Kalevala epic summary. Report: Kalevala - Finnish national epic. Kalevala in contemporary art

One of the most famous monuments of the past is the Karelian-Finnish poetic epic “ Kalevala" The epic itself was written by the Finnish linguist Elias Lönnrot (1802-1884). He based his work on Karelian folk songs. Elias Lönnrot collected epic songs and plotted them into one whole, resulting in a full-fledged work in which there is a certain plot and main characters. Despite the fact that the poetic epic is a selection, substitution and adaptation of folk songs, the Kalevala is considered an important source of information about the pre-Christian beliefs and worldview of peoples such as the Finns and Karelians.

The treatment of folk songs was carried out by the author of Kalevala twice. The first edition was published in 1835, and the second in 1849. The translation into Russian was first carried out by Leonid Petrovich Belsky, a translator, literary critic, and poet. Despite the fact that the Kalevala was subsequently translated by other translators, it is under Belsky’s translation that the Kalevala is known to most Russian-speaking readers. For the first time in Russian, the Karelian-Finnish epic was published in 1888 in the magazine “Pantheon of Literature”.

The material for composing the poem was a collection of folk songs of Karelian and Finnish peasants, which were collected by Lönnrot himself and his predecessors. The epic tells about a certain country Kalevala. The name “Kalevala” comes from the name of the ancestor of the heroes - Kaleva. In Karelian-Finnish myths, the children of Kaleva are the legendary heroes - Väinämöinen, Ilmarinen and Lemminkäinen. It is these heroes who become the main characters of Kalevala. The Kalevala describes the moment of the creation of heaven and earth, as well as the various adventures of mythological heroes. Researchers who have been and are still engaged in a detailed study of this work point out that practically no coincidences of historical events and events in Kalevala can be found. Most likely, all the songs from which the epic was composed are part of the mythology of the Karelian-Finns, that is, pagan ideas about gods, spirits, heroes and the structure of the world.

Kalevala has become so famous and so important for the residents of Karelia and Finland that in honor of this epic there is even a national holiday - “Kalevala Folk Epic Day”, which is celebrated on February 28.

Buy the Karelian-Finnish epic “Kalevala” translated by L. P. Belsky in the online store.

Akseli Gallen-Kallela paintings on the theme “Kalevala”

Fratricide

Defense of the Sampo

Ilmarinen plowing a snake field, fresco

The Legend of Aino

Lemminkäinen's mother

Answer from Lyudmila Mironova[guru]
Kalevala is not an epic, it is Karelo - a Finnish epic, this is a collection that includes many myths, legends, tales, songs. There is no main plot in Kalevala. It opens with the legend about the creation of the earth, sky, stars and the birth of the Karelian main character, Väinämöinen, by the daughter of air, who arranges the earth and sows barley. The following tells about the various adventures of the hero who meets the beautiful maiden of the North: she agrees to become his bride if he miraculously creates a boat from the fragments of her spindle. Having started work, the hero wounds himself with an ax, cannot stop the bleeding and goes to an old healer, to whom he tells a legend about the origin of iron. Returning home, Väinämöinen raises the wind with spells and transports the blacksmith Ilmarinen to the country of the North, Pohjola, where he, according to the promise made by Väinämöinen, forges for the mistress of the North a mysterious object that gives wealth and happiness - the Sampo mill (runes I-XI). The following runes ( XI-XV) contain an episode about the adventures of the hero Lemminkäinen, a warlike sorcerer and seducer of women. The story then returns to Väinämöinen; his descent into the underworld is described, his stay in the womb of the giant Viipunen, his acquisition from the latter of the three words necessary to create a wonderful boat, the hero’s sailing to Pohjola in order to receive the hand of the northern maiden; however, the latter preferred the blacksmith Ilmarinen to him, whom she marries, and the wedding is described in detail and wedding songs are given, outlining the duties of wife and husband (XVI-XXV). The runes (XXVI-XXXI) again tell about the adventures of Lemminkäinen in Pohjola. The episode about the sad fate of the hero Kullervo, who out of ignorance seduced his own sister, as a result of which both, brother and sister, commit suicide (runes XXXI-XXXVI), belongs in the depth of feeling, sometimes reaching true pathos, to the best parts of the entire poem. Further runes contain a lengthy story about the common enterprise of three Karelian heroes - about how the treasures of Sampo were obtained from Pohjola (Finland), how Väinämöinen made a kantele and, by playing it, charmed all of nature and put the population of Pohjola to sleep, how Sampo was taken away by the heroes. The story is told about the persecution of the heroes by the sorceress-mistress of the North, about the fall of Sampo into the sea, about the benefits rendered by Väinämöinen to his native country through the fragments of Sampo, about his struggle with various disasters and monsters sent by the mistress of Pohjola to Kalevala, about the hero’s marvelous playing on a new kantele created to them when the first fell into the sea, and about the return to them of the sun and moon hidden by the mistress of Pohjola (XXXVI-XLIX). The last rune contains a folk apocryphal legend about the birth of a miraculous child by the virgin Maryatta (the birth of the Savior). Väinämöinen gives advice to kill him, since he is destined to surpass the power of the Karelian hero, but the two-week-old baby showers Väinämöinen with reproaches of injustice, and the ashamed hero, having sung a wondrous song for the last time, leaves forever in a shuttle, giving way to the baby of Maryatta, the recognized ruler of Karelia.

Answer from Holloisy Shpyn[guru]
The Baltic legend Kalevala tells about the difficult difficult life of an ordinary ordinary Baltic

Answer from Alexander Imelyanenko[newbie]
With

Answer from Anna Otyakovskaya[newbie]
5

Answer from Malikat Ismailova[newbie]
Kalevala is not an epic, it is Karelo - a Finnish epic, this is a collection that includes many myths, legends, tales, songs. There is no main plot in Kalevala. It opens with the legend about the creation of the earth, sky, stars and the birth of the Karelian main character, Väinämöinen, by the daughter of air, who arranges the earth and sows barley. The following tells about the various adventures of the hero who meets the beautiful maiden of the North: she agrees to become his bride if he miraculously creates a boat from the fragments of her spindle. Having started work, the hero wounds himself with an ax, cannot stop the bleeding and goes to an old healer, to whom he tells a legend about the origin of iron. Returning home, Väinämöinen raises the wind with spells and transports the blacksmith Ilmarinen to the country of the North, Pohjola, where he, according to the promise given by Väinämöinen, forges for the mistress of the North a mysterious object that gives wealth and happiness - the Sampo mill (runes I-XI).
The following runes (XI-XV) contain an episode about the adventures of the hero Lemminkäinen, a warlike sorcerer and seducer of women. The story then returns to Väinämöinen; his descent into the underworld is described, his stay in the womb of the giant Viipunen, his acquisition from the latter of the three words necessary to create a wonderful boat, the hero’s sailing to Pohjola in order to receive the hand of the northern maiden; however, the latter preferred the blacksmith Ilmarinen to him, whom she marries, and the wedding is described in detail and wedding songs are given, outlining the duties of the wife and husband (XVI-XXV).
The runes (XXVI-XXXI) again tell about the adventures of Lemminkäinen in Pohjola. The episode about the sad fate of the hero Kullervo, who out of ignorance seduced his own sister, as a result of which both brother and sister commit suicide (runes XXXI-XXXVI), belongs in the depth of feeling, sometimes reaching true pathos, to the best parts of the entire poem.
Further runes contain a lengthy story about the common enterprise of the three Karelian heroes - about how Sampo’s treasures were obtained from Pohjola (Finland), how Väinämöinen made a kantele and, by playing it, charmed all of nature and put the population of Pohjola to sleep, how Sampo was taken away by the heroes. The story is told about the persecution of the heroes by the sorceress-mistress of the North, about the fall of Sampo into the sea, about the benefits rendered by Väinämöinen to his native country through the fragments of Sampo, about his struggle with various disasters and monsters sent by the mistress of Pohjola to Kalevala, about the hero’s marvelous playing on a new kantele created to them when the first fell into the sea, and about the return to them of the sun and moon hidden by the mistress of Pohjola (XXXVI-XLIX).

• introduce the history of the creation of the epic “Kalevala”, the main character of the work - Väinemöinen, and the main storylines associated with the image of the main character.
• develop skills in working with text (expressive reading, retelling, characterization of the hero)
• cultivate interest in the culture of Karelia, in literature in general.

Equipment: multimedia projector, exhibition of drawings.

During the classes

1. What was the name of Väinämöinen's mother?
2. How is the origin of the world explained in Kalevala?
3. How is the origin of nature explained?
4. How was Väinämöinen born?
5. What words and expressions characterize the hero? (working with vocabulary)
6. What did you find unusual or interesting in this story?

Reading the text “The Birth of Fire.” Conversation on content

1. You, of course, know the ancient Greek myth about people finding fire. Remember and Tell (the myth of Prometheus)
2. What have we learned from the Karelian epic about how our ancestors imagined the appearance of fire on earth?
3. How did Ilmarinen and Väinämöinen manage to catch the flame?
4. This rune describes in great detail the process of processing flax. What new things have you learned about yourself? What is the role of this description?
5. Compare this rune with the ancient Greek myth. What difference will you see?

8. Generalization

What new did you learn in class today?
What is Kalevala?
Let's solve the crossword puzzle and check what you remember (slide 20)

9. Lesson summary (slide 21–22)

10. Homework (slide 23)

Plan

Introduction

Chapter 1. Historiography

Chapter 2. History of the creation of “Kalevala”

1. Historical conditions for the emergence of “Kalevala” and the problem of authorship

2.2. The circumstances of the creation of “Kalevala” as a historical source

Chapter 3. Daily life and religious beliefs of the Karelian-Finns

1 The main plots of the epic

2 Heroic images of “Kalevala”

3 Daily life in the runes of Kalevala

4 Religious ideas

Conclusion

List of sources and literature

Introduction

Relevance.An epic work is universal in its functions. The fabulous and fantastic is not separated from the real. The epic contains information about gods and other supernatural beings, fascinating stories and instructive examples, aphorisms of worldly wisdom and examples of heroic behavior; its edifying function is as integral as its cognitive one.

The publication of the epic “Kalevala” one hundred and sixty years ago became epoch-making for the culture of Finland and Karelia. Based on the epic, many rules of the Finnish language were recorded. A new understanding of the history of this region in the 1st millennium BC appeared. The images and plots of the epic had a huge influence on the development of the national culture of Finland, in its most diverse areas - literature and literary language, drama and theater, music and painting, even architecture . Thus, “Kalevala” influenced the formation of the national identity of the Finns.

Interest in this epic continues unabated today. Almost every writer, artist, composer of the Finnish Republic, regardless of his nationality, experienced the influence of Kalevala in one form or another. National festivals, competitions, seminars, and conferences are held annually. Their main goal is to preserve the traditions of rune chants, spread the national musical instrument kantale, and continue the study of runes.

But the meaning of “Kalevala” is also important in the context of global culture. To date, the Kalevala has been translated into more than 50 languages; about one hundred and fifty prose expositions, abridged editions and fragmentary variations are also known. Only in the 1990s. More than ten translations have been published into different languages: Arabic, Vietnamese, Catalan, Persian, Slovenian, Tamil, Hindi and others. Under her influence, the Estonian epic "Kalevipoeg" by F. Kreutzwald (1857-1861), the Latvian epic "Lachplesis" by A. Pumpur (1888) were created; American poet Henry Longfellow wrote his “Song of Hiawatha” (1855) based on Indian folklore.

