What is the main source of development of the Russian language. Stages of development of the Russian language

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Introduction

Slavic languages in the Indo-European family of languages

2.The ancestor of the Slavic languages is the Proto-Slavic language

In what territory did our common ancestors live?

The emergence of individual Slavic languages

Formation of the Russian language

Modern Russian language

Conclusion

Sources

Introduction

It is impossible to overestimate the role of language in the formation of a person’s national self-awareness. Language is perhaps the main factor of national identification. It forces us to speak, think and even feel in a certain way, which forms a unique feature of the perception and assessment of the world around us by native speakers of this language. And the richer the language, the greater the potential for intellectual development of its speaker, because the richness and versatility of linguistic forms and elements determine the depth of human thinking. And we inherited this truly priceless gift from our ancestors.

Russian is one of the largest languages in the world: in terms of the number of speakers it ranks fifth after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish.

So how did our language form? Is it possible that one of the youngest ethnic groups - the Slavs - was able to form one of the richest languages in the world in such a short period (1.5-2 thousand years)? I'm trying to answer this question, I set myself

Target:trace the stages of formation of the Russian language.

This goal defines the following tasks:

1.Study literature on the chosen topic.

2.Analyze different points of view on this issue.

.Present your observations in the form of an abstract.

1 . Slavic languages in the Indo-European family of languages

All Slavic languages show great similarities among themselves, but the ones closest to the Russian language are Belarusian and Ukrainian. The three of these languages form East Slavic subgroup,which is part of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family.

Slavic branches grow from a powerful trunk - the Indo-European language family. This family also includes Indian, Iranian, Greek, Romance, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic languages, Armenian, Albanian and other languages. Of all the Indo-European languages, the Baltic languages are closest to Slavic: Lithuanian, Latvian and the dead Prussian language, which finally disappeared by the first decades of the 18th century. Presumably, in the II-I millennium BC. e. In the Indo-European language family, a Proto-Slavic dialect emerged; in the 1st millennium AD. e. transformed into the Proto-Slavic language.

2. The ancestor of the Slavic languages is the Proto-Slavic language

Proto-Slavic is the language that is the ancestor of all Slavic languages. It had no written language and was not recorded in writing. However, it can be restored by comparing Slavic languages with each other, as well as by comparing them with other related Indo-European languages.

A common source - the Proto-Slavic language - unites all Slavic languages, endowing them with many similar features, meanings, sounds... The consciousness of Slavic linguistic and ethnic unity was already reflected in the ancient self-name of all Slavs - Slavs.According to academician O.N. Trubachev, etymologically this is something like “clearly speaking, understandable to each other.” This state continued during the era of the formation of ancient Slavic states and peoples. The Tale of Bygone Years, an ancient Russian chronicle from the early 12th century, says: “And the Slovenian language and the Russian language are one and the same...”. Word languageused here not only in the ancient meaning of “people”, but also in the meaning of “speech”.

3. In what territory did our common ancestors live?

The ancestral home of the Slavs, that is, the territory where they developed as a special people with their own language and where they lived until their division and resettlement to new lands, has not yet been precisely determined due to the lack of reliable data. And yet, with relative confidence, we can say that it was located in the east of Central Europe, north of the foothills of the Carpathians. Many scientists believe that the northern border of the ancestral home of the Slavs ran along the Pripyat River (the right tributary of the Dnieper), the western border along the middle course of the Vistula River, and in the east the Slavs inhabited Ukrainian Polesie up to the Dnieper.

The Slavs constantly expanded the lands they occupied. They also participated in the great migration of peoples in the IV-VII centuries. The Gothic historian Jordan wrote in his essay “On the Origin and Acts of the Getae” (chronologically brought up to the year 551) that “a populous tribe of Venets” (the Germans called all the Slavs) spread out “over the vast expanses” from the Middle Danube to the lower Dnieper Wenden, Winden; in Finnish Venä jä means "Russia"). During the VI and VII centuries. waves of Slavic settlement poured into most of the Balkan Peninsula, including modern Greece, and including its southern part - the Peloponnese.

By the end of the Proto-Slavic period, the Slavs occupied vast lands in Central and Eastern Europe. Extending from the Baltic Sea coast in the north to the Mediterranean in the south, from the Elbe River in the west to the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Volga and Oka in the east.

Over its long history, the Proto-Slavic language has experienced many changes. In the early period of its existence, it developed relatively slowly and was highly uniform, although even then there were dialect differences ( dialect, otherwise talk- the smallest territorial variety of the language).

In the late period (approximately from the 4th to the 6th centuries AD), diverse and intense changes occurred in the Proto-Slavic language, which led to its collapse around the 6th century. AD and the emergence of individual Slavic languages. language Slavic Russian speech

4. The emergence of individual Slavic languages

In the VI-VII centuries. AD the Proto-Slavic language fell into three groups: eastern, western and southern.

East Slavic group: Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian.

West Slavic group: Polish with the Kashubian dialect, which retained a certain genetic independence, Serbian languages (Upper and Lower Sorbian languages), Czech, Slovak and the dead Polabian language, which completely disappeared by the end of the 18th century.

South Slavic group: Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian.

The ancestor of modern Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian languages was Old Russian(or East Slavic) language. In its history, two main eras can be distinguished: pre-written (from the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language to the 10th century) and written. What this language was like before the advent of writing can only be found out through a comparative historical study of Slavic and Indo-European languages, because no ancient Russian writing existed at that time.

The oldest literary monuments in the history of the Russian language are the Novgorod Code (1st quarter of the 11th century), the Ostromir Gospel (1056/1057) in Church Slavonic and birch bark letters (from the 11th century) in the Old Novgorod dialect.

5. Formation of the Russian language

The collapse of the Old Russian language led to the emergence Russian(or Great Russian) language, different from Ukrainian and Belarusian. This happened in the 14th century, although already in the 12th-13th centuries. In the Old Russian language, phenomena emerged that distinguished the dialects of the ancestors of the Great Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians from each other.

From the beginning of the 15th century to the end of the 17th century, the Russian language was formed quite quickly. The modern Russian language is based on the northern and northeastern dialects of Ancient Rus'. The center of development is Moscow, where the modern dialect originated.

There were many dialects outside the city, but the Moscow dialect became the main one. Clear endings of words appear, cases are formed, spelling develops, words change according to gender, cases and numbers.

