case, the interests of ensuring the safety of the archaeological monument should be taken into account and preference should be given to excavating those sections of it that are most at risk of damage or destruction as a result of natural processes or anthropogenic impact.

4.5. Excavations of settlements and ground burial grounds should be carried out in areas that provide the most complete characterization of stratigraphy, structures and other archaeological objects.

Excavations of archaeological monuments using pits or trenches are strictly prohibited.

It is prohibited to lay small excavations over individual objects - residential depressions, residential areas, graves, etc. All of them must be included within the boundaries of the general excavation, which also includes the space between objects.

Indestructible archaeological sites should not be completely excavated. When excavating these archaeological monuments, it is necessary to reserve part of their area for future research, based on the fact that improving field research methods in the future will provide an opportunity for a more complete and comprehensive study of them.

4.6. One should strive to establish a minimum number of excavations at one archaeological site.

It is prohibited to leave small areas or strips of unexposed cultural layer between excavations.

4.7. If it is necessary to lay several excavations in different parts of an archaeological site, they should be divided into a single coordination grid fixed on the ground to ensure the joining of excavations and geophysical and other research data.

It is recommended to apply such a grid over the entire monument at the beginning of work. It is necessary to coordinate the elevation marks at all excavations, for which a single constant must be installed on the monument rapper. The location of the benchmark must be recorded on the plan of the monument. It is desirable to link the benchmark to the Baltic system of elevations.

4.8. One of the priorities of archaeological research is an integrated approach to the study of archaeological monuments and the involvement of natural science specialists (anthropologists, geophysicists, soil scientists, geologists, geomorphologists, paleobotanists, etc.) to record the natural conditions in which archaeological objects are located, study the paleoenvironment and analyze paleoecological materials . During the work, it is advisable to carry out the most complete selection of paleoecological materials and other samples for their study in laboratory conditions.

4.9. The study of the cultural layer of settlements, ground burial grounds and burials is carried out only with hand tools.

The use of earth-moving machines and mechanisms for these purposes is strictly prohibited. Such machines can be used exclusively for auxiliary work (transportation of waste soil, removal of a sterile or man-made layer covering a monument, etc.). During underwater excavations, the use of soil-washing equipment is allowed.

4.10. When exploring mounds, the embankment should be dismantled with hand tools.

The use of earth-moving machines is allowed only when excavating mounds of certain types (from the paleometal era - the Middle Ages in the steppe and forest-steppe zones). Removal of soil by mechanisms should be carried out in thin (no more than 10 cm) layers with the organization of continuous careful observation of the uncovered area until the first signs of burials, burial structures, pits, funeral feasts, etc. appear, after which dismantling should be done manually.

4.11. Excavations of mounds are carried out only with the removal of the entire embankment and exploration of the entire space located under it, as well as the nearest territory where ditches, powders, funeral feasts, remains of ancient arable land and the like can be found.

The study of burial mounds with poorly defined, strongly blurred or overlapping mounds must be carried out in a continuous area, as well as the study of ground burial grounds, with a grid of squares and one or more edges (depending on the area of ​​the excavation) in the most pronounced areas in the relief.

4.12. An excavation at ancient settlements of all types (sites, settlements, ancient settlements) must be divided into squares, the sizes of which, depending on the type of monument, are: 1x1 m, 2x2 m and 5x5 m. The grid of squares at the excavation site must be inscribed in the general coordinate grid of the monument.

Excavations of ancient settlements of all types are carried out along stratigraphic layers or strata, the thickness of which depends on the type of monument, but should not exceed 20 cm.

It is preferable to study stratified monuments in layers. It is necessary to carefully identify all the features inherent in the cultural layer and the given settlement as a whole.

The remains of all buildings, fire pits, hearths, pits, soil spots, and other objects, as well as the location of finds in coordination with the uncovered structures must be plotted on layer-by-layer or stratum plans. The depths of the detected objects and finds are necessarily recorded using a level or theodolite.

When dismantling a cultural layer with a high concentration of small artifacts, it is advisable to wash or sift the cultural layer through fine-mesh metal mesh.

4.13. The use of a metal detector is possible only in areas directly investigated by excavations, as well as for additional regular inspection of dumps.

All finds discovered using a metal detector (including finds from dumps), as well as objects obtained as a result of washing the cultural layer, must be included in the field inventory and provided with appropriate explanations of their origin.

4.14. When excavating multi-layered archaeological monuments, successive deepening into the underlying layers is permissible only after a detailed study of the upper layers and their exhaustive recording throughout the entire excavation area.

4.15. Cultural deposits must be examined in full, unless this is prevented by construction and architectural remains of primary importance discovered in excavations, the preservation of which seems necessary.

4.16. When excavating archaeological monuments with construction and architectural remains, it is necessary to take measures to ensure their safety until they are fully identified and comprehensively recorded. In the case of permanent excavations at one archaeological site leaving the discovered architectural remains in the open, measures must be taken to protect and conserve them.