Scientific novelty. "Kalevala" has repeatedly been the object of research by domestic and foreign experts. The artistic originality and unique features of the epic, the history of its origin and development are revealed. However, despite individual achievements in the study of Kalevala, little has been studied of its influence on the development of the national culture of different countries and peoples, the reflection of the images and plots of the great epic in the works of individual writers and poets, artists and composers, world cinema and theater. In fact, the Kalevala has not been comprehensively studied as a source on the ancient history of the Finns and Karelians.

Object of our research- history of the peoples of Northern Europe in Antiquity and the Middle Ages.

Subject of study- Karelian-Finnish epic “Kalevala”.

Purpose of the study:

Based on a comprehensive analysis, prove that the great epic of the Karelian-Finnish people “Kalevala” is a source on the ancient and medieval history of Finland.

The implementation of the research goal involves solving the following tasks:

.Study the historiography of the problem and determine its priorities

.Identify the historical conditions for the emergence of the Karelian-Finnish epic and its authorship.

.Determine the circumstances that influenced the creation of Kalevala and its structure

.Based on an analysis of the contents of the Kalevala, reconstruct the daily life of the ancient Karelian-Finns.

.Determine the meaning of “Kalevala” to characterize the religious ideas of the Karelian-Finnish people.

Chronological framework of the study.After a thorough analysis of the epic, features were identified that made it possible to determine the approximate chronology of the “Kalevala” - from the 1st millennium BC to the 1st millennium AD. In some specific cases, it is possible to go beyond this framework, which is determined by the purpose and objectives of the work

Geographical framework. -The territory of modern Finland and the Scandinavian Peninsula, as well as the northwestern regions of Russia and the Eastern Baltic states.

Research method:historical analysis

The purpose and objectives of the thesis essay determined its structure. This work consists of an introduction, three chapters and a conclusion.

Along with the Kalevala, which is the natural basis for our research, in our work we rely on a number of other sources and documents on the history of the Karelian-Finnish people, as well as on the achievements of domestic and foreign historiography.

Chapter I. Historiography

The source base of this study is represented by various groups of sources. From the group of folklore sources, the first should be called the epic “Kalevala”. It was written and published by E. Lönnrot in its final version in 1849. This work consists of 50 runes or twenty-two thousand verses and is ranked by researchers in its significance with such world-famous epics as the Odyssey, Mahabharata or Canto about the Nibelungs."

Based on their region of study, we considered a source such as the Elder Edda. It is a collection of songs about gods and heroes, recorded in the mid-13th century. And it contains ten mythological and nineteen heroic songs, which are interspersed with small prose inserts that explain and complement their text. The songs of the Edda are anonymous; they are distinguished from other monuments of epic literature by the laconicism of their means of expression and the concentration of action around one episode of the story. Of particular interest are the “Divination of Velva,” which contains an idea of ​​the universe, and the “Speeches of the High One,” which are instructions in worldly wisdom. In addition, we used the “Younger Edda”, written by Snorri Sturluson around 1222-1225, and consisting of four parts: “Prologue”, “Vision of Gylvi”, “Language of Poetry” and “List of Meters”.

Sources of personal origin are presented in this study by such a work as “The Travels of Elias Lönnrot: Travel Notes, Diaries, Letters. 1828-1842". Based on this source, important conclusions were drawn regarding the problem of the authorship of the Kalevala, the interpretation of the plan and the mechanism for selecting material for creating the epic. This travel diary is also indispensable for ethnographic research, as it contains information regarding the Karelian wedding ritual of the mid-19th century.

In collections of documents on the history of Karelia in the Middle Ages and Modern times, such documents as M. Agricola’s preface to the “Psalter of David”, “The Story of the Karelian Nousia”, “Charter of the Novgorod Bishop Theodosius” helped confirm a number of data relating to the life and religion of the ancient Finns and Karelians .

Archaeological data is also of great importance. Since no written sources of this period have been found, only they can prove or disprove the information given in the epic. This was especially true of the issue of dating the transition to the active use of iron in metallurgy. It should also be noted that there is a great connection in the work between archaeologists and Kalevala, their constant interaction. We can judge this from the constant references to this epic in various archaeological studies.

The historiography of this topic is quite extensive. It is necessary to consider and analyze the opinions of various scholars who have studied the Kalevala epic since its publication regarding the degree of its historicity. Which directly relates to our stated research topic.

Finnish scientist M.A. Castrén was one of the first to develop this problem. He held a unique view on the historicity of the Karelian-Finnish epic. Based on the fact that in primitive times the emergence of such broad epic works as the Kalevala was impossible, Castren “believed that it was difficult to trace in the Finnish epic any general idea that would connect the various episodes of the Kalevala into one artistic whole." Different runes based on the Kalevala themes, in his opinion, arose at different times. And he imagined the place of residence of the heroes of the epic, “Kalevala,” as a certain historical point, something like a village. Castrén viewed the relationship between Kalevala and Pohjola as a historical reflection of the relationship between Karelian and Finnish clans. At the same time, he believes that historical figures cannot be the prototypes of heroes.

After the first edition of Kalevala in 1835, many Russian and Western European authors became involved in the study of the Karelian-Finnish epic and its historical basis. In the Russian Empire, the Decembrists were the first to pay attention to Kalevala. Fyodor Glinka became interested in the plot of the Karelian rune about Väinämöinen playing the kanthal and translated this rune into Russian. The critic V.G. paid some attention to the Karelian-Finnish epic. Belinsky. So he wrote a review of Eman’s book “Main Features from the Ancient Epic of Kalevala.” Russian scientists such as Afanasyev and Schiffner tried to compare the plots of the Karelian-Finnish epic with the Greek and Scandinavian ones, for example, the making of kantale by Väinämöinen and the creation of the cithara by Hermes; the episode of Lemminkäinen's death and the death of Balder.

In the second half of the century, mythological interpretations were replaced by the theory of borrowing. Representatives of such views are P. Polevoy, Stasov, A.N. Veselovsky. They all deny the historicity of the runes and see only mythology in them.

At the end of the 19th century, there was an interest among Russian scientists to directly become acquainted with the sources used by Lönnrot in the Kalevala. In this regard, ethnographer V.N. Maikov notes that Lönnrot himself “denied any unity and organic connection in the songs of the Kalevala. And at the same time, he adhered to another point of view, according to which “the Finnish folk epic is something whole, but it is also imbued from beginning to end with one idea, namely the idea of ​​​​creating Sampo and getting it for the Finnish people.”

But there were other views, in particular V.S. Miller and his student Shambinago tried to trace the relationship between the Karelian-Finnish epic and works of Russian folk art. They discussed the question of the historical conditions for the rapprochement of the Russian epic hero Sadko with the image of the hero of the Kalevala runes, Väinämöinen. So V.S. Miller wrote on this occasion: “The Finnish legends that circulated about the sacred Lake Ilmen, of course, should have become known to the Slavic population, passed on to them ... and merged with their native legends.” Such views had a serious influence on the development of the views of Finnish folklorists in the first half of the twentieth century.

The application of Indo-European theory to the study of the Karelian-Finnish epic led J. Grim to compare the Kalevala with the Hindu epic. He saw in the epic a reflection of the ancient struggle of the Finns with the Lapps. Another philologist, M. Müller, was looking for comparative material for the Kalevala runes in Greek mythology. He saw the main advantage of “Kalevala” in the fact that it opened a treasury of previously unprecedented myths and legends. Therefore, he puts it on a par with such great epics of myth as the Mahabharata, the Shahnameh, the Nibelungs and the Iliad. Finnish philologists were also influenced by some of the research of the German philologist von Tettatz, who considered the runes about the making of the Sampo and its abduction to be the main content of the Kalevala.

Among the French philologists we can note L. de Dukas, one of the first translators of the Kalevala. He, like Lönnrot, developed the concept of the historical origin of the Karelian-Finnish epic. As for English and American philologists, they intensively developed the topic of the influence of “Kalevala” on the poem “The Song of Hiawatha” by the American poet Longfellow.

Some tried to trace the reflection of the magical worldview in the Karelian-Finnish runes and compare the Finnish runes with ancient Anglo-Saxon myths. The Italian philologist D. Comparetti paid considerable attention to the Kalevala, who published a monograph on the national poetry of the Finns and Karelians at the end of the 19th century. “In all Finnish poetry,” wrote Comparetti, “the warlike element finds rare and weak expression. Magic songs with which the hero defeats his opponents; are not, of course, knightly.” Therefore, Comparetti denied the presence of direct borrowings in the runes. In the Karelian-Finnish runes he saw such a clear manifestation of national poetry that he refused to prove the fact that the Finns borrowed them from Norwegian poetry, Russian epics and other Slavic songs. But at the same time, Comparetti was inclined to deny the negation of historical reality in the runes, since he did not see even the most basic ethnic and geographical representations in this epic.

And in the twentieth century, Russian scientists continued to actively study the “Kalevala”; the main problem remained the problem of its origin (folk or artificial). In 1903, an article by V.A. Gordlevsky, dedicated to the memory of E. Lönnrot. In his discussions about what “Kalevala” is, he relied on the research of A.R. Niemi (“Composition of “Kalevala”, Collection of songs about Väinämöinen”). In this article, the Russian scientist polemicizes with the proponents of the Western theory of the origin of the Karelian epic runes (Yu. Kron), who exaggerated the Baltic-Germanic influence through the Vikings and Varangians on the epic of the Karelians and Finns. For V. Gordlevsky, “Kalevala” is “the undivided property of the entire Finnish people.” In his opinion, the reason for the good preservation of epic runes in Karelia was that “the famous Karelian singers still firmly remembered that their ancestors came to the hitherto wild land from Eastern Finland during the era of the Northern War; their language still retains traces of contact with the Eastern Finns and Swedes.” The scientist also gives two points of view on Kalevala. Does it represent a folk poem created by E. Lönnrot, in the spirit of folk singers, or is it an artificial formation made by Lönnrot from various scraps. Further V.A. Gordlevsky notes that, of course, modern scientists reject the form of “Kalevala” in the form of a folk poem, since in this form it was never sung by the people, although, the author continues, it could have resulted in such a form. At the end, Gordlevsky emphasizes that “at its core, Kalevala is a folk work imprinted with a democratic spirit.” This article, rich in correct information and fruitful ideas, gave a powerful impetus to the study of Kalevala in Russia.

This theme was continued in 1915 by the translator of “Kalevala” into Russian L. Belsky, but, unlike Gordlevsky, he is more categorical. Thus, in the preface to his translation, he wrote that the works of scientists “destroyed the view of it as an integral work of the Finnish people, that “Kalevala” is a series of individual epics and other types of folk poetry, such as weddings, artificially linked into an epic by E. Lönnrot songs and spells. Carried away by the desire to give something like a Homeric epic, E. Lönnrot connected the organically incoherent.

At the same time, the teachings of K. Krohn and his school became widespread in Finland. In his opinion, such a work as “Kalevala,” “the most valuable thing that was created in the Finnish language, could not have originated among the poor and illiterate Karelian people.” However, the many years of efforts of Krohn and his school were in vain. In western Finland, no runes related to the theme of “Kalevala” were found, and no heroic-epic songs were found, although the search began in the 16th century. Mostly found were Catholic legends and semi-religious spells. Despite this, K. Krohn created a theory based on a whole chain of assumptions, according to which the Kalevala runes originated in western Finland in the late Middle Ages and were “supposedly” sung in the homes of the then Finnish aristocracy and “supposedly” distributed by professional traveling singers. In 1918, Krohn replaced this theory with a new one.