The latest monuments of appanage feudal Rus' reflect the characteristics of regional dialects. Thus, the Novgorod and Pskov monuments record “clattering” (mena “ts” and “ch” or their coincidence in one sound), the Novgorod pronunciation of “?” as “and” (which is deposited in the monuments as mena “?” and "and"); akanye is reflected in Moscow monuments from the 14th century; me "?" and “e” (in the absence of parallel exchange “?” and “i”) is inherent in monuments that arose on the territory of southern and central Russian dialects, etc.

Taking into account the testimony of monuments and checking them with data from a comparative study of Russian dialects, we can restore such major stages in the development of the grammatical structure of the Russian language XIV -XVII centuries .

· Loss of short forms of the adjective in indirect cases (in modern language such forms are preserved in frozen expressions like on bare feet, in broad daylight, with a hairdryer and etc.).

Loss of the category of dual number (a reminder of the form of the dual number in masculine nouns is the use with numerals two, three, four, both, half- And one and a half a special form, in most cases coinciding with the genitive singular form, but sometimes differing from it in stress: two animals, ball, step, hour; modern forms are also relics of the dual number knees, eyes, shoulders, ears and a number of others).

· Wide development and consolidation in written monuments of a later era (from the 16th-17th centuries) of the instrumental case form of nouns and adjectives included in the compound predicate.

· Simplification of the past tense system.

· In the field of managing case forms of nouns during the 12th-17th centuries, an increase and development of constructions with prepositions was noticed.

The development of speech structure is also the development of complex sentences. Let us compare, for example, the complex construction of a sentence from the chronicle (XIV century): “Lay Yaroslav a great city, the worthless city has golden gates,” with the modern complex sentence: “Yaroslav founded a great city in which there were golden gates.”

At the end of the 17th century, the history of the development of the Russian language was experiencing a period of complete formation. Writing is developing, new words, rules, and a modern church language appear in which religious literature is written. In the 19th century, the church language was clearly distinguished from the literary language, which was used by all residents of Muscovite Rus'. The language is becoming even more modern, similar to today. A lot of literature written in the new Russian language is published.

With the development of military, technical, scientific and political spheres of activity, modern terminology appears in the Russian language, words that are taken from foreign languages (French, German). The vocabulary changes a little and becomes rich in French words. Since the language began to become “clogged” with foreign words and speech patterns, the issue of assigning the status of a national language to the Russian language has become acute. Until Peter I decided to give the status of a Russian state to Muscovite Rus', there were disputes over the national status of the Russian language. The emperor assigned a new name to the state and issued a decree on the adoption of Russian as the national language.

6. Modern Russian language

Modern Russian (standard version, in the Russian tradition known as the literary language ) formed around the turn of the 18th century -XIX centuries . In 1708 there was a division of the civil and Church Slavonic alphabet. In 1755, Lomonosov created the first Russian grammar. Of the subsequent changes, the reform of Russian spelling in 1918 should be highlighted , as well as less significant changes in 1956 .

At the beginning of the 20th century, when the scientific field of activity was actively developing, English words began to be used, which were tightly intertwined with the Russian language and became inseparable from it. The Church, as well as many politicians in the period of the 18th-20th centuries, fought for the preservation of the purely Russian-Slavic language as a national language. But the study of foreign speech made its mark: a fashion for words of foreign origin developed.

In the mid-twenties, the peak of popularity and mastery of the Russian language by many countries around the world began. In the seventies, almost all major educational institutions in the world were studying the Russian language. The number of countries that mastered the Russian language exceeded 90.

The spread of mass media contributed to the standardization of oral speech in the 20th century , introduction of universal education, large-scale interregional population migration. Traditional dialects are preserved only by the rural population (older generation). In the oral speech of the urban population, the middle generation, and youth, there are practically only some differences in vocabulary and pronunciation, which are gradually leveled out under the influence of centralized television and radio broadcasting. The language is experiencing its ascent, acquiring new rules, and being brought to perfection. Learning a language, drawing up rules, exceptions, finding new examples continues to form to this day.

Conclusion

In conclusion, we note that since the Russian language appeared, it has undergone many metamorphoses from the basics to a modern rich and rich language with complex rules and a huge vocabulary. Over its centuries-old history, the Russian language has never experienced such significant transformations as in the 20th century. History shows that the Russian language was formed gradually, but purposefully. We, Russians, ourselves must “know and feel” the Russian language, because we ourselves do not know it enough, speak it poorly, treat it carelessly, but we and only we are responsible for the state of our native language, its further development, enrichment, his place in the world.

Sources

1.www.goldrussian.ru

2.http://otvet.mail.ru/question/1102327/

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Russian language is the largest language in the world. In terms of the number of people speaking it, it ranks 5th after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish.

Origin

Slavic languages, to which Russian belongs, belong to the Indo-European language branch.

At the end of the 3rd – beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The Proto-Slavic language, which is the basis for the Slavic languages, separated from the Indo-European family. In the X – XI centuries. The Proto-Slavic language was divided into 3 groups of languages: West Slavic (Czech, Slovak arose from it), South Slavic (developed into Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian) and East Slavic.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, which contributed to the formation of regional dialects, and the Tatar-Mongol yoke, three independent languages emerged from East Slavic: Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian. Thus, the Russian language belongs to the East Slavic (Old Russian) subgroup of the Slavic group of the Indo-European language branch.

History of development

During the era of Muscovite Rus', the Middle Russian dialect arose, the main role in the formation of which belonged to Moscow, which introduced the characteristic “akan”, and the reduction of unstressed vowels, and a number of other metamorphoses. The Moscow dialect becomes the basis of the Russian national language. However, a unified literary language had not yet emerged at that time.

In the XVIII–XIX centuries. Special scientific, military, and naval vocabulary received rapid development, which was the reason for the appearance of borrowed words, which often clogged and burdened the native language. There was a growing need to develop a unified Russian language, which took place in the struggle of literary and political movements. The great genius M.V. Lomonosov in his theory of “three” established a connection between the subject of presentation and the genre. Thus, odes should be written in a “high” style, plays and prose works in a “medium” style, and comedies in a “low” style. A.S. Pushkin in his reform expanded the possibilities of using the “middle” style, which now became suitable for ode, tragedy, and elegy. It is from the linguistic reform of the great poet that the modern Russian literary language traces its history.

The emergence of Sovietism and various abbreviations (prodrazverstka, people's commissar) are associated with the structure of socialism.