4.17. When conducting security excavations, the researcher is obliged to provide for a full study of the entire area of ​​the archaeological monument within the boundaries of a permanent or temporary land allotment where excavation work or movement of equipment can damage or destroy the archaeological monument.

A selective study of part of an archaeological monument that falls within the boundaries of the land allocation is unacceptable. If necessary, for a complete study of an archaeological site, the researcher can make an extension to the excavation site that goes beyond the boundaries of the construction and excavation site.

4.18. When examining mound embankments, the following must be ensured: identification and recording of all objects located in the embankment (inlet burials, funeral feasts, individual finds, etc.), design features and composition of the embankment itself, the level of buried soil, the presence of bedding, crepides or other structures inside the embankment, under her or around her. All depth measurements should be taken from the zero mark (benchmark), located at the highest point of the embankment. Before demolishing the edge on which the benchmark is located, remote benchmarks are installed outside the excavation, having precise references to the main benchmark; in the future, all depth measurements are made from remote benchmarks.

In addition to burials, all layers and objects are documented on the plans of excavated mounds.

When excavating completely or partially robbed burials, graphic documentation should record the locations and depths of all finds, including those that were moved, since this data is important for reconstructing the original burial complex.

4.19. To conduct and record stratigraphic observations, edges must be left inside large excavations.

When excavating mounds using technology, one or several parallel (in the direction of movement of the mechanisms) edges are left, depending on the size and structure of the mound embankment.

When excavating mounds, two mutually perpendicular edges are left by hand.

When excavating large mounds (over 20 m in diameter), it is necessary to leave at least two or three edges with mandatory recording of all their profiles.

The edges must be disassembled after their drawing and photographic fixation, and the materials obtained during their disassembly are recorded on the corresponding plans.

4.20. In the process of excavating archaeological monuments of all types, it is necessary to level the modern surface (excavation site, mound), profiles, continental surface and all objects (structures, floor levels, layers, hearths, etc., burials, remains of funeral feasts, etc.), as well as finds from a single zero reference point for each monument.

4.21. During the work, a field diary should be kept in which detailed text descriptions of the exposed cultural strata, ancient structures and burial complexes are recorded.

Diary data serves as the basis for writing a scientific report.

4.22. All finds, building materials, osteological, paleobotanical and other remains obtained during excavations are recorded in a field diary, indicated on drawings, and the most revealing ones are photographed.

4.23. The results of excavation work are recorded with drawings and photographic documentation.

Drawings (plans and sections of excavations, stratigraphic profiles, plans and profiles of mounds, plans and sections of burials, etc.) must be made directly at the work site and reproduce as accurately as possible all the details, including such as: the relative position of layers and structures and their relationship to elevations, composition, structure and color of layers, the presence of soil, ash, coal and other stains, distribution of finds, conditions and depth of their occurrence, position of the skeleton and things in the grave, etc.

Plans, sections and profiles of excavations are carried out on a single scale of at least 1:20. Mound plans – no less than 1:50. Plans and sections of burials are on a scale of at least 1:10. When identifying clusters of small items, areas with dense distribution of grave goods and treasures, it is advisable to sketch them on a 1:1 scale. The plans must reflect all the details recorded in the profile. The actual depth of the excavation should be recorded on the section (in the profile).

4.24. It is mandatory to photograph the entire excavation process, starting with the general view of the archaeological monument and its section chosen for study, excavation at different levels of layer removal, as well as all the objects being uncovered: burials, structures and their details, stratigraphic profiles, etc.

Photographic recording must be done using a scale rod.

4.25. Finds collected during excavations should be taken for museum storage and further scientific processing.

In this case, it is advisable to include in the collection the widest possible range of things, including fragmented items and items of unclear purpose.

4.26. Materials entering the collection must be included in the field inventory and provided with labels indicating the year of research and the exact place of origin of each item or fragment: monument, excavation, site, layer or layer, square, pit (No.), burial (No.), dugout ( No.), number of the find, its leveling mark or other detection conditions. The researcher must ensure proper packaging, transportation and storage of collections before they are transferred to the state part of the museum collection of the Russian Federation.

The profession of an archaeologist first of all requires nerves of iron and endurance. While conducting research, scientists sometimes pull things out of the ground that make your heart skip a beat. In addition to ancient dishes, clothing and writings, they find the remains of animals and people. We invite you to learn about the most terrible archaeological excavations.

Screaming mummies

Egypt is full of mysteries and secrets, many of which have already been solved. While studying the tombs in 1886, researcher Gaston Maspero came across an unusual mummy. Unlike the other bodies found earlier, she was simply wrapped in sheep's clothing. And her face was twisted in a terrible grimace, while the creepy mummy’s mouth was open. Scientists put forward different versions, including poisoning and burying the Egyptian alive. In fact, everything turned out to be quite simple. When wrapping the body, the mouth was also tied with a rope. Apparently poor fastening led to the rope falling off, and the jaw, unheld by anything, fell down. As a result, the body took on such a terrible appearance. To this day, archaeologists find mummies that are still called screaming.