According to the new theory, it pushes the origin of the Kalevala runes back about half a millennium, that is, from the late Middle Ages to the end of the Scandinavian Viking period. In the “Guide to the Epic Songs of the Kalevala,” he gave the following “psychological” explanation: “During the struggle for our independence, I saw an era when the Finns, for their part, independently made sea voyages to the coast of Sweden.” Thus, Professor Kron invented an entire heroic era of Finnish sea robbers, in order to then draw the miracle of the origin of the Kalevala runes to this era. But, despite its obvious fantastic nature, Krohn’s theory influenced Finnish scientists studying Kalevala.

In Soviet Russia, interest in the Kalevala appeared in an article published in the 5th volume of the “Literary Encyclopedia” (1931), Professor D. Bubrin pointed out the duality of the Kalevala. On the one hand, this is a folk epic, since it is based on folk songs, but at the same time they have been processed and their combination is very conditional. Also interesting are the judgments of E.G. Kagarov about “Kalevala”, expressed by him in the preface to the publication of “Kalevala”. He noted: “The Kalevala was composed in the middle of the 19th century, and the unity of the poem is explained to a certain extent by the personal poetic intention of the compiler.” In E. Lönnrot he saw only a poet-editor who, having chosen a number of cycles and episodes and giving the epic a beginning and a denouement, transformed it into a harmonious and unified whole. But at the same time, neither Bubrin nor Kagarov used primary material in their studies, i.e. folk, lyrical and epic songs and spells.

In 1949, the centenary of the “complete Kalevala” (the final version of 1849) was celebrated in Petrozavodsk. V.Ya. was supposed to perform at it. Propp with a report “Kalevala in the light of folklore”. It presented new provisions on Karelian issues, i.e. “runes” were declared the common property of Western and Eastern Finns.

But the report was rejected by O.V. Kuusinen, who was the program compiler and the main speaker at the session. His report and the general theme of the anniversary were based on three theses: 1) “Kalevala” is not a book by E. Lönnrot, but a collection of folk songs edited by him; 2) songs are predominantly of Karelian origin, and not of Western Finnish origin; 3) the Kalevala runes arose not among the aristocratic environment of the Vikings, but among the common people in the period preceding the Middle Ages. Thus, “Kalevala” is a great phenomenon of Karelian, and not Finnish culture. Therefore, the bold ideas of V.Ya. Propp's arrival in the Soviet Union was at the wrong time. In his book “Folklore and Reality,” he writes that “Kalevala” cannot be identified with the folk epic. Because E. Lönnrot did not follow folk tradition, but broke it. He violated folklore laws and subordinated the epic to the literary norms and tastes of his time. With this he created “Kalevala” wide popularity.

The two-volume book by V.Ya. is very informative. Evseev “Historical foundations of the Karelian-Finnish epic”, published in the late 50s. XX century. Where, from the point of view of historical materialism, the epic is analyzed line by line and compared with the corpus of epic songs of the Karelian-Finns. Based on this approach, it was recognized that the Kalevala reflects events inherent in the stage of decomposition of the primitive communal system and, accordingly, the question of its historicity was resolved positively.

E. Narnu repeatedly returns to the Kalevala in his research. He sees the main difference between “Kalevala” and folk poetry in the fact that as a result of a certain edition of the narrative options, a certain system of “montage” of the best places, and unification of names, “a new aesthetic integrity with a new content level arose.”

In the 80-90s. XX century, most of his research E. Karhu<#"center">Chapter 2. History of the creation of “Kalevala”

2.1 Historical conditions for the emergence of Kalevala and the problem of authorship

An important component of our research will be to establish the historical conditions that influenced the creation of the source of interest to us. At the beginning of the 19th century and especially in the 20s. in the culture of Europe there comes a period of flourishing of the direction romanticism . This situation can be regarded as a response to such grandiose events as the Great French Bourgeois Revolution, Napoleon's campaigns, which changed life in many European countries and redrew their borders. It was a time when centuries-old foundations, forms of human relationships, and ways of life were breaking down. The industrial revolution also played a major role in this, which, on the one hand, led to economic growth, trade, and an increase in the number of city residents, and on the other, aggravated the already difficult social situation: becoming a source of ruin for peasants in the villages, and as a consequence of hunger, growth, crime, pauperization. All this meant that the Age of Enlightenment, with its faith in human reason and universal progress, turned out to be untenable in its predictions. Therefore, a new cultural era of romanticism begins. Which is characterized by: disappointment in progress, hopes for improvements in life and at the same time a feeling of confusion in a new hostile world. All this gave rise to an escape from reality to some fabulous and exotic countries and distances, where people tried to find the ideal of life.

Against this background, one can trace an increased interest in the historical past of peoples. This was facilitated by the theories of G.-V. Hegel and Herder. Under their influence, the formation of national ideologies took place. Therefore, the study of folk traditions, life and creativity has become so relevant. Through folklore, followers romanticism wanted to find the one golden age , in which, in their opinion, their peoples lived in the past. And society was then built on harmonious principles, and universal prosperity reigned everywhere.

An image appears national poet who feels the charm and power of wild nature, natural feelings and, accordingly, folk legends and myths. Therefore, in European countries, many enthusiasts direct their efforts to search for and record various genres of folklore (myths, songs, legends, fairy tales, riddles, proverbs). A classic example here is the activities of the Brothers Grimm. The results of this work were mass publications throughout Europe of collections of songs, fairy tales, fictionalized stories from life of the people . Also, such an increased interest in fairy tales, songs, and proverbs can be explained by the fact that they are no longer considered something low, rude, simple and characteristic only of the common people. And began to be perceived as a reflection national spirit as a manifestation genius of the people , with their help it was possible to understand the universal human or even divine basis.

Later, when romanticism as a movement experiences its first crisis, the attitude towards folklore will change, and a serious scientific approach will appear. It is now perceived as a possible historical source. National schools for the study of these specific sources will be created in many countries. Numerous theories, disputes and discussions on the topic of the authorship and origin of epics and mythical cycles continued even after the change in cultural direction.

All these cultural trends did not bypass Finland, where the entire educated part of society was captivated by them. It was in such an environment that the author studied Kalevalas Elias Lönnrot. Next, we will look at his biography in detail in order to understand how the author’s personality could influence the formation of the epic.

E. Lönnrot was born in 1802 in southwestern Finland, in the town of Sammatti, in the family of a tailor. He was the fourth child among his seven brothers and sisters. His father's craft and small plot could not feed his large family, and Elias grew up in need and poverty. One of his first childhood memories was hunger. He went to school quite late at the age of twelve, to some extent this was made up for by the fact that Elias learned to read quite early, and he could always be seen with a book. He studied at a school where instruction was conducted in Swedish for four years, first in Tammisaari, then in Turku and Porvoo. After this, he was forced to suspend his studies and began to help his father in his craft. The two of them walked around the villages, working at customers’ homes. In addition, Lönnrot was engaged in self-education, worked part-time as a traveling singer and performer of religious chants, and was also an apprentice pharmacist in Hämmienlina. In this work, he was helped by the fact that he studied Latin at school, reading a Latin dictionary. Phenomenal memory, perseverance and the desire to study further helped him independently prepare for admission to the University of Turku. And as his biographers established, neither before him, nor for many decades after him, anyone else from these places had the opportunity to study at the university. Here Lönnrot first studied philology, and his diploma work was devoted to Finnish mythology and was called About the god of the ancient Finns Väinämöinen . In 1827 it was published as a pamphlet. Lönnrot then decided to continue his education and become a doctor. But in 1828 there was a fire in the city and the university building burned down, education was suspended for several years and E. Lönnrot had to become a home teacher in Vesilatha.

After graduating from university, in 1833 he received a position as a district doctor in the small town of Kajaani, where he spent the next twenty years of his life. Kajaani was a city only in name; in fact, it was a rather miserable place, with four hundred inhabitants, cut off from civilization. The population often went hungry, and terrible epidemics broke out every now and then, claiming many lives. In 1832-1833, there was a crop failure, a terrible famine broke out, and Lönnrot, as the only physician in a vast area, had enough worries beyond measure. In his letters, he wrote that hundreds and thousands of sick, extremely emaciated people, scattered over hundreds of miles, expected help from him, but he was alone. Along with his medical practice, Lönnrot acted as a public educator. He published articles in newspapers with the aim of collecting money for the starving, issued a brochure “Advice in case of crop failure” (1834), which he urgently republished in Finnish, wrote and published a medical reference book for peasants in 1839 and compiled Legal reference book for general education . His great achievement was also the writing of a popular book Memories of people's lives at all times , co-authorship in Stories of Finland And History of Russia . He published the magazine at his own expense Mehiläinen . For his great services to science, in 1876 he was elected an honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Source used to characterize the personality of the author of Kalevala Travels of Elias Lönnrot: Travel notes, diaries, letters. 1828-1842. , allowed us to get an idea of ​​the scientist’s work style, the areas of his scientific interests, and the techniques used to create the Kalevala.

2.2 The circumstances of the creation of Kalevala as a historical source

Next, we would like to trace the history of the origins of folklore studies in Finland. This will help us understand how E. Lönnrot’s scientific interests were formed and what materials he could rely on in his work. It is worth noting that interest in folklore has always been present in Finland. The founder here can be considered Bishop Mikoel Agricola, who in the preface to his translation of the “Psalms of David” into Finnish draws the attention of the priests to the fact that among the Finnish pagan gods are Väinämöinen, Ilmarinen, Kalevala, Ahti, Tapio, and among the Karelian gods - Hiisi. By this, the bishop showed practical interest in the names of the heroes of the Karelian-Finnish epic. Because he was actively involved in the struggle against the pagan views that still survived among the Karelians and Finns. In 1630, the Swedish king Gustav II Adolf published a memorial, according to which he ordered the recording of folk tales, legends, stories, songs telling about past times. The king hoped to find in them confirmation of the original rights of the Swedish throne to own vast territories in northern Europe. Although this goal remained unachieved, the beginning of the widespread collection of folk poetry was made. With approval romanticism in culture as the main direction led to increased interest in manifestations of folklore.

The first collector, propagandist and publisher of folklore in Finland was Professor of Rhetoric at the University of Turku H.G. Portan (1739-1804), who published his dissertation “On Finnish Poetry” in Latin in 1778. In it, he placed folk songs above the “artificial” poetry of the authors of that time.

No less famous is Christfried Ganander (1741-1790). In his works “Dictionary of the Modern Finnish Language” (1787) and “Finnish Mythology” (1789), he quoted many examples of folk poetry. “Finnish Mythology”, numbering about 2000 lines of Karelian-Finnish runes, is still a reference book for researchers of Kalevala metrical poetry. The commentary and interpretations of the content of the song fragments given in it are of extreme value.

The 18th century dates back to the appearance of studies of folk poetry by Professor D. Juslenius, H.G. Portana and others. An important role in the preparation of “Kalevala” was played by collections of texts by the folklorist and educator K. A. Gottlund (1796-1875), who first expressed the idea of ​​​​creating a single folklore code. He believed that if all the ancient songs were collected, then they could be composed of a certain integrity, similar to the works of Homer, Ossian or the “Song of the Nibelungs.”

E. Lönnrot's immediate predecessor was S. Topelius (senior), the father of the famous Finnish writer, who published in 1829-1831. five notebooks of folk epic songs collected from Karelian peddlers who brought goods from White Sea Karelia to Finland (85 epic runes and spells, a total of 4200 verses). It was he who showed E. Lönnrot and other enthusiastic collectors the way to White Sea (Arkhangelsk) Karelia, where “the voice of Väinämöinen still sounds, the kantele and Sampo ring.” In the 19th century, individual Finnish folk songs were published in Sweden, England, Germany, and Italy. In 1819, the German lawyer H.R. von Schröter translated into German and published in Sweden, in the city of Uppsala, a collection of songs “Finnish Runes”, which presented incantatory poetry, as well as some epic and lyrical songs. In the 19th century epic, incantatory, wedding ritual, lyrical songs were recorded by A.A. Borenius, A.E. Ahlquist, J.-F. Kayan, M.A. Castren, H.M. Reinholm and others - in total about 170 thousand lines of folk poetry were collected.