The modern Russian language is characterized by an increase in the number of special vocabulary, which was a consequence of scientific and technological progress. At the end of the 20th – beginning of the 21st centuries. The lion's share of foreign words enters our language from English.

The complex relationships between the various layers of the Russian language, as well as the influence of borrowings and new words on it, have led to the development of synonymy, which makes our language truly rich.

The Russian language is one of the largest languages in the world, the state language of a multinational and, as a consequence, the language of interethnic communication of the peoples of the country. It is the main language of international communication in the countries of the former USSR and the current language of the UN.

The modern Russian language, as we know it now, and as it is studied abroad, has a long history of origin. Its predecessor was the Old Russian language (from the 7th to the 14th centuries), the language of the Eastern Slavs located on the territory of the Kievan state. Since all Slavic languages had a common ancestor - the Proto-Slavic language, the emerging Old Russian was similar to the languages of the South Slavic and West Slavic peoples, but, from the point of view of phonetics and vocabulary, it had some differences. Then feudal fragmentation occurred, which led to the formation of a number of dialects. The Mongol-Tatar and Polish-Lithuanian conquests left their mark, causing the collapse (collapse of the Kyiv state) in the 13th-14th centuries. and consequently the collapse of the common Old Russian language. Three independent but closely related East Slavic languages were formed: Russian (Great Russian), Belarusian and Ukrainian.

As for writing, the Slavic states (modern Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary, Bulgaria) and later Russia and the development of the church as a state institution required special rituals and readings of liturgical books; at first it was carried out in Greek, but then the Old Church Slavonic language appeared. This language was created by Cyril and Methodius to adapt Greek writings; it was not just made up, it was based on the language of the South Slavic peoples. The Greek scientist Cyril and his brother Methodius used it to adapt Slavic speech to the expressions and ideas that Christian teaching wanted to convey, since, for example, the pagan religion and the Christian religion had different lexical content and the concept of God. This is how the Old Church Slavonic language acquired the name Church Slavonic. Initially it was Glagolitic, but since some sounds were missing for complete adaptation, Cyrillic appeared (a Greek set of letters supplemented in accordance with Glagolitic). The Church Slavonic language was exclusively written.

At this time, spoken Russian was undergoing its own changes; from the 14th to the 17th centuries, dialects continued to develop. Two dialect zones were formed: the Northern Great Russian dialect and the Southern Great Russian dialect with an intermediate Central Great Russian dialect. The leader was the dialect (later it became the basis for the literary language).

In the 17th century, during the reign, many transformative measures were carried out, including language reforms. European education became popular, science and technology developed, and translations of foreign books that were accessible and understandable to the general public were needed. All this required new means of expression, which the Church Slavonic language could not provide. His vocabulary and semantics carried more of a church-religious idea than resembled free “living speech.” What was needed was a literary language accessible to wide circles of society. The Church Slavonic language was relegated to the background in the 18th and early 19th centuries. became a kind of church jargon, intended only for worship. The popularity of foreign languages grew, and secular society tried to introduce them as much as possible into native Russian. There was a threat of language clogging and then the need arose to create unified national language norms.

The 20th century brought new, major events in Russia, and with them changes in the Russian language. The economy, culture, and technology continued to develop. It began to be enriched with new words, terminology, stylistic devices, etc. Socialism came to power through the revolution. The level of literacy has increased, the literary language has become the main language of communication of the people. Russian literature gained worldwide fame, and at the same time, interest in studying the language itself increased abroad.

Lecture 4.

Like any ethnic language, the Russian language has its own history of origin and development, and it is by no means simple. According to its historical roots (origins), the Russian language belongs to the Indo-European family (or Indo-European language community), the Slavic group of languages, and the East Slavic subgroup. Consequently, its history is connected with the history of related languages, united within the boundaries of the Indo-European family.

1. Indo-European family of languages. Related languages are languages that arose from the same source language and contain ancient common words, roots, affixes, and regular phonetic correspondences. A source language, or proto-language, is some initial, initial system that has transformed in various directions and given historically attested related languages.

Genetic (Greek genesis "origin") relationship between different languages of a certain area is established by the comparative historical method. With its help, formal (sound) and semantic correspondences between units of different languages are identified. Genetically related languages are united into a linguistic community, or family. Since the original language system does not exist as a given (it is not recorded in written monuments), it is considered as a linguistic model (construct), artificially created, restored, reconstructed. Its real existence in a certain space and time is confirmed not only by linguistic, but also by environmental, cultural and historical-geographical data. Fragments of this model (some prototypes, archetypes) are established reconstruction method– by comparing regular formal (sound) and semantic relationships (similarities) between units of different languages with different temporal relationships and reducing them to the original structures - prototypes (Greek protos “first, original”). Using this method, a period in the history of language is restored when features that were archaic from the point of view of synchrony were not an anomaly, but a norm reflecting productive processes. In Indo-European studies, the Indo-European (common Indo-European) proto-language serves as the reconstructed linguistic model.

The Indo-European proto-language as a reality existed at a certain time and in a certain space. It represented the unity of dialects that differed from each other. Its existence dates back to the 5th-4th millennium BC. The initial area of its distribution can be considered a geographical area that, with its ecological, geographical and cultural-historical characteristics, corresponds to the picture of the habitat of the Indo-Europeans, obtained on the basis of a linguistic reconstruction of the vocabulary of the parent language. According to T.V. Gamkrelidze and Vyach. Sun. Ivanov, the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans occupied the territory from the Balkans to the Middle East and Transcaucasia, right up to the Iranian Plateau and Southern Turkmenistan. The initial settlement of the Indo-European tribes was limited to a more compact area - the Western Asian - compared to the territory where the Indo-European languages spread as a result of the migration of these tribes in different directions.

The Indo-European language community is one of the largest language families on the globe. Typological similarities are found between all Indo-European languages: they all belong to the inflectional type, in which grammatical meanings are expressed using inflections (endings). In addition, they have a common material base - a common root word (composition of roots), common affixes and regular phonetic correspondences.