Headless Vikings

In 2010, the list of the most terrible archaeological excavations was supplemented by scientists who carried out work in Dorset. The group hoped to find household equipment of their ancestors, their clothing, and working tools in order to supplement historical data about their life. But what they stumbled upon horrified them. Scientists have discovered the remains of human bodies, but without heads. The skulls were located not far from the grave. Having carefully studied them, archaeologists came to the conclusion that these were the remains of Vikings. However, there were not enough skulls. Therefore, we can conclude that the punitive forces took several heads as a trophy. The burial of 54 Vikings took place in the 8th-9th century.

Unknown creature

Amateur scientists, taking a walk through a National Park in New Zealand, came across a karst cave. The young archaeologists decided to visit it. Walking along the corridors of the cave, the group saw a skeleton that was well preserved, but presented an eerie sight. The rather large body had rough skin, a beak, and huge claws. I don’t understand at all where this monster came from; the guys urgently left the cave. Further research showed that these were the remains of an ancient moa bird. Some scientists are sure that she still lives on the planet, just hiding from people.

Crystal Skull

Archaeologist Frederick Mitchell Hedges made a stunning discovery while walking through the jungles of Belize. They found a skull made of rock crystal. The weight of the find increased by 5 kg. Tribes living nearby claim that the skull is a Mayan heritage. There are 13 of them scattered around the world, and whoever collects the entire collection will gain access to the secrets of the universe. Whether this is true or not is unknown, but the mystery of the skull has not been solved to this day. What’s surprising is that it was made using a technology that contradicts the chemical and physical laws known to mankind.

It is necessary to open up the ground because the land cover is growing, hiding the artifacts. The main reasons for this increase are:

1. accumulation of waste as a result of human activity;
2. transport of soil particles by wind;
3. natural accumulation of organic matter in the soil (for example, as a result of rotting leaves);
4. deposition of cosmic dust.

Excavation permit

Excavations by their nature lead to the destruction of the cultural layer. Unlike laboratory experiments, the excavation process is unique. Therefore, in many states, special permission is required for excavations.

Excavations without permission are an administrative offense in the Russian Federation.

Purpose of excavation

The purpose of the excavations is to study the archaeological monument and reconstruct its role in the historical process. It is preferable to completely open the cultural layer to its entire depth, regardless of the interests of a particular archaeologist. However, the excavation process is very labor-intensive, so often only part of the monument is opened; many excavations last for years and decades.

A special type of excavation is the so-called security excavations which, in accordance with legal requirements, are carried out before the construction of buildings and structures, since otherwise the archaeological monuments located at the construction site may be lost forever.

Archaeological exploration

The study of the excavation site begins with non-destructive methods, including measurements, photography and description.

Sometimes, during the exploration process, “probes” (pits) or trenches are made to measure the thickness and direction of the cultural layer, as well as to search for an object known from written sources. These methods spoil the cultural layer and therefore their use is limited.

Excavation technology

To obtain a holistic picture of life in the settlement, it is preferable to simultaneously open a large continuous area. However, technical limitations (observation of layer cuts, removal of soil) impose restrictions on the size of the excavated area, the so-called excavation.

The excavation surface is leveled and divided into squares (usually 2x2 meters). The opening is carried out in layers (usually 20 centimeters) and squarely using shovels and sometimes knives. If layers are easily traced on a monument, then the opening is carried out by layers, and not by strata. Also, when excavating buildings, archaeologists often find one of the walls and gradually clear the building, following the line of the walls.

Mechanization is used only for removing soil that does not belong to the cultural layer, as well as for large mound embankments. When objects, burials or their traces are discovered, knives, tweezers and brushes are used instead of shovels. To preserve finds from organic substances, they are preserved directly in the excavation site, usually by pouring them with plaster or paraffin. The voids left in the ground from completely destroyed objects are filled with plaster to obtain a cast of the disappeared thing.

The study of the distant past is necessarily accompanied by careful photographic recording of all stages of clearing archaeological remains. On the territory of the Russian Federation, the requirements for the professional knowledge and skills of the researcher are strictly regulated by the “Regulations on the procedure for conducting archaeological field work and drawing up scientific reporting documentation.” The report must certainly contain:

• a complete description of the archaeological heritage site under study and its topographic plan, prepared using geodetic instruments;
• data on the distribution of bulk material on the exposed site with the application of statistical tables (lists) and drawings of things;
• a detailed description of the excavation methodology, as well as each studied burial, all identified objects (funeral funerals, altars, cenotaphs, bedding, bedding, fire pits, etc.) indicating the size, depth, shape, structural details and elements, orientation, leveling marks;
• information about special analyzes performed with the involvement of anthropologists, biologists, geologists, etc.;
• sections of holes and other recesses indicating the features of their filling;
• stratigraphic profiles of edges and walls;

The greatest importance is attached to the quality of the accompanying drawings, which have recently been increasingly created using modern computer technology. The need for planigraphic observations should also be noted.

see also

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Notes

Sources

Literature from the Historical Encyclopedia:

• Blavatsky V.D., Ancient field archeology, M., 1967
• Avdusin D. A., Archaeological exploration and excavations M., 1959
• Spitsyn A. A., Archaeological excavations, St. Petersburg, 1910
• Crawford O. G. S., Archeology in the field, L., (1953)
• Leroi-Gourhan A., Les fouilles préhistoriques (Technique et méthodes), P., 1950
• Woolley C. L., Digging up the Past, (2 ed), L., (1954)
• Wheeler R. E. M., Archeology from the Earth, (Harmondsworth, 1956).