At this time, the idea was born about the possibility of creating a single epic from disparate Finnish and Karelian folk songs by one person or a group of scientists. This was based on the theory of the German scientist F.A. Wolf, according to which the Homeric poems are the result of the later work of the compiler or compilers on songs that previously existed in the oral tradition. In Finland, this theory was supported by scientists such as H.G. Portan and K.A. Gotlund. H. G. Portan, at the end of the 18th century, suggested that all folk songs come from a single source, that they are consistent with each other in the main content and main plots. And by comparing options with each other, you can return them to a more complete and suitable form. He also came to the conclusion that Finnish folk songs could be published in the same way as the “Songs of Ossian” by the Scottish poet D. Macpherson (1736-1796). Portan did not know that Macpherson had published his own poems under the guise of songs of the ancient blind singer Ossian.

At the beginning of the 19th century, this Portan idea took the form of a social order expressing the needs of Finnish society. Famous linguist, folklorist, poet K.A. Gottlund, as a student, wrote in 1817 about the need to develop “national literature.” He was confident that if people wanted to form an ordered whole from folk songs, be it an epic, a drama or something else, then a new Homer, Ossian or the “Song of the Nibelungs” would be born.

One of the reasons for the increased interest in folklore, in our opinion, is the change in the legal status and position of Finland on the world map. In 1809, the last war between Russia and Sweden for the northern territories, including Finland, Karelia and the Baltic states, ended. And this struggle lasted with varying success for almost a thousand years, starting with the Varangian and Viking campaigns. There was an era (XVII-XVII centuries) when Sweden was considered a great European power. Finland belonged to Sweden for six centuries. Russian Emperor Alexander I, having conquered Finland and wanting to reduce Swedish influence in it, granted the Finns autonomous self-government. And in March 1808, the people of Finland were solemnly proclaimed a nation with its own laws, an autonomous form of statehood.

But at the beginning of the 19th century, the Finnish nation as such did not yet exist; it had yet to be created, and along with socio-political and economic development, the comprehensive development of national culture played a huge role in this. Finland inherited administrative control, a system of school and university education, the press and all public cultural life as a legacy from centuries-old Swedish rule. Swedish remained the official language, although it was accessible to only one tenth of the population. This included the upper classes, educated circles, and the still small urban population.

Ethnically Finnish in linguistic and cultural terms were the peasantry, the main population of the region. But linguistically it remained powerless; its language had no access to official life. This was one of the reasons for the delay in the natural evolutionary process of the formation of the Finnish nation. The threat of Swedish assimilation also remained relevant, since there were less than a million Finns. All this led to the search for national identity, cultural traditions and, as a result, national self-affirmation.

The combination of these prerequisites formed E. Lönnrot’s interest in collecting folklore, and taking advantage of the forced break in his studies, he, relying on the advice of E. Topelius (the elder), went in 1828 on his first of 11 trips to Finnish Karelia and the province of Savo to record the still preserved runes. In four months, Lönnrot collected material for five notebooks in the collection "Kantele" (of which four were published in 1828-1831). He recorded more than 2,000 lines from the rune singer from the Kesälahti parish, Juhana Kainulainen. Already in this collection Lennrot used a method rejected by Russian folklore: he connected lines of different songs. I took some things from the collections of K. Gottlund and S. Topelius. Already in this edition, Väinämöinen, Ilmarinen, Lemminkäinen, Pellervoinen, Louhi, Tapio, Mielikki and others acted as characters.

Only in 1832, during his third journey, Lennrot managed to reach the villages of Russian Karelia. In the village of Akonlahti he met Soava Trohkimainen and recorded several epic songs. The heroes who were Lemminkäinen and Kavkomieli, Väinämöinen making Sampo and kantele.

Lennrot's fourth expedition in 1833 was very successful, when he visited the North Karelian villages of Voinitsa, Voknavolok, Chena, Kivijarvi, Akonlahti. An important role in the history of Lönnrot's creation of the Kalevala was played by his meeting with the rune singers Ontrey Malinen and Voassila Kieleväinen. A collection was prepared based on the recorded material Wedding songs . The material collected during this trip made it possible to create a multi-character poem. Before this, Lönnrot worked on poems about one hero ("Lemminkäinen", "Väinämöinen").

Lönnrot called the new poem “A Collection of Songs about Väinämöinen.” In science it was called "Pervo-Kalevala". However, it was published already in the twentieth century, in 1928. The fact is that Lönnrot himself delayed its publication, since he soon went on his fifth journey, which gave him the largest number of songs. In eighteen days in April 1834, he recorded 13,200 lines. He received the main song material from Arhippa Perttunen, Martiski Karjalainen, Jurkka Kettunen, Simana Miihkalinen, Varahvontta Sirkeinen and the storyteller Matro. One famous A. Perttunen sang 4124 lines to him.

"First Kalevala" contained sixteen chapters of chants. Already in this poem the main plot and conflict were developed. However, as V. Kaukonen wrote, Lennrot had not yet found an answer to the question of where and when his heroes lived. In "Pervo-Kalevala" there was already Pohjola, but there was no Kalevala. Sampo in this poem was called sampu. It looked like some kind of wonderful granary with never-ending grain. The heroes brought him to the cape of the foggy bay and left him on the field.

Returning from his fifth trip to Kajaani, Lennrot began to rethink the epic plot. According to the same Kaukonen, Lönnrot now makes additions and changes to the text of the First Kalevala in all its chapters and so many that it is hardly possible to find 5-10 lines in a row taken from a specific folk song and preserved in their original form. And most importantly: he came up with the plot. Having made Aino (a character mainly fictional by Lönnrot) Youkahainen's sister, Lönnrot encourages Youkahainen to take revenge on the elder Väinämöinen, not only because he loses a singing competition to him, but also because Väinämöinen is responsible for the death of his sister.

Any episode of Kalevala, compared with folk sources, differs from them. To explain how this or that episode turned out under Lennrot’s hand, it is necessary to write entire studies. Sometimes taking only a few lines from the runes, Lönnrot unfolded them and put them into the overall plot. The singers knew very little about what sampo was and how it was made, and they sang from three to ten lines about it, no more. Lönnrot tells a whole story about Sampo on many pages. Having, in fact, only one shepherd's song where Kalevala is mentioned, Lönnrot composed the country where Väinämöinen, Lemminkäinen, Ilmarinen live.

The first version of "Kalevala" published in 1835 consisted of 32 runes, with a total number of lines of more than 12,000 thousand and had the following name Kalevala or ancient Karelian songs about the ancient times of the Finnish people . Then E. Lönnrot continued searching for folk songs and working on the poem. This work continued for another fourteen years. In 1840-1841, based on material collected during several previous trips, a three-volume collection of poetry was published Kanteletar , who is also called the younger sister Kalevalas . It contained a separately recorded women's folklore , i.e. wedding, ritual songs, laments, spells, as well as various versions of runic songs recorded by more than a hundred storytellers.

When working on an extended version of the epic, the author achieves enormous creative freedom. From 1835 to 1844 he makes six more expeditions, visiting, in addition to Karelia, the Northern Dvina region and Arkhangelsk, as well as Kargopol, Vyterga, St. Petersburg province, Estonia. By 1847, E. Lönnrot already had about 130 thousand lines of rune records. So much new material had accumulated that he declared: “I could create several Kalevalas and none of them would be similar to the other.”

E. Lönnrot's titanic work was completed in 1849, when the “complete” Kalevala, consisting of 50 runes or 22,758 verses, was published. This “canonical version” of the Kalevala is now known throughout the world. Its appearance was enthusiastically greeted by the public, causing a real boom among collectors and fans of folk poetry. Dozens of folk song collectors headed to Karelia, and later to Ingria. Some wanted to make sure that the plots, themes, motives, and characters of “Kalevala” were not invented by E. Lönnrot. Others went in search of new rune variants not found by E. Lönnrot.

Meaning Kalevalas also in the fact that it is the first major work of Finnish literature, as well as an example of the Finnish language. The images and plots of the epic had a huge influence on the development of the national culture of Finland, its most diverse areas - literature and literary language, drama and theater, music and painting, even architecture. Through all this, “Kalevala” influenced the formation of national identity and the Finnish nation itself. At present, the epic has not lost its cultural significance. Almost every writer, artist, composer of the republic, regardless of his nationality, experienced the influence of Kalevala in one form or another.

The appearance of “Kalevala” turned out to be significant not only for Finnish culture, but also for the entire world cultural community. When creating Kalevala, Lönnrot had before his eyes the Iliad and the Elder Edda, and Kalevala encouraged representatives of other nations to create their own national folklore and literary epics. The Estonian epic "Kalevipoeg" by F. Kreutzwald (1857-1861) and the Latvian epic "Lachplesis" by A. Pumpur (1888) appeared; American poet Henry Longfellow based his “Song of Hiawatha” (1855) on Indian folklore. Thus, “Kalevala” gained worldwide fame.

To date, the Kalevala has been translated into more than fifty languages, and about one hundred and fifty of its prose expositions, abridged editions and fragmentary variations are also known. And now new translations of the epic are appearing. In the 1990s alone, more than ten translations were published into languages: Arabic, Vietnamese, Catalan, Persian, Slovenian, Tamil, Faroese, Hindi and others. The publication of new translations of the Karelian-Finnish epic into the languages ​​in which it was published previously - English, Hungarian, German, Russian - continues.

We will consider the issue of interest of Russian science and culture in issues of Karelian-Finnish folklore in more detail. Namely how it was perceived and appreciated Kalevala . As is known, the first information about Karelian-Finnish folk poetry appeared in the Russian press at the beginning of the 19th century. As in the press of other countries, the main source of this early information was the research of the Finnish educator of the second half of the 18th century, Professor Henrik Gabriel Portan, who is rightly considered not only the father of Finnish historiography, but also folkloristics.

From the works of Portan, travelers to Finland, the Swede A. F. Scheldebrant and the Italian Giuseppe Acerbi included separate texts of Karelian-Finnish runes in their books, translated into a number of European languages. In 1806, an excerpt from Acerbi’s book was published by the Russian magazine “Lover of Literature.” In 1821, young Andres Sjögren, later a famous Finno-Ugric scholar and member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, published in German in St. Petersburg a small book about the Finnish language and literature, which also mentioned folklore. Sjogren collected folk songs and in 1827 met in Petrozavodsk with the exiled Russian poet Fyodor Glinka, who translated several runes into Russian; one of them was published the following year in the Russian magazine Slavyanin.

In the 1840s. The famous scientist Yakov Karlovich Grot, then a professor of Russian language and literature at the University of Helsinki, later a Russian academician, wrote a lot about Kalevala, Finnish literature and the Finnish people for Russian readers. Groth was closely acquainted with Elias Lönnrot, they were good friends, met often and corresponded. Twenty letters from Lönnrot to Groth survive in Swedish and Finnish. Groth traveled extensively in Finland; in 1846 he and Lönnrot made a long trip to Northern Finland. In the same year, he published a book in Russian about this journey, which also aroused interest in Finland. In his articles, Grot wrote in detail about Lönnrot and his works, gave a prose presentation of the Kalevala, and translated some runes into verse.