In the monograph by T.V. Gamkrelidze and Vyach. Sun. Ivanov “Indo-European language and Indo-Europeans”, certain groups of words were reconstructed, including primary concepts common to the cultures of all Indo-European tribes, preserved in modern Indo-European languages. Thus, in modern Russian there are many words of Indo-European origin, i.e. having equivalents in other Indo-European languages. They relate to such semantic spheres as “kinship” (mother, son, daughter, brother, sister), “atmospheric phenomena” (weather, wind), “animals, birds, insects” (cow, sheep, pig, wolf, lion , fox, mouse, bird, eagle, goose, bee, fly), “plants” (tree – this word has different meanings in different Indo-European languages: “tree”, “pine”, “log”, “resin”; in addition , it also denotes types of trees: birch, hornbeam, beech, aspen), “processes, actions” (weave, rub, hew, take, carry), pronouns (I, you), numerals (two, three), etc. .

Reconstruction of Indo-European words and roots allows us to recreate the linguistic picture of the world of our distant ancestors. A similar attempt was implemented by T.V. Gamkrelidze and Vyach. Sun. Ivanov. They compiled the “Semantic Dictionary of the Common Indo-European Language” and reconstructed fragments of the Indo-European protoculture, i.e. the original, primary culture of the Indo-Europeans.

As a result of the break in contacts between the speakers of individual dialects, the common Indo-European proto-language was divided into a number of related groups (communities), each of which spread over a certain historical territory due to the migration of dialect speakers in different directions. An external (extra-linguistic) factor in the collapse of the common Indo-European language and the independent development of Indo-European dialects was the lack of a centralized state organization nization associated with a culture fixed in writing.

As a result of the gradual collapse of the Indo-European linguistic community, the following groups, as well as languages that do not form groups(according to T.V. Gamkrelidze and Vyach. Vs. Ivanov).

1. Anatolian, or Hittite-Luwian, group: ancient Anatolian languages of Asia Minor - cuneiform Hittite, cuneiform and hieroglyphic Luwian, Palayan; Late Anatolian languages of western Asia Minor - Lydian and Lycian. The separation of the Anatolian community from the Indo-European proto-language was the beginning of the collapse of the latter and dates back to the period no later than the 4th millennium BC. e.

2. Indo-Iranian (Aryan) group. The most archaic language of this group is ancient Indian, in which the Rig Veda is written. A later form of the literary ancient Indian language is known as Sanskrit (Old Indian samskrta “artificial, brought to perfection”); most of the religious, artistic and scientific ancient Indian literature was written in it; it is still used today in parallel with the spoken Central Indian dialects (Prakrits), which gave birth to modern Indo-Aryan languages: Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi, Sindhi, etc. A special subgroup of Indo-Iranian languages consists of the Kafir, or Nuristan, languages, widespread in Nuristan, a mountainous region of Afghanistan.

Another group of Indo-Iranian languages is represented by the Iranian languages themselves: ancient - Avestan and Old Persian; Central Iranian - Sogdian, Khorezmian, Central Persian, Pahlavi, etc.; New Iranian - Ossetian, Afghan (Pashto), New Persian, Tajik, Kurdish, etc. The Indo-Iranian group is the largest in terms of the number of languages included in it.

In other genealogical classifications of languages, the Indian and Iranian groups are distinguished as independent.

3. Armenian language. Does not form groups. It distinguishes two main groups of dialects: Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian.

4. Greek language. Also does not form a group; Several dialects are distinguished within its borders. The language of Homer's poems probably developed around the 9th century. BC.; somewhat later, texts by lyric poets and tragedians appeared.

5. Phrygian language. Dead, known from inscriptions of the first half of the 1st millennium BC. e. northwestern part of Asia Minor.

6. Tocharian group. The languages of this group are known from written monuments of the second half of the 1st millennium AD. in the easternmost zone of distribution of Indo-European languages in Eurasia - East Turkestan. There are two languages: East Tocharian and Western Tocharian.

7. Albanian language. Does not form groups. Distributed in the western Balkans. Known from texts from the 16th century. AD

8. “Ancient European” languages. Under this conventional name, the languages of Europe from the late 2nd – early 1st millennium BC are united based on areal-dialect characteristics. e. These include the following groups:

8.1. Italian languages. Group of languages of the Apennine Peninsula. The ancient period is represented by Latin, which first existed as a dialect of Rome and its environs, and then spread to all of Italy, displacing other languages, and then to a large territory of Europe from the Iberian Peninsula and Gaul to Denmark and North Africa; middle period - folk Latin (or vulgar Latin); new period - Romance languages (French, Provençal, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Romanian, Moldavian, etc.).

8.2. Celtic group. Divides into two subgroups: continental ( Gaulish language etc.) and island ( Old Irish, Scottish, Manx, Welsh, Cornish, Breton and other languages).

8.3. German group. Usually there are three main subgroups: a) northern, or Scandinavian ( Old Norse, split into a number of languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Swedish, Danish); b) East German, or Gothic ( main language is Gothic); c) West German ( Old English, or Anglo-Saxon, Old Frisian, Old High German, Old Saxon- an early representative of Low German dialects). Subsequent stages of development of these Germanic languages are represented in modern English, German, Flemish and Dutch.

8.4. Baltic group. It is divided into two main subgroups: Western Baltic, represented by the Prussian language (later assimilated by German), and Eastern Baltic, including Lithuanian and Latvian.

8.5.Slavic group. Divided into three subgroups: West Slavic, East Slavic and South Slavic.

In the textbook A.A. Reformatsky’s “Introduction to Linguistics”, as well as in linguistic encyclopedias, there are slightly different genealogical classifications of Indo-European languages, which, however, do not have fundamental differences with this classification. Thus, A. A. Reformatsky identifies 12 language groups: Indian, Iranian, Slavic, Baltic, Germanic, Romance, Celtic, Greek (Modern Greek from the 12th century and the dead Ancient Greek and Middle Greek, or Byzantine), Albanian (Albanian language), Armenian (modern Armenian (Ashkharabar) and ancient Armenian (Grabar)), Hittite-Luwian (Anatolian), Tocharian. If we compare this classification with the one above, we will see minor differences between them.

2. Slavic group of languages. Slavic languages are a collection of closely related languages that occupy vast territories of Central, South-Eastern Europe and Asia. The languages of the Slavic group are distinguished by a high degree of structural similarity. This is found in the system of regular sound correspondences, phonetic alternations, in the root word, affixes, morphemic structure of the word, grammatical categories, sentence structure, and semantics. This closeness is explained both by the unity of origin of the Slavic languages and by their long and intensive contact at the level of literary languages and dialects.