Links

• // Jewish Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron. - St. Petersburg. , 1908-1913.

Excerpt describing the Excavations

- Crash it, guys! - he said and he himself grabbed the guns by the wheels and unscrewed the screws.
In the smoke, deafened by continuous shots that made him flinch every time, Tushin, without letting go of his nose warmer, ran from one gun to another, now taking aim, now counting the charges, now ordering the change and re-harnessing of dead and wounded horses, and shouted in his weak, thin voice, in a hesitant voice. His face became more and more animated. Only when people were killed or wounded did he wince and, turning away from the dead man, shout angrily at the people, as always, who were slow to raise the wounded man or the body. The soldiers, for the most part handsome fellows (as always in a battery company, two heads taller than their officer and twice as wide as him), all, like children in a difficult situation, looked at their commander, and the expression that was on his face remained unchanged reflected on their faces.
As a result of this terrible hum, noise, need for attention and activity, Tushin did not experience the slightest unpleasant feeling of fear, and the thought that he could be killed or painfully wounded did not occur to him. On the contrary, he became more and more cheerful. It seemed to him that a very long time ago, almost yesterday, there was that minute when he saw the enemy and fired the first shot, and that the patch of field on which he stood was a long-familiar, familiar place to him. Despite the fact that he remembered everything, understood everything, did everything that the best officer in his position could do, he was in a state similar to feverish delirium or the state of a drunken person.
Because of the deafening sounds of their guns from all sides, because of the whistle and blows of the enemy’s shells, because of the sight of the sweaty, flushed servants hurrying around the guns, because of the sight of the blood of people and horses, because of the sight of the enemy’s smoke on the other side (after which everyone once a cannonball flew in and hit the ground, a person, a weapon or a horse), because of the sight of these objects, his own fantastic world was established in his head, which was his pleasure at that moment. The enemy cannons in his imagination were not cannons, but pipes, from which an invisible smoker released smoke in rare puffs.
“Look, he puffed again,” Tushin said in a whisper to himself, while a puff of smoke jumped out of the mountain and was blown to the left by the wind in a stripe, “now wait for the ball and send it back.”
-What do you order, your honor? - asked the fireworksman, who stood close to him and heard him muttering something.
“Nothing, a grenade...” he answered.
“Come on, our Matvevna,” he said to himself. Matvevna imagined in his imagination a large, extreme, antique cast cannon. The French appeared to him like ants near their guns. The handsome and drunkard number two of the second gun in his world was his uncle; Tushin looked at him more often than others and rejoiced at his every move. The sound of the gunfire, which either died down or intensified again under the mountain, seemed to him like someone’s breathing. He listened to the fading and flaring up of these sounds.
“Look, I’m breathing again, I’m breathing,” he said to himself.
He himself imagined himself to be of enormous stature, a powerful man who threw cannonballs at the French with both hands.
- Well, Matvevna, mother, don’t give it away! - he said, moving away from the gun, when an alien, unfamiliar voice was heard above his head:
- Captain Tushin! Captain!
Tushin looked around in fear. It was the staff officer who kicked him out of Grunt. He shouted to him in a breathless voice:
- What, are you crazy? You were ordered to retreat twice, and you...
“Well, why did they give me this?...” Tushin thought to himself, looking at the boss with fear.
“I... nothing...” he said, putting two fingers to the visor. - I…
But the colonel did not say everything he wanted. A cannonball flying close caused him to dive and bend over on his horse. He fell silent and was just about to say something else when another core stopped him. He turned his horse and galloped away.
- Retreat! Everyone retreat! – he shouted from afar. The soldiers laughed. A minute later the adjutant arrived with the same order.
It was Prince Andrei. The first thing he saw, riding out into the space occupied by Tushin’s guns, was an unharnessed horse with a broken leg, neighing near the harnessed horses. Blood flowed from her leg like from a key. Between the limbers lay several dead. One cannonball after another flew over him as he approached, and he felt a nervous shiver run down his spine. But the very thought that he was afraid raised him up again. “I cannot be afraid,” he thought and slowly dismounted from his horse between the guns. He conveyed the order and did not leave the battery. He decided that he would remove the guns from the position with him and withdraw them. Together with Tushin, walking over the bodies and under terrible fire from the French, he began cleaning up the guns.
“And then the authorities came just now, so they were tearing up,” the fireworksman said to Prince Andrei, “not like your honor.”
Prince Andrei did not say anything to Tushin. They were both so busy that it seemed they didn’t even see each other. When, having put the surviving two of the four guns on the limbers, they moved down the mountain (one broken cannon and the unicorn were left), Prince Andrei drove up to Tushin.
“Well, goodbye,” said Prince Andrei, extending his hand to Tushin.
“Goodbye, my dear,” said Tushin, “dear soul!” “goodbye, my dear,” said Tushin with tears that, for some unknown reason, suddenly appeared in his eyes.