In 1847, a prose presentation of the Kalevala by Moritz Eman was published in Russian. This publication deserves mention not so much in itself (Eman did not speak Russian well enough and made many mistakes and stylistic absurdities), but because V. G. Belinsky responded to it with a review.

It should also be said that the first German translation of the Kalevala (expanded edition in 1849), published in 1852, which played a large role in its propaganda in different countries of the world, was carried out in St. Petersburg by the Russian scientist and academician Anton Schiffner. Subsequent German translators of the Kalevala in Germany, for example, Martin Buber (1914) and Wolfgang Steinitz (1968), then partly relied on Schiffner's translation. Schiffner's translation also served as an additional “control manual” for translators of the Kalevala into many other languages ​​of the peoples of the world, just as the Russian translation by L.P. Belsky became such a manual for translators of the Kalevala into the languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR. The translation of "Kalevala" into Russian was subsequently carried out by students of the outstanding Russian linguist and folklorist, professor at Moscow University F. I. Buslaev. Among his students were Finnish scholarship holders G. Lundahl and S. Gelgren, who studied Russian, and translated in the 1870-80s. runes of "Kalevala", mainly in prosaic presentation.

Leonid Belsky, an associate professor at Moscow University and the most significant Russian translator of the Kalevala, was also a student of F. I. Buslaev. He was the first to carry out a complete poetic translation of the epic (second, expanded edition) into Russian. As Belsky himself later said in an article published in the Finnish magazine “Valvoya”, it was Buslaev who gave him the idea of ​​​​translating “Kalevala”; he constantly communicated with him and supported him during the five-year work. Buslaev was the first to read the finished translation manuscript and gave a commendable review of it (the other reviewer of the manuscript was J. Grot). The translation was published in 1888, and Belsky provided it with a poetic dedication to Buslaev, his mentor. The translation received recognition, it was awarded the Pushkin Prize of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and its literary life turned out to be extremely long-lasting. When re-edited in 1915, Belsky made some improvements to the translation; then its translation was republished many times and improved by other editors; it has continued to be republished for almost a century, and during the Soviet period it was published in incomparably larger editions than before the revolution.

Belsky's translation, of course, is not ideal; such translations, apparently, do not exist at all, but it has its undoubted and significant merits. The main advantage is that Belsky managed to convey the ancient epic style of “Kalevala”, the special epic intonation of the narrative. Belsky tried to write poetry himself, although he did not become a major poet. This is partly felt in his translation of the Kalevala. After all the corrections in his translation, there are still phrases that may seem heavy. However, as a result of patient efforts and labors, Belsky had a good feel for the world of Kalevala, penetrated deeply into its spirit and was able to convey this to the Russian reader. In the best places, and there are many of them in his translation, the Russian verse sounds exactly like an epic Kalevala verse - weighty and majestic, it has transparent simplicity, and high solemnity, and tragedy, and humor - as all this is in the original.

Over time, the need for a new translation arose. The initiative was given by O. V. Kuusinen when the collection he compiled “From the Poetry of Kalevala” had to be presented to the Russian reader. The work was carried out by a group of Karelian translators - poets N. Laine, M. Tarasov, A. Titov, A. Hurmevaara. The translators sought, in their words, to translate the epic “into the most lively modern literary Russian language.” The translation was published in 1970 and caused mixed reactions in the press. Some found it closer to modern readers than Belsky’s translation, while others found it too literary and lacking in ancient folklore epicness. The difference in style and the different handwriting of several translators also had an effect. The attempt was repeated in 1998, a translation was published by folklorist E. Kiuru and poet A. Mishin

The study of the biography of E. Lönnrot helped to understand how the collection of material for the creation of the book took place, and that his long, painstaking work, during which the oral works of the Finns and Karelians, which were receding into the past, were recorded in writing, helped to preserve very valuable historical information. And the reaction of the world cultural community to the release of this work confirmed its significance and uniqueness. We saw that the author did not immediately come to the idea of ​​​​creating the Kalevala, and further it will be advisable to explore in more detail the evolution of the author’s plan during his work on the Kalevala.

In the first years of traveling for folk songs, Lönnrot thought that he would be able to connect pieces, fragments (in the form of folk songs) of some large folk poem that existed in antiquity, which crumbled over time. As we already know, at different times the idea was supported by Portan, Gottlund, and Keckman. But Lennrot soon became convinced that this was absolutely impracticable. He reasoned like this: even if the poem existed and fell apart, over time the fragment songs moved away from each other, changing in the mouths of new generations of rune singers. And the mechanical connection of folk songs did not give birth to a poem. A different, creative approach to the material was required. It manifested itself most fully when working on the extended version of the epic. Now Lennrot begins to write the poem in folk lines, editing them, enriching them, in particular, with alliteration. Knowing perfectly well the peculiarities of song traditions, remembering various kinds of ready-made lines - clichés, formulas developed over centuries, he created episodes and conflicts that were not found in the material he collected.

To show this technique more specifically, we give the following example: In 1834, Elias Lönnrot wrote down the following final lines from Arhippa Perttunen:

Even the best singer

Doesn't sing all the songs.

Even the waterfall is agile

Doesn't pour out all the water.

For good rune singers.

In the 1835 version of “Kalevala” the last three lines of A. Perttunen’s song were included unchanged, but in a different verbal environment:

Only still, but still

I sang the rune, I performed the song,

I cut off the branches and marked the path.

for good rune singers,

for singers even more skillfully

among the growing youth,

rising generations.

In the final version of “Kalevala” in 1849, the lines appeared as follows:

Only still, but still

I left the track for the singers,

paved the way, bent the top,

I cut off branches along the paths.

There is now a road here,

a new path has opened

for singers who are more capable,

rune singers, which is better,

among the growing youth,

ascending people (rune 50).

Having compared the two versions of “Kalevala”, we saw what careful selection individual lines and words were subjected to. There was a replacement with more accurate, sonorous ones, giving the text a deeper meaning. The seven-line final song of A. Perttunen quoted above gave impetus to the final song of the Kalevala (107 lines), where Lönnrot used many lines of other rune singers and constructed his own. This is how all the other episodes of Kalevala grew. As Kalevala researcher Väino Kaukonen, who studied it line by line, noted, “Kalevala” in “Kalevala” is not what is similar to folk poetry, but what distinguishes it from it.”

It should be noted that with this approach to folklore material, not only the plots were modified, but also the portraits of the characters. They became more and more individualized, and certain actions were assigned to them. Väinämöinen in “Kalevala” is a skilled singer who made a kantele, first from pike bones and then from a birch trunk, Ilmarinen is a skilled blacksmith who forged the vault of heaven and a wonderful mill. Lemminkäinen is a carefree warrior, a favorite of women, coming to other people's feasts without an invitation, Louhi is an intelligent and cunning mistress of the country where heroes go to pick up brides and from where Sampo is kidnapped. The tragic figure in Lönnrot's poem is the slave Kullervo, who committed suicide for his grave sin.

The famous saying is that there is only one “Kalevala” created by Lönnrot, there is only one fictional ancient Kalevala era by Lönnrot” is confirmed by the plot nature of the runes. Then, before each chapter there was a brief summary of it. As is known, this technique was characteristic of the traditions of the Western European novel. Transitions from chapter to chapter, from Events to events, from hero to hero, were carefully prepared by previous events, outlined by the author-narrator himself, whose presence is felt in the text. Kalevala this is manifested in the words of the author at the beginning and end of the work. And also in his attitude towards the heroes of the runes.

It is also important to understand the author’s attitude to the historicity of runes. Lönnrot adhered to the theory of the Karelian origin of runes. He even considered the rune about the abduction of Sampo to be, to one degree or another, a historical reality. He saw the prototype of Pohjola in Biarmia, mentioned in Scandinavian sources, which, in his opinion, was located at the mouth of the Northern Dvina. In one of his articles, Lönnrot wrote that Holmgard from Scandinavian sources is actually Kholmogory on the Northern Dvina and the same name in translation sounds like Sariola - the center of Pohjola. And in his dissertation, Lönnrot considered Väinämöinen as a historical figure, as a certain ancestor who taught the people of the North navigation and agriculture. Lönnrot also denies the divine origin of the images of Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen and sees in them the personification of working people: blacksmiths and boat makers.

Lönnrot's views on the history of the origins of the Karelian-Finnish epic were progressive for his time. He had no doubt about the Karelian-Finnish origin of the Kalevala runes. He completely rejected the idea that this epic originated among the West Finnish Vikings. Considering the rune about Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen to be the work of the ancient Barmians, Lönnrot thought that the runes about Lemminkäinen and Kullervo arose later.

Lönnrot considered the historical reflections in the Karelian-Finnish epic to be complicated and clouded due to the emergence of a large number of rune variants for the same plot. Lönnrot sees the historical basis of the epic not in the relationship between the Karelians and Finns with the Lapps, but in tributary relations with the ancient Barmians. Proof of this is the story in which Lemminkäinen brings oats to the north. In the preface to the first edition of Kalevala, Lönnrot wrote: “It seems to me that Kaleva was the very first Finnish hero. Perhaps he was the first inhabitant to firmly settle on the Finnish Peninsula, whose family then spread throughout the country.” Thus, Lönnrot saw in the runes a reflection of the historical reality of the era of the tribal system.

The next interesting point in the analysis of the epic can be noted that the poetic nature of the Kalevala is emphasized by its composition and architectonics. "Kalevala" is symmetrical in everything. The singer’s initial words in it correspond to his final words, the appearance of Väinämöinen corresponds to his departure, the episodes about the birth of Väinämöinen correspond to the episodes about the birth of the “king” of Karelia who replaced him.

"Kalevala" consists of two parts, each with twenty-five songs (runes), which have a constant roll call with each other. And each part first tells about trips for the bride, and then for the sampo. In symmetrical places the same cliche lines are used. So, in the 8th rune, Väinämöinen asks the maiden of Pohjela to sit in his sleigh (“Sit with me, maiden, in the sleigh, get into my bag”) - in the 35th, Kullervo asks the same girl he met on the road, though , in slightly different words. Lemminkäinen kidnapped the maiden of the island of Kyllikki in the 11th rune, Ilmarinen kidnapped the second daughter of the mistress of Pohjela in the 38th. (In both cases, the girls ask in the same words to be released.) Kyllikki’s “betrayal” (she went to the village games without permission) led to Lemminkäinen going to Pohjela for his second wife. Louha's second daughter's “betrayal” of Ilmarinen (she laughed with a strange man while the blacksmith was sleeping) prompts Ilmarinen to take revenge on her, and then go with Väinämöinen to take Sampo from the mistress of Pohjela.

There are quite a lot of such examples in the composition. At the same time, the compositional symmetry of the poem does not interfere with moving away from the main plot or even stopping the plot movement. The chapters that tell about the wedding of Ilmarinen and the maiden Pohjola (21-25) do not help the development of the plot in any way. But these chapters help to better understand the influence of the author’s personality on the final version of the work. Since he could see their real embodiment during his numerous expeditions to Russian Karelia, where they made a great impression on him. Wedding chapters (arrival of the groom, wedding, advice to the bride, advice to the groom, meeting of the newlyweds in the groom's house) have their own internal tension, since they are built according to the laws of drama, on the contrasts of episodic characters.

Based on the above, the following conclusions can be drawn:

) At the level of plot and composition, Lönnrot achieved the freedom that folk singers did not and could not have: they did not strive for a coherent presentation of all the plots known to them that underlie Karelian and Finnish epic songs.