Of all the Indo-European languages, the Slavic languages are most similar in structure to the Baltic languages. This proximity served as the basis for the theory of a Balto-Slavic proto-language. In accordance with it, from the common Indo-European proto-language, the Balto-Slavic proto-language first emerged, which later split into the Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic languages. However, opponents of this theory explain the special closeness of the Baltic and Slavic languages by long-term contacts between the ancient Baltic and Slavic peoples.

Slavic languages in their origin go back to one ancestor language - Proto-Slavic (Common Slavic). It was formed on the basis of one of the Indo-European dialects - Proto-Slavic. The Proto-Slavic language developed as a single language over a long period of time - over three thousand years: from the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e., when the Indo-European language as a whole no longer existed, until the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. By the end of this period, the Proto-Slavic language began to break up into separate dialects, from which independent Slavic languages were subsequently formed.

The most important processes in the Proto-Slavic language were the loss of closed syllables and the softening of consonants before [j] (iot). In connection with the first process, all ancient diphthong combinations turned into monophthongs (i.e., monophthongization of diphthongs occurred), syllabic smooth sounds and nasal vowels arose, the syllable division in the word changed, which led, in turn, to a simplification of consonant groups, etc. . In connection with the process of softening the consonants before [j], the first palatalization of back-lingual consonants occurred and series of alternating sounds were formed (cf. in modern Russian k//ch, g//zh, x//sh). There were significant changes in grammar and vocabulary, in particular, in the pre-Slavic period many new words were formed: god, flea, rich, side, blockhead, hurt, swamp, pain, wart, furrow, harrow, barrel, fear, fear, log, wander, ramble, ford, timber, weeds, important, stock, patch, splinter, mirror, grain, winter, evil, snake, chill, puddle, month, fur, shepherd, shepherd, cancer, ore, hand, blond, grove, snow, daughter-in-law, sheaf, stubble, cold, collar, bury, hour, etc. These and other phonetic and grammatical phenomena are studied in the course of the history of the Russian language.

Slavic prototypes (archetypes) are the original forms; they are established using the reconstruction method, based on comparison and establishment of sound and semantic similarities in words belonging to the languages of the Slavic group.

As a result of the final collapse of the Proto-Slavic (common Slavic) language in the VI-VII centuries. Three independent languages were formed: South Slavic, West Slavic, East Slavic. Each of them, in turn, did not represent a structural unity, uniting several territorial dialects, which during the period of further collapse of the Slavic communities were transformed into independent languages.

The South Slavic subgroup includes modern Bulgarian, Macedonian (it is sometimes considered as a dialect of the Bulgarian language), Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian languages; from the 9th century it includes the Old Church Slavonic language.

The West Slavic subgroup includes Polish and him Kashubian(dead) dialect, Polabian(dead), Czech, Slovak, Sorbian(upper and lower) languages.

The East Slavic subgroup consists of Russian Ukrainian And Belorussian languages.

3. East Slavic subgroup of languages. The East Slavic language strengthened with the formation of the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus (IX century) as the language of the Old Russian (East Slavic) people. It existed until approximately the 14th century, and then split into three independent languages. The languages of the East Slavic subgroup are as close as possible both territorially and in their structural features.

They differ from the South Slavic and West Slavic languages in a number of features that developed back in the Proto-Slavic period. These include the following:

The presence of full vowel sound combinations -oro-olo-, -ere-, -barely- in place of Proto-Slavic *-оr-, *- ol-, *-er-, *-el- between consonants in accordance with South Slavic -ra-, -la-, ~rЪ-, – lЪ- and West Slavic -ro-, lo-, -re-, -le- (cf. Russian and Ukrainian city, swamp, shore, milk; Belarusian city, malako, berag; Staroslav. grad, blato, mlko, brg; Polish ogrod, bloto, mleko, brzeg);

Presence of consonants h And and, formed from the Proto-Slavic sound combinations of combinations *tj and *dj, in accordance with sht and zhd in South Slavic and ts and dz in West Slavic (cf. Russian. candle, see; Ukrainian. svicha, see; Belarusian, svyacha, see; Staroslav. sv'shta , vizhd (imperative mood); Polish swieςa, widzę);

Consistent development l-epentheticum (epenthesis)< греч. epenthesis "вставка") после губных согласных из праславянских сочетаний губных с j: *bj, *pj, *νj, *mj (cf. in Russian love - love l yu, buy – buy l yu, catch - catch l yu) in the absence of it among the Western Slavs and inconsistent development among the southern Slavs;

There was a general loss for the entire subgroup by the 10th century. nasal vowels q and ę (pronounced like and [eŋ]), changed respectively to [y] and [a] (in the letter Ya): hand from *rợka, five from * pętъ.

In morphology, there was a regrouping of the types of declension of nouns based on grammatical gender, some types of declension and the dual number were lost, forms of simple past tenses (aorist and imperfect) disappeared, etc.

New words appeared in the vocabulary, unknown to the South Slavic and West Slavic languages, formed on the basis of Proto-Slavic roots and affixes, as well as borrowings. In the modern classification of vocabulary by origin, they are called East Slavic (East Slavicisms), or Old Russian, for example: gaff, joker, selfless, musty, chaffinch, outcast, cinnamon, kite, uproot, rat, boundary, rowan, settlement, dark-skinned, etc.

4. Stages of development of the Russian language. From about the middle of the 14th century. Russian language exists as an independent language. Since that time, the Russian, or Great Russian, language has been distinguished. It differs in structural features not only from the southern and western Slavic languages, but also from its closest “relatives” - Ukrainian and Belarusian.

There were a number of socio-historical and socio-political prerequisites for the separation of the Russian language from the East Slavic linguistic community: the collapse of a single ancient Russian state led by Kiev (from the middle of the 12th century), the strengthening of the feudal fragmentation of Russia, the isolation of the north-eastern Russia (Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov) from western and southwestern Russia (second half of the 12th-13th centuries), the strengthening of Moscow, the unification of scattered north-eastern feudal principalities within the boundaries of a single Great Russian state centered in Moscow (XIV-XVI centuries. ).