The wind died down, black clouds hung low over the battlefield, merging on the horizon with gunpowder smoke. It was getting dark, and the glow of fires was all the more clearly visible in two places. The cannonade became weaker, but the crackle of guns behind and to the right was heard even more often and closer. As soon as Tushin with his guns, driving around and running over the wounded, came out from under fire and went down into the ravine, he was met by his superiors and adjutants, including a staff officer and Zherkov, who was sent twice and never reached Tushin’s battery. All of them, interrupting one another, gave and passed on orders on how and where to go, and made reproaches and comments to him. Tushin did not give orders and silently, afraid to speak, because at every word he was ready, without knowing why, to cry, he rode behind on his artillery nag. Although the wounded were ordered to be abandoned, many of them trailed behind the troops and asked to be deployed to the guns. The same dashing infantry officer who jumped out of Tushin’s hut before the battle was, with a bullet in his stomach, placed on Matvevna’s carriage. Under the mountain, a pale hussar cadet, supporting the other with one hand, approached Tushin and asked to sit down.

Archaeological excavations require achieving an optimal balance between two, often polar, circumstances - say, the need, on the one hand, to destroy some structures, and on the other, to obtain the maximum amount of information about the past, or to obtain the necessary funds for excavations, or to satisfy immediate needs society. If an excavation is carried out, its ultimate goal is to obtain a three-dimensional record of the archaeological site, which will record various artifacts, buildings and other finds, correctly placed according to their origin and context in time and space. And after this stage is completed, the document must be published in full in order to preserve the information for posterity.

Complete and selective excavations

Excavations of a site have the advantage of providing detailed information, but they are expensive and undesirable due to the fact that subsequent excavations, possibly using more advanced methods, cannot be carried out. Usually, continuous excavations are carried out as part of such UCR projects, in which monuments are in danger of inevitable destruction.

Selective excavations are most typical, especially in cases where time is of the essence. Many sites are so large that extensive excavation is simply not possible, and research is carried out selectively, using sampling methods or using carefully calibrated trenches. Selective excavations are carried out to obtain stratigraphic and chronological information, as well as to obtain samples of pottery, stone tools and animal bones. Based on this evidence, the archaeologist can decide whether further excavations are advisable.

Vertical and horizontal excavations

Vertical excavations are always selective. During their implementation, limited areas of the monument are revealed in order to obtain specific information. Most vertical excavations are probing deep archaeological layers, their real purpose is to obtain a chronological sequence at the site. Horizontal excavations are carried out to reveal contemporaneous settlement over a large area. However, it should be emphasized that all excavation strategies are based on decisions made as the excavation and research project progresses. Either way, the examples given here and in other texts show excavations that have already been completed. During an excavation, an archaeologist may well switch from vertical to horizontal excavations, and vice versa, even during short-term work.

Vertical excavations. Vertical excavations are almost always carried out to establish stratigraphic sequences, especially at sites where the area is limited, such as small caves and rock shelters, or to resolve chronological issues, such as sequences along trenches and earthworks (Fig. 9.4). Some vertical trenches reach impressive sizes, especially those dug on residential hills. However, in most cases such excavations are not large-scale.

pits, sometimes referred to by the French word sondages or telephone booths, often take the form of vertical excavations. They consist of small trenches that can accommodate one or two excavators and are designed to penetrate the lower layers of a site to establish the limits of archaeological layers (Fig. 9.5). The pits are dug to extract samples of artifacts from the lower layers. This method can be improved with the help of drills.

The pits are a precursor to major excavations, as the information obtained from them is limited at best. Some archaeologists dig them only outside the territory of the main monument, since they destroy important layers. But judiciously placed pits can provide valuable information about the stratigraphy and contents of a site before the main excavations begin. They are also dug to obtain samples from different areas of the site, such as shell deposits, where there is a high concentration of artifacts found in the layers. In such cases, the holes are dug along a grid and their positions are determined by statistical sampling or based on regular patterns such as alternating squares. A series of checkerboard pits are particularly effective when excavating earthworks, as the pit walls, separated by unexcavated blocks, provide a continuous stratigraphic sequence through the entire fortification.

Vertical trenches were widely used during excavations of ancient monuments - settlements in southwest Asia (Moore, 2000). They can also be used to obtain a cross-section of a monument that is in danger of destruction, or to inspect outlying structures near a village or cemetery where major excavations have been carried out. When creating such vertical excavations, it is almost always expected that the most important information will be in the form of recording the layers in the walls of the trenches and the finds in them. It is clear that the information obtained from such excavations is of limited value compared to larger surveys.