) Lennrot also used the material of lyrical wedding, shepherd, and hunting songs and spells with great freedom. He put lines and fragments from them into monologues and dialogues, thereby deepening the psychology of the characters’ actions, showing their feelings, their state of mind.

) Lönnrot's skill as a poet is best understood at the level of individual lines. The creator of "Kalevala" knew Karelian-Finnish poetry, its artistic features, and the originality of its poetics very well. He used the entire arsenal of poetic techniques (parallelism, alliteration, hyperbole, comparisons, epithets, metonymies).

) The lines of written runes under his pen acquired a new meaning, a new sound signature. Any fragment of the song, when included in the text of “Kalevala,” changed itself and changed the lines adjacent to it.

) At the same time, E. Lönnrot’s “Kalevala” is a historical source. The basis of the work is ancient Finnish folklore and historical sources, which allow us to reconstruct the past of the Karelian-Finnish people.

In the second chapter of our research, the focus was on such questions as: the prerequisites for the emergence of the epic, the influence of the author’s biography on the text, the circumstances that shaped the final form of the work, the process of collecting material itself, and, finally, the reaction of the world cultural community to the publication of “Kalevala” . What kind of answers were received? Firstly, “Kalevala” arose under the influence of cultural processes that embraced the entire European culture of the first half of the nineteenth century and logically continued them within the framework of Finnish culture. Secondly, the historical conditions of Finland at that time additionally created interest in such manifestations of culture. We can say that there was a social order in society for a work like “Kalevala”. And as recognized by all researchers, she played a big role in the formation of not only Finnish identity, but also became an example for other folklore collectors. Thirdly, we tried to prove the point of view according to which “Kalevala” is an independent work with one author, E. Lönnrot. Certainly. It is impossible to deny the fact that it was written on folklore material, but at the same time E. Lönnrot selected and arranged the runes based on his plan. He also connected parts of individual runes to give them a look averaged for all areas, expanded or added the plot he needed to link the runes into a single semantic and compositional whole.

Being an outstanding work by E. Lönnrot, “Kalevala” is also an important historical source that allows us to recreate the ancient and medieval picture of the life of the Karelian-Finns. The epic is based on numerous historical and folklore materials, much of which has now been lost. Hence the significance of “Kalevala” as a historical source.

Chapter 3. Daily life and religious beliefs of Karelo-Finns

In the third chapter we will carry out a more detailed analysis of the text of the epic itself. It will consist of several stages that will help in solving the main tasks of the work.

3.1 Main plots of the epic

The main thread of the narrative can be divided into three macroplots. The most archaic plot is dedicated to the origin of the world and the creation of all things. The cosmogony of the ancient Finno-Ugrians, reflected in ancient epic songs, is interesting in that the process of creation was carried out with the help of a duck and its egg that broke into pieces:

From the egg, from the bottom,

The mother came out - the ground was damp;

From the egg, from the top,

The high vault of heaven rose,

From the yolk, from the top,

The bright sun appeared;

From the protein, from the top,

A clear month has appeared;

From the egg, from the motley part,

The stars appeared in the sky;

From the egg, from the dark part,

Clouds appeared in the air (rune 1).

As we can see, the picture of the origin of the world is shown rather flatly and schematically. Moreover, in contrast to the traditional development of such a plot in most Indo-European myths, the demiurge (creator) or the mother goddess does not so clearly take part in it. Their activity is more noticeable at the stage of arranging and filling the world, when the maiden Ilmatar rises from the depths of the waters and begins the process of creation:

I just extended my hand -

Cape after cape rose;

Where did you put your foot -

I dug holes for the fish;

Where my foot touched the bottom -

They went deeper into the depths.

Where it touched the ground sideways -

A smooth shore appeared;

Where my foot touched the ground -

There the salmon began to sink;

And where was my head leaning?

Small bays arose (rune 1).

The creation of the world by a largely zoomorphic character is one piece of evidence that perhaps the Kalevala runes represent the most ancient epic recorded in Europe. It stands on the verge of shamanic myth and epic itself. At the same time, we see anthropomorphic deities and recognize their names already in the first song,

Such myths serve as the basis for a given group of people’s ideas about the world around them and serve as an explanation for the appearance of something new (animal, plant, social institution). Their special function lies in the fact that these myths set out sacred history, narrate an event that occurred in memorable times the beginning of all the beginnings . They tell how reality, thanks to the exploits of supernatural beings, achieved its embodiment and fulfillment. And this gives people a vital basis, self-confidence and frees creative energy. It is thanks to such information that myths in preliterate culture are an invaluable source for the formation of ideas about the worldview of the Finno-Ugrians in the 2nd-1st millennium BC.

Lönnrot begins the narrative precisely with this plot, which is his tribute to folk tradition, but at the same time he uses it in order to build linear historical time: from the legendary-mythological past to the more or less real present and future. Thanks to this, we see a logical explanation of the structure of the world, which, as a rule, is not at all characteristic of true myths, between which there is often no consistency. In all this one can find confirmation of the point of view in historiography that Kalevale is a work of authorship. Because we see that E. Lönnrot breaks the rhythm characteristic of myths and builds them according to his plan, according to which he tried to combine all the plots into a single logical story. He can also add runes, expand or narrow the lyrics. And according to his plan, he selected the runes; it is known that out of the 100 thousand verses that he wrote down, only 22 thousand were included in the Kalevala.

The second macroplot moves to the hero level. This division of plots is typical for many world epics. The most typical examples confirming this statement can be found in Elder Edda . In “Kalevala” there are three main characters: the singer-caster Väinemöinen, the blacksmith Ilmarinen, and the hunter Lemminkäinen. Despite their self-sufficiency, these characters are united by a single plot. Namely, matchmaking with the beautiful girls of Pohjola. This approach allowed the author to connect these characters into a single thread of the narrative. Let us remember that initially he wanted to publish separate poems dedicated to each hero separately. But the fact that he made the theme of matchmaking one of the central ones in the epic allowed him to include in the text a large amount of material dedicated to the wedding ritual. Perhaps he was prompted to take such a move by the fact that during his expeditions he constantly witnessed village weddings, and thus decided to record this important ethnographic material in literary form. It can be noted that he completely succeeded. Since at present a large number of folklore events aimed at disseminating and preserving cultural traditions are associated with “Kalevala”. And in them the epic is an example and a basis.

But let's get back to considering the plot. With its help, the characters' characters are revealed most fully. They become close to ordinary people, that is, they acquire a utilitarian character. Which once again shows us the everyday component of the epic. In connection with this approach, Kalevala can be considered as a kind of encyclopedia of everyday life, hidden behind mythological images. In terms of historical information, this plot is revolutionary because it reflects an important change in family relationships. The heroes' journeys to find brides in the distant and dangerous country of Pohjola directly indicate the transition from endogamy to exogamy. Now marriages within the same clan are prohibited, and going for a bride becomes an important and responsible action.

The following macro-plot is a reflection of the economic life of the Finno-Ugric peoples in ancient times. It seems quite archaic. Although Lönnrot chose from two options for the development of the plot the North Karelian one, which contains a reflection of later processes. Here the story of the creation of the magic mill Sampo and the struggle for its possession will be connected by a plot about matchmaking in an exogamous clan (Pohjele). There is a merging of the myth about the origin of cultural goods with the characteristic motives for the fulfillment of difficult (or impossible) tasks by the applicant for the girl’s hand. And to them at some point was added the task of forging the mysterious Sampo, or rather, it had already become mysterious, since its original meaning as a repository or receptacle for cultural goods (“all sorts of life”) became clouded.

According to general ideas, Sampo is a self-grinding mill, which is an eternal source of food and the key to the prosperity of its owner and the entire family. But initially the image of Sampo in people’s minds was not unambiguous. So the line from the 10th rune in the description of this item tells us that it had a motley cover. A similar epithet in runes is also inherent in the sky. Based on this, we can say that Sampo was a version of the world tree, like Yggdrasil from Elder Edda . Moreover, further in the text its three roots will be mentioned:

And one root went into the ground,

And the other - to the seashore,

The third root is deep into the cliff.

In other areas, the image of Sampo was associated with the unconscious artistic processing of ideas about the origin of vegetation, cereals, and the riches of the deep sea. Naturally, over the centuries, not only the image of Sampo has changed, but also the myth itself, which makes up the content of this epic plot. Along with the development of a more realistic understanding of the origin of natural phenomena, the myth of the Sampo itself first evolved, and from a certain point was destroyed, until it lost its original outlines. As a result, the versions of the rune that have reached us have preserved only fragments of the ancient myth. We will return to the version of the plot that was proposed by E. Lönnrot in “Kalevala”. The idea of ​​​​creating this artifact belongs to the mistress of the northern country of Pohjola, the old woman Louhi. This should become a test for the heroes who want to woo her beautiful daughter. Louhi offers a recipe based on which Sampo should be made:

Taking the end of the winch feather,

Milk from non-calf cows

Along with wool from a sheep

And with barley grain together (rune 7).

As we can see, the recipe is quite complex and not clear, which is a reflection of fragments of the most ancient understanding of the Sampo image. Therefore, the image of Sampo cannot be perceived in monosyllables; it has a multi-level character. If considered as an object of national happiness and well-being, then it requires the merging of the three main essences of the economy: hunting (feather winch), cattle breeding (milk and wool) and agriculture. The combination of these types of management was supposed to ensure the correct structure of life. It is not surprising that in such a rather resource-poor region as Finland, people have always had a desire to make their lives easier, and Sampo was perfect for this. A similar image of a wonderful mill that grinds the desired wealth can be found in Elder Edda V Songs about Grotti.

The richest in historical reflection of reality is that part of the rune that describes the process of making Sampo. It’s not enough to know the recipe; you need to find a master. For this you need culture hero , capable of creating such a wonderful thing. He becomes the blacksmith Ilmarinen, already famous for being able to forge the sky. The process itself is quite complicated. After three days of blowing the bellows and maintaining the heat, the Bow appeared from the flames

The onion was beautiful in appearance,

But it had a bad quality:

Every day he asked for sacrifices,

And on holidays it’s doubled (rune 10)

Ilmarinen broke the bow and threw it back into the crucible. Next after the bow:

A boat came out - a red sail,

The board is all decorated with gold,

But it had a bad quality:

He went into battle by himself (rune 10)

And Ilmarinen broke it, but did not stop the work and again the forge burned for three days:

The cow came out of the fire

Nice looking cow

But she has a bad quality;

Always sleeps in the middle of the forest,

It releases milk into the ground (rune 10).

Ilmarinen cuts the cow into small pieces and throws it into the fire. The bellows are inflated again, three days pass again, he looks:

There's a plow coming out of the fire,

That plow looked beautiful

But it had a bad quality:

He plowed other people's fields,

I was plowing through the neighboring pasture.

This plow was also thrown into the fire. Finally, after another three days, Ilmarinen saw that Sampo was growing, a mottled cap had appeared. And then he began to hammer harder and brought the creation of Sampo to completion.

Thus, we have before us a series of fantastic images - allegories. It is necessary to compare them with what was originally placed in the Ilmarinen oven. All these objects symbolize certain types of farms and their characteristic forms of life. Let's look at them in more detail: The bow is a symbol of intertribal strife, which is caused by the predominance of hunting with its rigid distribution of forest lands. Violation of these boundaries, as well as an increase in a certain norm in the number of people, can lead to mass starvation. The shuttle is a way of life of the Vikings, when the economy was increased by plundering other lands. The sacred cow is a low-productive forest cattle breeding with elements of nomadic archaism, which appeared due to the displacement of steppe peoples into the forests. Plow - migration to the lands of the Finns of the Slavs - farmers with an agricultural cult and their own way of life. Thus, in the mass consciousness of people of that time, Sampo is an optimal economic organization associated with happiness, which included the bow and the shuttle and the cow and the plow organically, having lost their destructive qualities.