In Moscow and around it, a population was concentrated speaking different dialects, which had both common and differential features. Based on the combination of southern Russian and northern Russian linguistic elements, the Moscow koine was formed (Greek koine "common adverb (dialect) - a common language formed as a result of mixing a number of related dialects and replacing them all"). Thus, the following phonetic phenomena, which have become the all-Russian norm, are of South Russian origin:

Akanye - non-distinction of vowel sounds [a] and [o] in unstressed syllables after hard consonants and their coincidence in the sound [a], for example: dam - d[a]vát, table - st[a]lá, pr[ό]sim – pr[a]shý, we go – h[a]dút, etc.;

Hiccup – non-distinction of vowels [a] – [o] – [e] in unstressed syllables after soft consonants and pronunciation of them as [i], for example: m[á]so – m[i]snόy, p[á]t – p [and] so, spring – in [and] dreams, honey – m[i]dok, forest – l[i]snόy and so on.

The following phonetic phenomena, which have become the all-Russian norm, are of Northern Russian origin:

The posterior palatal sound [g] is a voiced stop (plosive) in its formation and the presence of the opposition of sounds [g] - [k], for example: [g]us, [g]od, dru[g]a - druk[k], etc. .P. (in southern Russian dialects, respectively, the sound [ɣ] is a voiced fricative and the opposition [ɣ] - [ X]: [ɣ]yus, [ɣ]od, dru[ɣ]a – dpy[x]);

The presence of oppositions of labial-dental consonants [v] - [f] and [v"] - [f"], for example: dro[v]á - dro[f], lá[v]ochka - la[f]ka, cro[v"]i – cro[f" ] and so on. (in the southern Russian dialects there were no phonemes<ф>And<ф">, and in their place the labio-labial sound [w] or [y] was pronounced in a non-syllable, for example: /lawka/, [dpow], [krow] or [laýka], [droý], [kroý]);

The presence of a hard sound [t] in the endings of verbs, for example: go[t], speaking [t], playing [t] (in southern Russian dialects, respectively [t"]: walking [t"], speaking [t"], playing [ T"]).

As linguists note, the Moscow Koine was dominated by southern Russian vocalism (regular relationships in the system of vowel sounds) and northern Russian consonantism (regular relationships in the system of consonant sounds).

The Moscow Koine served as a substrate (Latin substratum lit., “litter, lining”), or linguistic basis, for the formation of the language of the Russian people, and the latter in its further development was transformed into the language of the Russian nation (Russian national language).

The process of formation of the Russian national language actively proceeded at the end of the 17th-18th centuries.

Hence, history of the Russian language begins after the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language and the separation of the East Slavic language - the ancestor of three languages: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. It stands out three stages:

First (early) – VI-VII-XIV centuries. – from the time of the collapse of the Proto-Slavic (Common Slavic) language, the separation of the Common East Slavic language, and until the breakup of the latter into three languages, the separation of the Great Russian (Old Russian) language.

Second – XV-XVII centuries. – the period of formation and existence of the Great Russian state, the Great Russian nationality and the language of the Russian nationality.

The third - from the end of the 17th century. – the period of formation and existence of the Russian nation and the Russian national language [Rus. language. Enz. 1997. pp. 439-442].

From the very beginning of its independent existence, the Russian language had two forms - oral-spoken and book-written, i.e. and a literary variant associated with writing. The oral-conversational form was represented by numerous territorial dialects (dialects).

Thus, the Russian language has come a long way in its historical development. Its roots go back to the common Indo-European proto-language, its historical fate is connected with the fate of the languages of the common Slavic group and the East Slavic subgroup. For more than six centuries, the Russian language has existed as an independent language, having gone through a number of stages in its development - from Old Russian to modern.

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Secondary educational school No. 2

Essay

on the topic of:Origin of the Russian language

9th grade student

Umerova F.A.

Simferopol, 2014

Introduction

1. Formation and development of the book and written tradition in Rus' and the main stages of the history of the Russian language

2. Formation of the literary Russian language

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Russian is one of the largest languages in the world: in terms of the number of speakers it ranks fifth after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish. Modern Russian is a continuation of the Old Russian East Slavic language. The Old Russian language was spoken by the East Slavic tribes that formed in the 9th century. Old Russian people within Ancient Rus'.

All Slavic languages (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Russian) come from a common root - a single Proto-Slavic language, which probably existed until the 10th-11th centuries. Slavic languages show great similarities among themselves.

In 1949, near the village. In Gnezdovo (near Smolensk), mound No. 13 was excavated, dating back to the first quarter of the 10th century, which gives us valuable information about the history of culture and writing of the peoples of Ancient Rus'. Among the many objects of everyday life and life activities of the villagers discovered there, shards of a korchaga were found - an amphora, on which scientists were able to read the inscription in Cyrillic - gorushna (goruhna).

In the XIV-XV centuries. As a result of the collapse of Kievan Rus, three independent languages arose on the basis of a single language of the Old Russian people: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, which with the formation of separate nations took shape into national languages. They are the closest and most similar to each other and form the East Slavic subgroup of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family.

The Slavic branch originates from the Indo-European language family, which also includes Indian (Indo-Aryan), Iranian, Greek, Italian, Romance, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic groups of languages, as well as Armenian, Albanian and other languages. Of all the Indo-European languages, the Baltic languages are closest to the Slavic ones: Lithuanian, Latvian and the dead Prussian language, which finally disappeared by the first decades of the 18th century. The collapse of the Indo-European linguistic unity is usually attributed to the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. Apparently, at the same time, processes took place that led to the emergence of the Proto-Slavic language and its separation from Indo-European.

The Proto-Slavic language is the ancestor language of all Slavic languages. It had no written language and was not recorded in writing. However, it can be restored by comparing Slavic languages with each other, as well as by comparing them with other related Indo-European languages.

A common source - the Proto-Slavic language - unites all Slavic languages, endowing them with many similar features, meanings, sounds... In the "Tale of Bygone Years", an ancient Russian chronicle of the beginning of the 12th century, it says: "And the Slovenian language and Russian are one...". The word language is used here not only in the ancient meaning of “people”, but also in the meaning of “speech”.

The ancestral home of the Slavs, that is, the territory where they formed as a people with their own language and where they lived until their division and resettlement to new lands, has not yet been precisely determined - due to the lack of reliable data. However, we can say with relative certainty that it was located in the east of Central Europe, north of the foothills of the Carpathians. Many scientists believe that the northern border of the ancestral home of the Slavs ran along the Pripyat River (the right tributary of the Dnieper), the western border along the middle course of the Vistula River, and in the east the Slavs inhabited Ukrainian Polesie up to the Dnieper.