Horizontal (zone) excavations. Horizontal, or zone, excavations are carried out on a larger scale than vertical ones, and are the next step to continuous excavations. By zone excavation we mean covering large areas to reconstruct building plans or plans of an entire settlement, even historical gardens (Fig. 9.6, see also the photograph at the beginning of the chapter). The only sites that inevitably are completely excavated are very small hunter sites, free-standing huts and burial mounds.

A good example of horizontal excavation is the site at St. Augustine, Florida (Deagan, 1983; Milanich and Milbrath, 1989). Saint Augustine was founded on the east coast of Florida by Spanish conquistador Pedro Menedez de Aville in 1565. In the 16th century, the city was subject to floods, fires, and hurricanes, and in 1586 it was sacked by Sir Francis Drake. He destroyed the fortified city, whose purpose was to protect the Spanish fleet transporting treasures through the Florida Straits. In 1702 the British attacked Saint Augustine. The city's inhabitants took refuge in the fortress of San Marcos, which still stands today. After six weeks of siege, the British retreated, burning the wooden buildings to the ground. In their place, settlers built stone buildings, and the city continued to grow until the first half of the 18th century.

Kathleen Deegan and a team of archaeologists explored the 18th-century city and its earlier part, combining urban conservation with archaeological excavations. Excavations of an 18th-century city are difficult for many reasons. Partly due to the fact that the three-century-old archaeological layer is only 0.9 meters and is largely disturbed. Excavation workers cleared and recorded dozens of wells. They also carried out horizontal excavations and uncovered the foundations of 18th-century buildings made from earthen concrete, a cement-like substance made from oyster shells, lime and sand. Foundations made of oyster shells or earthen concrete were laid in trenches in the shape of the house being built (Fig. 9.7), then the walls were erected. Earthen concrete floors deteriorated quickly, so a new floor was created on the ground. Because the layers around the house were disturbed, artifacts from the foundations and floors were very important, and selective horizontal excavation was the best method to uncover them.

The problems with horizontal excavations are the same as with any excavation: stratigraphic control and careful measurements. During such zone excavations, large open areas of soil are exposed to a depth of several tens of centimeters. A complex network of walls or pillars may lie within the survey area. Each feature correlates with other structures. This relationship must be clearly recorded for the correct interpretation of the monument, especially if we are talking about several periods of settlement. If an entire area is exposed, it is difficult to measure the position of structures in the middle of the trench, far from the walls at the edge of the excavation. More accurate measurements and recording can be achieved by using a system that provides a network of vertical stratigraphic walls across the excavated zone. Such work is often accomplished by laying out a grid of square or rectangular excavation units, with walls between the squares several tens of centimeters thick (Figure 9.8). Such excavated units can be 3.6 square meters in area. meters or more. Figure 9.8 shows that this system allows stratigraphic control of large areas.

Large-scale grid excavations are extremely expensive, time consuming, and difficult to carry out in uneven areas. Nevertheless, “grid excavations” were successful at many monuments: buildings, city plans and fortifications were revealed. Many zone excavations are “open”, during which large areas of the site are exposed layer by layer without a grid (see Fig. 9.1). Electronic survey methods have solved many of the problems of recording in large horizontal excavations, but the need for clear stratigraphic control remains.

Removing overlying layers of no archaeological significance to reveal subsurface features is another type of large-scale excavation. Such removal is especially useful when the monument is buried shallow below the surface and traces of buildings are preserved in the form of pillars and discoloration of the soil. Excavators almost always use earthmoving equipment to remove large areas of surface soil, especially in RBM projects. This type of work requires both skilled drivers and a clear understanding of soil stratigraphy and texture (Figure 9.9).

Of course, horizontal excavations depend on precise stratigraphic control. It is usually combined with vertical trenches, which provide the necessary information to carefully cut away successive horizontal layers.

searching, researching, and preserving ancient monuments, cultural remains, and cultural layers, as well as sketching or photographing R. sites and finds. R. for the purpose of revealing hidden wealth or looting burials were found already in ancient times (necropolis in Corinth; tombs of the pharaohs in Egypt). During the Renaissance, searches were often carried out for the purpose of finding art and products. Planned and methodical. R., which began in the 19th century. and developed in the 20th century, are based on an integrated approach and are aimed primarily at determining vertical and horizontal stratigraphy, identifying and conserving finds, as well as summarizing the findings. at R. material. Terr. future rivers are selected taking into account data from aerial photography, electrical sounding, and trial rivers. The most important places of the river include Troy, Mycenae, Tiryns, Knossos on Crete, Olympia, Delphi, Athens, Corinth, Miletus, Ephesus, Priene, Samos; in Italian terr. - Pompeii and the cities of Ostia, Vulzi, Tarquinia and Spina, neighboring Rome. In recent decades, extensive reforms have been carried out in socialism. countries: in the USSR (R. Greek cities on the Black Sea coast and Scythian burials), in Hungary (Aquinc, Gorsi near Tach), in Romania (Istria, Constanta, Adamklisi), in Poland (Palmyra, Alexandria), in Bulgaria (Varna , Svetopol, Esk near Gigen; R., produced by the GDR – Nikopol on Istra, Castell Iatrus near Krivina).