The next stage of the plot is connected with the wealth that Sampo gave to the family of the old woman Louhi:

That flour would be one side,

And others would grind salt,

The third side has a lot of money (10 rune).

In this passage we see implications for further development of the topic. Preserving in a relict form the “fragments” of the myth of the clan society about the origin of cultural values, the image of the Sampo included not only the features of the era of its origin, but also the signs of later eras with developed commodity-money relations: after all, the Sampo grinds not only “for food” and “ for expenses in the house,” but also “for sale.” There is no doubt that the image of such a mill could only arise under the conditions of the penetration of all-consuming commodity-money relations into the Karelian village, when money became the true equivalent of goods, replacing the bread and salt that once existed in this regard.

Next, our focus will be on the third macro-plot. The idea of ​​two spheres of epic space is always present in the runes. Without this, epic poetry and the epic world are unthinkable. B.N. Putilov writes about this: “In any epic we are dealing with the relationship (most often conflicting) of two opposing worlds - “our own” and “alien.” In this case, the spatial characteristics themselves are included in a broader complex, appearing next to ethnic, social, and, less often, cultural and everyday characteristics.”

In Karelian runes, the confrontation between countries is expressed in archaic forms, but, nevertheless, it is present. Trying to interpret this confrontation not mythologically, but historically, Lönnrot partly admitted that Pohjola is Lapland (in the Lappi runes), but was still more inclined to believe that the people of Pohjola meant some kind of Finnish tribe. Intertribal relations could not help but be reflected in the runes; Without real “one’s own” and “alien” tribes, the mythopoetic confrontation itself could hardly have arisen. And therefore Pohjola in the runes has a dual character. Initially, this is a mythological country, a country of epic rival characters, a specific reflection and creation of mythological consciousness, but over time this meaning began to be forgotten and was rethought as a country of the Sami.

In runes and spells, the mistress of Pohjola, the sorceress Louhi, appears with constant formula epithets emphasizing her physical impairment, evil disposition (wild, ferocious, rabid) and even feminine weakness. Also, constantly in the text of the runes you can see how the heroes speak disparagingly about this region, considering it poorer and more backward. Historically, this is explained by the fact that in more northern territories the archaic elements of life continue to exist for a longer time. So in Pohjela the power of women is still strong and the true mistress of the clan is the old woman Louhi.

As for the epic country of Kalevala, in the folklore tradition itself this name is found in this form very rarely (only in one of the ballads and in wedding songs). But quite often and geographically widely (in Karelia, South-Western Finland, Estonia) there are mythological legends about the “sons of Kaleva”, mighty giants who demonstrate their extraordinary strength. The “sons of Kaleva” were first mentioned by M. Agricola in the list of pagan deities in Karelian in 1551

The collision of these two worlds will occur on the basis of the issue of owning Sampo. Starting from rune 39 this is the main plot. The heroes of Kalevala and the people are going on a campaign for the mill, because they think it is not right that only Louhi, the mistress of Pohjela, owns it. Some researchers are inclined to see in this plot a historical reflection of the process of changing matriarchy to patriarchy. But there is another point of view, according to which the plot with Sampo reflects the time of penetration of agriculture to more northern tribes in Pohjela, in the coastal Sariola. The Mistress of the North begs the southerners to make Sampo for her people, and when she receives a magic mill, she says:

Why not live in Pohjela, If Sampo is in Pohjela? There are arable lands there, there are crops, there are constant blessings there. Now, after receiving the Sampo Louhi, the mistress of Pohjela owns both livestock and grain: “I examined the herd in the barn, counted the grain in the barn.”

The struggle for Sampo is obviously a poetic expression of the clashes between the southern tribes and the northern ones over agricultural land, a struggle only personified by the “mill” as a symbol of good in general. The march of Kaleva's people to Pohjela for Sampo looks not like a military enterprise, but like a resettlement of colonists to the north; They boarded the ship intended for the voyage: One hundred men holding oars.

On one side of that boat. The handsome fellows sat down. On the other side of that boat sat girls wearing rings. The elders sat down there at the bottom.

In this part of the study, we examined in detail the main plots of the epic “Kalevala”. What did this provide for solving the research problems? Firstly, this once again proved that the runes belong to different periods of history from ancient times to modern times. Moreover, their combination can occur in one rune of one plot. From this follows the second conclusion that such a situation could arise in cases where the epic has a direct author (E. Lönnrot) and he has a large number of rune options, from which he takes the parts most suitable for the development of his plan. In the third, the plots are arranged in chronological order from the most ancient to events reflecting the adoption of Christianity. Many runes in the form in which they are presented in Kalevala have never been performed by rune singers. Moreover, the plots are interconnected and often one stems from the other, which makes the epic similar to a novel. As for the historicity of these plots, they can easily be seen as events of the 2nd-1st millennium BC, as well as the Middle Ages and modern times. Accordingly, the Kalevala can be recognized as a historical source, since we do not have written sources from these times, and archaeological data cannot completely reconstruct the picture of life.

3.2 Heroic images of “Kalevala”

The next point of interest to us will concern the heroes of the epic and their specificity in comparison with other epics, and above all with Elder Edda . The epithet “heroic epics” is usually added to the epics of different peoples. But the heroism of the Karelian-Finnish folk runes and “Kalevala” is special, not yet associated with military exploits, fighting squads, princes, princes, ancient kings, early slaveholding or early feudal forms of statehood. There is nothing of this in the Kalevala, although swords and spears are mentioned.

In "Kalevala" the heroism is mythological, the struggle is also waged against mythological monsters, sorcerers and sorceresses, and with the help not so much of weapons as of magical spells. The heroes of the Karelian-Finnish folk runes and “Kalevala” are special “cultural heroes” inherent in ancient myths - pagan half-deities, half-humans, revered as the ancestors and founders of a given clan, tribe, nationality. Sacred memory is preserved about them because they created and arranged the world, laid the foundations of life. The runes glorify the exploits of outstanding heroes endowed with extraordinary qualities.

The ideal hero of an epic is always the strongest, wisest, and most skillful. No one except Väinämöinen can push the boat he made into the water; no one but him is able to cut with a sword a huge pike on which a boat is caught in the sea; only Väinämöinen is able to make a kantele from pike bones, and it is he who produces the first sounds from the instrument. The reflection of primitive tribal thinking falls on the heroes themselves; they are glorified as the founders and ancestors who laid the material and spiritual foundations of the life of this tribal community. They are the first and the best, and in this original quality they and their deeds are glorified in the epic.

Despite all the fantastic images and events, the epic tells about the real activities of ancient people, about the real ancient life. Epic heroes fish, hunt animals, build boats, forge iron, cut crops, sow grain, brew beer, woo brides, mourn dead children - everything seems to be like that of ordinary people. And at the same time, these everyday activities are unusual, they are shrouded in heroism and full of lofty, solemn meaning simply because they are performed for the first time and on a par with cosmogonic events. These everyday activities are also an act of the first creation of the world, of earthly life. And everything in this act is at the same time simple, majestic, and full of miracles.

Just as the wisdom and strength of Väinämöinen and the high skill of Ilmarinen symbolize the vitality of the entire family, so in the aesthetics of folk-epic poetry the general prevails over the particular. Hyperboles, like constant epithets, are intended to give a generalized and stable idea of ​​a hero or object; they indicate its most general attribute. Väinämöinen is a sedate and wise old man, Lemminkäinen is endowed with the beauty of youth, each character has his own leading feature. The most archaic hero of the epic is Väinämöinen, the famous singer. He becomes a victorious representative of his people in the fight against the black forces of Pohjela. In the runes, he also acts as a worker endowed with the most versatile abilities: a plowman, a hunter, a fisherman, a creator of kantale, a healer of the sick, a boat builder and an experienced sailor. But above all, he is an incomparable singer. In the singing competitions to which Väinämöinen was challenged by the Pohjöl boaster Joukahainen, who was jealous of his art, Väinämöinen’s singing resounds so powerfully that:

The water in the lakes foamed,

The earth has become foggy everywhere,

The copper mountains shook.

Väinämöinen's fame rests not only on the art of singing, but also on the depth of his knowledge. Among the people he is known as a “soothsayer” who has the ability to look into the past and into the future. The next rune describes his journey in search of knowledge. For the words “about the origin of things,” he went to the underworld to the giant Antero Vipunen and learned ancient runes and spells from him. A similar plot is found in the Prose Edda, where Odin travels to the source of wisdom, guarded by the giant Mimir, and gives up his right eye for the opportunity to drink from it.

Knowledge of the origin of the world or the origin of things gives the possibility of power over them. This seems to mean seniority over a thing, and seniority in clan society meant power. Therefore, knowledge of the origin of the world and things was never a mere whim, it presupposed omnipotence. Therefore, the antiquity of Väinämöinen’s origin means its mythological significance. He appeared before all other people, he himself is both god and man, he turns out to be at the same time young and old, and immortal.

Väinämöinen’s character is also very colorful. We see him: tormented by the sea waves, crying from powerlessness in the seventh rune, but we also see him standing firmly at the stern of his canoe during a raging storm (rune 10). Sometimes he appears as an enthusiastic groom (8th rune), and at other times as a mentor to the people. Either he succumbs to the power of the gentle melodies of his cantale, or he, like a courageous hero, rushes into battle.

Courage and determination are combined in Väinämöinen with calm prudence. He is the embodiment of wisdom. When the rune calls him “old, faithful,” this obviously means that he is experienced and reliable. Conceiving a great deed, Väinämöinen carefully prepares to carry it out. In a moment of danger, he acts decisively and boldly, and then it turns out that this old hero is valiantly superior to others (rune 40).

He is the initiator and leader of the campaign of the Kalevala heroes for Sampo. His wisdom and exploits are of decisive importance both at various stages of this campaign and in all subsequent battles for the salvation of the people of Kalevala from the machinations of Louhi.

Väinämöinen leaves the stage, according to the last rune of the epic, after the birth of Maryatta’s son, born from a lingonberry she swallowed. When Maryatta’s son was christened “the king of Karjala, the bearer of all power,” the deeply offended Väinämöinen sails away on a copper canoe, leaving “eternal joy for the people, great songs for descendants.”

When leaving, he, however, prophesies that he will return in the future:

A lot of time will pass

Days will be replaced by others -

And I will be needed again

They will wait and look for me here,

So that Sampo can do it again,

I would sing a new song,

I would get a new moon,

I would release the sun again.

The image of Ilmarinen, the famous blacksmith of Kalevala, is closer to reality than the image of Väinämöinen. Although many wonderful things accompany this popular image in many epics of the world. Since his birth:

Grew up in a coal field,

And he holds a hammer in his hand

He clenches the tongs in his fist.

On a dark night he was born,

During the day he builds for the blacksmith.

This image was created by the author mainly on the basis of South Karelian runes. Where a very detailed description of his appearance and character is given. This is a stately man of blossoming age. He is silent, calm and always serious. Ilmarinen is slow in action and does not easily take on new work if it does not relate to blacksmithing.

But as a blacksmith he is in his element. He forges all day long, often forgetting about the world around him for a long time. He forges swords, spears, plows, braids, and, if necessary, even rings and other women's jewelry. In his craft, he is a true virtuoso, who is overwhelmed with creative inspiration while working on his best creations. One day Ilmarinen created a real sculpture out of gold and silver - a beautiful girl, looking at whom he himself admired. Ilmarinen's greatest creation is Sampo.