Slavic languages are usually divided into three groups according to the degree of their proximity to each other:

· South Slavic - Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian and Macedonian languages;

· West Slavic - Polish, Czech, Slovak, Kashubian, Upper and Lower Sorbian languages and the dead Polabian language, which completely disappeared by the end of the 18th century;

· East Slavic - Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian.

The ancestor of modern Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian languages was the Old Russian (or East Slavic) language. In its history, two main eras can be distinguished: preliterate (from the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language to the end of the 10th century) and written.

The collapse of the Old Russian language led to the emergence of the Russian language, which differs from Ukrainian and Belarusian. This happened in the 14th century, although already in the 12th-13th centuries. In the Old Russian language, phenomena emerged that distinguished the dialects of the ancestors of the Great Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians from each other. The modern Russian language is based on the northern and northeastern dialects of Kievan Rus.

1. The formation and development of the book and written tradition in Rus' and the main stages of the history of the Russian language

The first texts written in Cyrillic appeared among the Eastern Slavs in the 10th century.

After the baptism of Rus' in 988, book writing arose. In Kievan Rus, a mixed language was used, which was called Church Slavonic. All liturgical literature, being copied from Old Church Slavonic, Byzantine and Bulgarian sources, reflected the norms of the Old Church Slavonic language. The originals for East Slavic handwritten books were mainly South Slavic manuscripts, dating back to the works of students of the creators of the Slavic script, Cyril and Methodius. In the process of correspondence, the original language was adapted to the East Slavic language, and the Old Russian book language was formed - the Russian version of the Church Slavonic language. However, words and elements of the Old Russian language penetrated into this literature.

In parallel to this style of language, there was also secular and business literature. If examples of the Church Slavonic language are the "Psalter", "Gospel" and so on, then examples of the secular and business language of Kievan Rus are considered to be "The Tale of Igor's Host", "The Tale of Bygone Years", "Russian Truth".

Secular and business literature reflects the linguistic norms of the living spoken language of the Slavs, their oral folk art. Based on the fact that Kievan Rus had such a complex dual language system, it is difficult for scientists to explain the origin of the modern literary Russian language. Their opinions differ, but the most widespread is the theory of Academician V.V. Vinogradov, according to which two types of literary language functioned in Kievan Rus:

1) book Slavic literary language, based on Old Church Slavonic and used primarily in church literature;

2) a folk literary language based on the living ancient Russian language and used in secular literature.

According to V.V. Vinogradov, these are two types of language, and not two special languages, i.e. There was no bilingualism in Kievan Rus. These two types of language interacted with each other for a long time. Gradually they became closer, and on their basis in the 18th century. a single literary Russian language was formed.

2. Formation of literaryRussianlanguage

The Russian language of the era of Muscovite Rus' (XIV-XVII centuries) had a complex history. Dialect features continued to develop. Two main dialect zones took shape - the Northern Great Russian (approximately north of the line Pskov - Tver - Moscow, south of Nizhny Novgorod) and the Southern Great Russian (south from the specified line to the Belarusian and Ukrainian regions) dialects, overlapping with other dialect divisions. Intermediate Central Russian dialects arose, among which the Moscow dialect began to play a leading role. Initially it was mixed, then it developed into a coherent system. The following became characteristic of him: akanye; pronounced reduction of vowels of unstressed syllables; plosive consonant "g"; ending “-ovo”, “-evo” in the genitive case of the singular masculine and neuter in the pronominal declension; hard ending “-t” in 3rd person verbs of the present and future tense; forms of the pronouns “me”, “you”, “myself” and a number of other phenomena. The Moscow dialect is gradually becoming exemplary and forms the basis of the Russian national literary language.

The written language remains colorful. Religion and the beginnings of scientific knowledge were mainly served by book Slavic, ancient Bulgarian in origin, which experienced a noticeable influence of the Russian language, divorced from the colloquial element. The language of statehood (the so-called business language) was based on Russian folk speech, but did not coincide with it in everything. It developed speech cliches, often including purely bookish elements; its syntax, unlike the spoken language, was more organized, with the presence of cumbersome complex sentences; the penetration of dialectal features into it was largely prevented by standard all-Russian norms. Written fiction was diverse in terms of linguistic means. Since ancient times, the oral language of folklore has played an important role, serving until the 16th-17th centuries. all segments of the population. This is evidenced by its reflection in ancient Russian writing (tales about Belogorod jelly, about Olga’s revenge and others in “The Tale of Bygone Years”, folklore motifs in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, vivid phraseology in “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik, etc. ), as well as archaic layers of modern epics, fairy tales, songs and other types of oral folk art.

During the period of the Moscow State of the XIV-XVI centuries. The main styles of the Russian literary language were clearly defined:

1. Literary and artistic (going back to The Tale of Igor’s Campaign);

2. Documentary-business style (these include ancient treaties, charters, “Russian Truth”);

3. Journalistic style (correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and Kurbsky).

4. Production-professional style (various types of manuals and guidelines for housekeeping).

5. Epistolary style.

Second half of the 16th century. in the Moscow state was marked by such a great event, which had valuable cultural and historical significance, as the appearance of the first printed books. Printing was of great importance for the fate of the Russian literary language, culture and education. The first printed books were church books, primers, grammars, and dictionaries. In 1708, a civil alphabet was introduced, in which secular literature was printed.

Since the 17th century the tendency towards convergence between book and spoken language is intensifying. In petitions, in various kinds of private letters and letters, words and expressions of an everyday nature, not previously encountered in book speech, are increasingly being used. For example, in “The Life of Archtotop Avvakum” the colloquial elements of Russian colloquial speech are presented very fully. Non-vernacular words and expressions are used here ( lying on his belly, suddenly shouting, fools, there are a lot of fleas and lice etc.), but also colloquial meanings of well-known words.

In the 18th and early 19th centuries. Secular writing became widespread, church literature gradually moved into the background and, finally, became the lot of religious rituals, and its language turned into a kind of church jargon. Scientific, technical, military, nautical, administrative and other terminology developed rapidly, which caused a large influx of words and expressions from Western European languages into the Russian language. The impact was especially great from the second half of the 18th century. The French language began to influence Russian vocabulary and phraseology. The collision of heterogeneous linguistic elements and the need for a common literary language raised the problem of creating unified national language norms. The formation of these norms took place in a sharp struggle between different trends. Democratic-minded sections of society sought to bring the literary language closer to the people's speech, while the reactionary clergy tried to preserve the purity of the archaic “Slovenian” language, incomprehensible to the general population. At the same time, an excessive passion for foreign words began among the upper strata of society, which threatened to clog the Russian language. A major role was played by the language theory and practice of M.V. Lomonosov, the author of "Russian Grammar" - the first detailed grammar of the Russian language, who proposed to distribute various speech means depending on the purpose of literary works into high, medium and low "calms".