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EXCAVATIONS

archaeological) - opening up layers of earth to study archaeological monuments located in the ground. R.'s goal is to study a given monument, its parts, things found, etc. and to reconstruct the role of the object being studied in historical history. process. Scientific tasks, formulation of historical. problems are determined both by the choice of the R. object and the order of studying its parts (if the R. are designed for many years). R. are not an end in themselves; each R. must give an answer to some questions related to the history of the society that created this monument. R. is preceded by archaeological exploration. Archaeologists have developed a number of special techniques that take into account the specifics of each object and allow a detailed study of its features. R. settlements are associated with the destruction of the cultural layer, which itself is also an object of scientific research. observations. Therefore, careful recording of all stages of excavation is extremely important. Unlike laboratory experiments, the process of excavation is unique; it is impossible to excavate the same cultural layer twice. Full disclosure of the archaeol being studied is desirable. object, since only it gives the most complete picture of his past life. However, the R. process is very labor-intensive and expensive, so sometimes they are limited to opening part of the monument; Many monuments take years and decades to excavate. The study of the object chosen for R. begins with its measurements, photography and description. Sometimes, to determine the thickness of the cultural layer, its direction, or in search of any object, the existence of which is known from written sources (wall, building, temple, etc.), archaeological. Probes (pits) or trenches are made at the monument. This method is permissible only in a very limited form - for reconnaissance purposes, because pits and trenches spoil the cultural layer and do not make it possible to form a holistic picture of the settlement under study. To establish the facts of past life in a settlement, it is desirable to simultaneously open a large continuous area. However, the area should not be excessively large, because this will make it difficult to observe the sections of the cultural layer and remove the soil. That limited place where R. are made in the settlement is called. excavation Its dimensions are determined by the assigned tasks, technical. and material opportunities. Having chosen a site for an excavation, they determine the direction of its sides according to the cardinal points and its position in relation to some fixed and constant point on the ground (benchmark). The excavation surface is leveled. Most often, geodesic is used for this. tools. The excavation area is divided into squares (most often 2x2 m). The opening of the cultural layer is carried out in layers of 20 cm each and squarely, with all ancient things and structures recorded on the plan. R. is produced only by hand with shovels and sometimes with knives. Mechanical Diggers (scrapers, bulldozers, etc.) are used only for removing ballast and for cleaning the embankments of large mounds. The cultural layer excavated with shovels and sorted by hand is removed from the excavation using conveyors and electric winches. Sometimes a narrow-gauge railway is laid to the place of R. d. In addition to horizontal excavation plans, stratigraphic plans must be drawn up. (see Stratigraphy) vertical drawings of its walls and drawings of sections of the cultural layer (the so-called “profiles”) within the excavation site, wherever they can be recorded. Observation of the alternation of cultural layers deposited in a given place makes it possible to establish the relative chronology within the entire cultural layer or to state its single-layer nature (i.e., the simultaneous existence of all discovered objects). If life on a multi-layered monument was interrupted for a long time, then between archaeol. layers are so-called. sterile layers containing no cultural residues. The profiles also make it possible to find out whether the sequence of strata was ever disrupted or whether there were excavations, the presence of which complicates the establishment of chronology. One of the indispensable requirements for excavation is the opening of the entire cultural layer to its entire depth, regardless of which of the historical layers. eras and, accordingly, parts of the layer are of interest to the researcher himself. To fully illuminate all periods of the life of a given settlement, the archaeologist must pay equal attention to all layers. The disadvantage of the method of conducting R. in horizontal layers is that, as a rule, archaeol. layers do not coincide with strata; this makes observations and conclusions difficult. Therefore, if the layers on a monument are clearly traceable and their direction has been established by preliminary exploration (trenches or pits), then the opening of the monument is carried out layer by layer, without dividing into layers, with the registration of finds and structures within the layer. On a multi-layered monument, the layers are numbered as they are uncovered, i.e. from top to bottom, but this order is the reverse of the time the layers appeared: the older the layer, the lower it lies. When publishing a report on R., a scientist sometimes calls the most ancient layer of a given monument the first layer, while in R.’s diary the most recent layer is named first. This creates confusion. The cultures or cultural phases found at a given site should be numbered in order from earliest to latest. A special technique can be used when repainting the remains of ancient buildings. The researcher finds one of the walls of the building and, following it, gradually clears it. This makes it possible to find out the building plan without unnecessary effort. However, the need to establish the connection between the building and its surroundings, to date it, to establish construction periods, the time of destruction, etc., forces the researcher not to limit himself to clearing the walls, but, as in other cases, to carry out work over a wide area and be sure to obtain accurate sections of the cultural surroundings of the building. layer. Wood in general, and wooden buildings in particular, are preserved only in particularly favorable conditions: in very wet soil (for example, in a peat bog), or in a very dry climate (for example, in Egypt). Most often, the tree rots in the ground. In our country, in most places (except, for example, Novgorod and some other cities), wooden buildings are not preserved and are identified by barely noticeable traces in the ground. Pits from dugouts, cellars, wells, etc. retain traces of wooden fastenings imprinted on the walls, according to which the entire structure was reconstructed. Observations of pole holes are very important. The repair of decayed wooden structures is more difficult than the repair of buildings made of adobe (unbaked) brick. The collapse of walls made of such bricks is not much different from the surrounding earth, in which the building is buried. It is necessary to take into account the shades of clay, the difference in humidity, the admixture of straw, the edges that occur in mud brick, etc., in order to outline the boundaries of the structure. The development of large or long-existing settlements must be strictly planned, because chaotic research, whatever that means. it did not cover the area, it will not provide an opportunity to present the historical. a picture of the life of the settlement. In addition to graphic, photographic and film documentation, the R. process and discovered objects are described in detail in research diaries. During R. burials (see Burial grounds), although in most cases they do not have a proper cultural, i.e., residential layer formed over a long period of time. time, stratigraphic is also necessary. observations. Mounds are not just simple hills piled over a grave, but ritual structures that are complex and varied in design. The structure of the mound reflects the peculiarities of the funeral rite, which can be studied in full only if the entire mound embankment is removed for demolition. To clarify the structure of the embankment, one or two transverse earthen walls, the so-called, are left in the center of the mound. “edges”, which are removed only at the very end of the R. Sometimes, for the same purpose, the mound is not opened over the entire area at once, but by cutting out individual segments sequentially. In diaries, drawings and photographs, later entrance burials revealed in the mound or under it, traces of a funeral feast (funeral), fire pits, stone linings and all burial structures are noted; wooden and stone crypts, ground and undercut graves, stone boxes, etc. The excavation of ground burial grounds, which do not have any structures on the surface of the ground, is usually carried out over large areas. This makes it possible to determine the boundaries of the burial ground, find burial pits and establish the relative position of the burials. When individual objects, structures, burials or their traces are discovered in the cultural layer, shovels are replaced with knives, tweezers and brushes. Each item found is cleaned with a brush, sketched or photographed in the position in which it is in the ground, and its location is carefully recorded. The relative position of things gives the archaeologist no less in the sense of reconstructing the past than the things themselves. Many items, especially organic ones. substances - wood, leather, fabrics - are quickly destroyed when exposed to air. For the safety of such finds, their immediate conservation is required, right here in the excavation site. They are filled with plaster or sprayed with molten paraffin, sometimes immersed in water or some kind of solution. Some objects are completely destroyed in the ground, but leave traces in the form of voids or imprints. The voids, cleared of dust and later sediments, are filled with plaster and a cast of the disappeared thing is obtained. During excavations, one should collect all things and various remains that indicate the natural and other conditions in which the ancient population was located. A chemical sample is taken from different layers of the cultural layer. analysis. Chemical analysis allows you to find out from which organic. substances, humus formed, what tree species left ash and coals, etc. Landscape reconstruction is especially important for very distant eras, for example. Paleolithic, when natural conditions were sharply different from modern ones. They collect plant pollen and animal bones and use them to reconstruct ancient flora and fauna, climate, etc. Anthropological the study of individual bones and entire human skeletons helps to establish the physical. type of ancient population. Recently, radiocarbon and paleomagnetic methods have become increasingly important for dating the site. The archaeologist must take samples of coal, wood, organic matter for analysis. residues and fired clay in accordance with spec. instructions developed for the collection of such samples. After completion of the excavation, the extracted materials are subject to restoration and conservation, as well as detailed study in the laboratory. As a result of R., various structures, architecture, can be opened. monuments that must be preserved in place. Their conservation is a very difficult task, especially when it is necessary to protect wall paintings, carvings, etc. from destruction. Excavations in the USSR are carried out only by archaeological specialists with special permits - the so-called. open sheets issued by the Institute of Archeology of the USSR Academy of Sciences for the right to R. monuments of national significance and included in the state. lists of the USSR, as well as monuments located in the territory. RSFSR. For R. monuments rep. values ​​open sheets are issued by the Academy of Sciences of the Union Republics. The researcher is obliged to submit a report on R. at the place where open sheets are issued. The reports are stored in archives and presented to the state. fund of documents on the study of monuments. Lit.: Blavatsky V.D., Ancient field archeology, M., 1967; Avdusin D. A., Archaeological exploration and excavations M., 1959; Spitsyn A. A., Archaeological excavations, St. Petersburg, 1910; Crawford O. G. S., Archeology in the field, L., (1953); Leroi-Gourhan A., Les fouilles pr?historiques (Technique et m?thodes), P., 1950; Woolley C. L., Digging up the Past, (2 ed), L., (1954); Wheeler R. E. M., Archeology from the Earth, (Harmondsworth, 1956). A. L. Mongait. Moscow.