Development of grammatical science in the second half of the 18th century. and in the first decades of the 19th century. led to the emergence of two main points of view on grammatical phenomena: structural-grammatical and logical-semantic. In the 18th century Russian language becomes a literary language with generally accepted norms, widely used in both book and colloquial speech. M.V. Lomonosov, V.K. Trediakovsky, D.I. Fonvizin, G.R. Derzhavin, A.N. Radishchev, N.M. Karamzin and other Russian writers prepared the ground for the great reform of A.S. Pushkin.

XIX century can be considered the first period of development of the modern literary Russian language. The beginning of the stage of development of the modern Russian literary language is considered to be the time of the work of the great Russian poet Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, who is sometimes called the creator of the modern Russian literary language. The language of Pushkin and writers of the 19th century. is a classic example of literary language up to the present day. The creative genius of Pushkin synthesized various speech elements into a single system: Russian folk, Church Slavonic and Western European, and the Russian folk language, especially its Moscow variety, became the cementing basis. The modern Russian literary language begins with Pushkin, and rich and diverse linguistic styles (artistic, journalistic, scientific, etc.) are closely related to each other. All-Russian phonetic, grammatical and lexical norms, mandatory for all those who speak a literary language, are determined, the lexical system is developed and enriched. Slav Cyrillic colloquial literary

In his work, Pushkin was guided by the principle of proportionality and conformity. He did not reject any words because of their Old Slavonic, foreign or common origin. He considered any word acceptable in literature, in poetry, if it accurately, figuratively expresses the concept, conveys the meaning. But he opposed the thoughtless passion for foreign words, as well as the desire to replace mastered foreign words with artificially selected or composed Russian words.

If the scientific and literary works of the Lomonosov era look rather archaic in their language, then the works of Pushkin and all the literature after him became the literary basis of the language we speak today. A.S. Pushkin streamlined the artistic means of the Russian literary language and significantly enriched it. He managed, based on various manifestations of the folk language, to create in his works a language that was perceived by society as literary. “At the name of Pushkin, the thought of a Russian national poet immediately dawns on me,” wrote N.V. Gogol. “He, as if in the lexicon, contained all the wealth, strength and flexibility of our language. He is more than anyone else, he further pushed its boundaries and more showed all its space."

Of course, since the time of A.S. Pushkin, a lot of time has passed and a lot has changed, including the Russian language: some of it has left, a lot of new words have appeared. Although the great poet did not leave us grammarians, he was the author of not only artistic, but also historical and journalistic works, and clearly distinguished between the author’s speech and characters, i.e. practically laid the foundations for the modern functional-style classification of the literary Russian language.

End of the 19th century and to the present day - the second period of development of the modern literary Russian language. This period is characterized by well-established language norms, but these norms are being improved to this day. Such Russian writers of the 19th-20th centuries also played a major role in the development and formation of the modern Russian literary language. as A.S. Griboyedov, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, M. Gorky, A.P. Chekhov and others

From the second half of the 20th century. The development of the literary language and the formation of its functional styles - scientific, journalistic and others - are also beginning to be influenced by public figures, representatives of science and culture.

The development of phonetic, grammatical and lexical norms of the modern Russian literary language is regulated by two related trends: established traditions, which are considered exemplary, and the constantly changing speech of native speakers. Established traditions are the use of speech means in the language of writers, publicists, theater artists, masters of cinema, radio, television and other means of mass communication. For example, the exemplary “Moscow pronunciation”, which became all-Russian, was developed in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. at the Moscow Art and Maly theaters. It changes, but its foundations are still considered unshakable.

Conclusion

The modern Russian language is represented by a number of stylistic, dialect and other varieties that are in complex interaction. All these varieties, united by a common origin, a common phonetic and grammatical system and a basic vocabulary, constitute a single national Russian language, the main element of which is the literary language in its written and oral forms. Shifts in the system of the literary language itself, the constant influence on it of other varieties of speech lead not only to its enrichment with new means of expression, but also to the complication of stylistic diversity and the development of variation.

List of referencescheers

1. Old Russian language: textbook. manual for history fak. un-tov / N.G. Samsonov. - M.: "Higher School", 1973. - 295 p. : ill.

2. History of Russian linguistics: textbook. manual for philol. specialties / F.M. Berezin. - M.: Higher. school, 1979. - 223 p.

3. History of the Russian literary language: textbook. manual for pedagogical students. Institute for specialties "Russian language and literature in the national school." / L.V. Sudavichene, N.Ya. Serdobintsev, Yu.G. Kadkalov; edited by I.F. Protchenko. - 2nd ed. edited - L.: Enlightenment; Leningr. department, 1990. - 319 p.

4. History of the Russian literary language / A.N. Gorshkov. - M.: Higher. school, 1969. - 366 p.

5. Historical grammar of the Russian language: textbook. for pedagogical students Institute for specialties "Russian language and lit." / V.V. Ivanov. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Education, 1990. - 400 p. : ill.

6. History of the Russian literary language: a course of lectures / A.I. Efimov. - M.: Publishing house Moskovsk. University, 1954. - 431 p.

7. History of the Russian literary language / A.I. Efimov. - 3rd ed., corrected. - M.: Publishing house "Higher School", 1971. - 295.

8. P.Ya. Black. On the issue of the Gnezdov inscription / P.Ya. Chernykh // Izv. Dept. Liter. and language. - 1950. - T. 9, issue. 5. - P. 401.

9. Tales about the beginning of Slavic writing / resp. ed. V.D. Korolyuk. - M.: Publishing house "Nauka", 1981. - 197 p. - Monuments of the medieval history of the peoples of Central and Eastern Europe.

10. Reader on the history of grammatical teachings in Russia / comp. V.V. Shcheulin, V.I. Medvedev. - M.: Publishing house "Higher School", 1965. - 355 p.

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What is the main source of development of the Russian language. Stages of development of the Russian language

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History of development

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