The Kalevala also tells about his other exploits, thanks to which he received the hand of the maiden Pohjela: how he plowed a snake field, bridled a terrible bear, and how, with the help of a fiery eagle forged from iron, he caught a monstrous pike in the Manala River (rune 19- I). During the campaign for Sampo, as on other occasions, Ilmarinen is Väinämöinen's closest ally. He is not endowed with the qualities of a leader, but he is a courageous and unshakable warrior, not to mention his irreplaceability in the role of an excellent weapons master of the Kalevals.

The image of Lemminkäinen, a young, daring fighter, is closer to the classic image of a hero - an adventurer and a favorite of women. His mother obviously spoiled him as a child, and he grew up to be a carefree and flighty young man:

He was beautiful in appearance,

The height is also excellent.

But he was not without blemishes

He led his life not without mistakes:

He was very attracted to women.

But at the same time, he is an excellent skier and skillfully wields a sword. He is a fearless daredevil who goes towards danger. But he lacks the prudence of Väinämöinen and the seriousness of Ilmarinen; besides, he likes to brag. However, Lemminkäinen has liveliness and a sense of humor, qualities that Ilmarinen is not gifted with. But despite Lemminkäinen's weaknesses and character flaws, people clearly love this hero. But at the same time they do not approve of Lemminkäinen’s recklessness and carelessness, his bragging. The epic does not directly reproach him for this, but shows how Lemminkäinen’s rash actions lead to sad consequences.

So, during the first trip to Pohjela, when Lemminkäinen, at the insidious suggestion of Louhi, goes on a hunt for the “death swan”, and he falls into a trap and almost says goodbye to his life. Only the selfless efforts of his mother bring him back to life (rune 15). The consequence of his second campaign is a large retaliatory attack by the warriors of Pohjela, who destroy his home to the ground (rune 28). He sets out on the third trip without sufficient preparation in case of frost, and his boat freezes into the ice of the sea, and he himself almost dies (rune 30). Returning from a campaign for Sampo, Lemminkäinen, despite the warnings of Väinämöinen, began to sing and bawle, which is why the crane standing on the shore got scared, flew screaming to Pohjela and woke up the sleepy Louhi (rune 42). A chase is being set up for the heroes of Kalevala. True, during the attack by Louha, Lemminkäinen quickly wielded his sword, but Sampo drowned in the sea. For bragging, people punish him by often putting him in a funny position. Nevertheless, Lemminkäinen’s shortcomings and weaknesses are spoken of in “Kalevala” with good-natured humor - after all, be that as it may, he is an “excellent husband” when it comes to fighting the army of Pohjela.

Standing apart in the epic is Kullervo, the image of a slave taking revenge on the whole world for his troubles. The name Kullervo entered the history of Finnish literature, constituting its tragic layer. This image is complex, multi-valued, it combines the motifs of fairy tales and songs about the birth of a strong boy with traditional shepherd songs, where the shepherd is most often a destitute creature. An Ingrian story about the enmity of two brothers over scarcity of land was also used.

In the epic, runes from 31 to 37 are dedicated to him. From birth, Kullervo is a slave to Untam, his uncle. Untamo and an armed detachment destroyed the house of his parents and killed, as they supposed, all his relatives. Subsequently, however, it turns out that Kullervo’s parents, brother and sister managed to escape and hide in a deep forest. Fearing that Kullervo might grow into an avenger for his family, Untamo wanted to kill him as a child, but he never succeeded. Ancient runes tell of the miraculous salvation of a boy from death at sea, in the flames of a fire, and even on the gallows (rune 31).

Soon Kullervo grew up and became an unusually strong young man. Untamo thought that in his person he would receive “a slave worthy of a hundred strong” (rune 31). But Kullervo spoiled every work with excessive use of force - his protest against slavery was so boldly manifested. Untamo, in order to get rid of the slave who had become a burden to him, sold him to Ilmarinen in Karelia.

After a series of misadventures, having found his parents and dishonored his own sister, whom he did not recognize after a long separation, Kullervo comes to the conclusion that Untamo is to blame for all the misfortunes of his family. Despite his mother's requests, he goes on a campaign against Untamo. Along the way, he receives news of the death of his relatives, but only the death of his mother touches him. But this news cannot force him to return home. He rushes forward and achieves his goal: destroying Untamo’s housing and everything that was there.

But after achieving his goal, Kullervo finally found himself outside of society. He is completely alone. His path lies in the remote taiga, where he throws himself on his own sword. This is the natural end of this hero, according to the author. In Väinämöinen’s speech, we see that the reasons for the hero’s behavior lie in the fact that he was raised by strangers. This is how the ancient ethics of family education is conveyed to people in a unique form.

All these heroes represent time layers reflected in the epic. Starting with the archaic epic of the first ancestor Väinämöinen and ending with the late medieval slave Kullervo. At the same time, they fully correspond to the specifics of this epic. Many researchers emphasize the fact that these heroes are more people than gods. The description of their life provides rich material for the reconstruction of pictures of everyday life. speaks of the primary separation of crafts from agriculture. Shows various levels and statuses in society and, finally, carries most of the sacred information and ideas of the Finns and Karelians.

3.3 Daily life in the Kalevala runes

Moving directly to the analysis of the content of the epic, our goal will be to reveal the wealth of information contained in this source, i.e. Based on the information presented in the runes, we will try to reconstruct the daily life of people, with their activities, customs and beliefs.

In “Kalevala” there are no traces of the presence of a state or a structure similar in function, we do not observe rulers and a management system, and there is also no division of society into social groups. The basis of everything is a large family or, in a more northern version (Pokhjela), clan. As a rule, such families live in a separate large estate with numerous buildings. The family consists of 3-4 generations and includes up to 20 relatives. Mentions of servants are frequent. These are mostly young girls and women doing simple housework:

Hey you little girl

You, my servant, are a slave!

Bring some food in a cauldron,

Bring beer to the guest (rune 27).

If we talk about slavery, it is more like patriarchal than classical. The cycle of runes about the hero Kullervo is dedicated to this topic. He became a slave because his mother was enslaved, and was subsequently sold as a careless worker. But this state of affairs was noted only once. There is also a category of hired workers:

Forced to inflate slaves

For daily wages (rune 39).

But their social status is quite low, since the same term is used as for real slaves. Such workers, of course, are not allowed to farm, but do only the most difficult and dirty work.

The basis of life is agriculture. Each family has its own plots and they own them as owners. And such a mention occurs in the text.

The whole island has already been divided,

All the meadows are measured,

The forest was distributed by lot,

All the meadows are already owned by the owners (rune 29).

But at the same time, agriculture remains quite primitive - slash-and-burn. The entire second rune is dedicated to his epic description. It has long been the main method of cultivating the land, since the forests in these places are very dense. First, Väinämöinen finds “seven seeds, six grains” of oats and barley on the seashore. He collects them and puts them in a bag of forest skins. Then the bird gives him good advice:

Osmo's barley will not sprout,

The field there is not cleared,

There is no forest cut down for arable land,

Well not scorched by fire (rune 2)

Väinämöinen follows her advice and soon a rich harvest begins to emerge on the fields of Kaleva.

Based on the passage, it is clear that the main crops are unpretentious oats and barley, ideal for the local climate. And only once is there a mention of wheat in rune 21.

In runes we find references to ancient agricultural tools. To plow the land, they used a wooden or even stone plow.

In “Kalevala” the image of a “fiery plow” is often found; this is due to the custom used in ancient times when a wooden plow was burned. Rune 10 hints at the advent of plow farming, as the blacksmith Ilmarinen is said to have forged the plow. Accordingly, the main draft force was the horse, and the main transport was the sleigh. Grain processing is simple, comparable to agriculture itself. To grind grains, use a hub, pestle, and millstone:

I'll grind it down until it's a stone,

I'll crush the pestle

I'll grind the mortar for now,

I'll check the heavy millstone.

Karelian-Finnish epic songs reveal a peculiar reflection of ancient forms of cattle breeding. Since the herd is often depicted as large, huge, it can be assumed by analogy that it is the general herd of the whole clan. So, in response to her father’s request to see who the dog is barking at, the girl replies:

I already have something to do

I look after a large herd

Cleaning out the cow shed.

The communal nature of the property is confirmed by the fact that the common herd in the runes is called “ours”, and by the fact that the room where the large herd of the Pohjola family is located is depicted as huge. These images are echoed by the image of a large bull, which the old woman Louhi wants to slaughter in order to prepare a feast for her daughter’s wedding. But not all heroes can do this, and only “together they kill a big bull” (rune 21). Cattle is also a symbol of well-being, prosperity in the house; it is used to judge how rich the family is. Therefore, Kyllikki does not want to marry Lemminkäinen, believing that there are no cows in his house, and therefore no food. In rune 32 we read that Ilmarinen’s wife, sending the cows to pasture, asks the spirits of the forest to protect her herd, to save her from harm. This once again proves how much the Kalevala residents valued their herds, since they called on spirits for help, feeling that they were not able to protect their domestic animals completely.

Further on, in the essence of the plot, we will touch upon the issue of separating crafts from agriculture. Blacksmith Ilmarinen mainly deals with his direct duties. But at the same time, he is a jack of all trades and fishes, and makes boats, plows, and also participates in the military campaign in Pohjola for the Sampo. Which may indicate the still very low specialization of the craft.

And it was during this period that the historical conditions for the emergence of the rune about the birth of iron took shape. According to research by Finnish ethnographers, the depiction of iron mining methods, despite all the fantastic nature of the images of the 9th rune, is actually fundamentally realistic. Following the motif of collecting swamp iron ore, which is repeated in numerous versions of this rune, following the tracks of forest animals:

AND waves shake the quagmire,

And the bear tramples the swamp.

Iron rises (rune 9).

Not without reason, they see here an ancient reflection of reality. Since swamp iron ore, usually located under the top layer of swampy soil, without specially organized mining, it is most easily detected on tracks left on swampy soil by a bear or other heavy animal. The rune about the birth of iron also reflected the primitive technique of processing iron ore into “doughy” iron. At the same time, individual pieces of cast iron that were accidentally formed were considered spoiled; people still did not know what to do with them. In addition to iron, products made of tin, copper and bronze were in use. Mostly these were simple women's jewelry - rings, clasps. Ritual weapons were made from noble metals:

He holds a golden ax

with a copper handle (rune 16).

and more complex, so-called ceremonial decorations:

And found it under a motley cover

Six gold belts,

And gold pendants,

And a silver kokoshnik (rune 4).

The hypothesis that the runes reflect the recent transition from stone to metal production is confirmed by the wide distribution of stone tools. This is explained by the fact that, in terms of technical characteristics, iron tools were significantly inferior to products made of stone, bronze or copper for a long time. In addition, in the minds of people, stone tools were endowed with mysterious sacred power. What products were still made of stone? There is a mention of stone tips:

Death in the seeds of Suuru,

In evil tips made of stone (rune 8).

Of the stone tools, there are those used to cut down forests:

Made a tool out of stone

The handle was made from pine,

Let them cut down the undercut here (rune 2).

But basically these are tools that are associated with fishing (hooks, sinkers).

If we continue to search for information about other crafts, then there are no mentions of them in the epic, with the exception of weaving, but it is still considered as a household chore for women. Judging by the description of the loom, it acquired a more modern vertical shape, becoming very similar to the one that our peasant women used in the villages. In addition to the main type of activity, taking into account the specifics of the surrounding nature, hunting and fishing were of considerable help in the Finnish economy. Let's start with fishing. The epic reflected the technique of making a boat, which plays an exceptional role in fishing. In ancient times, among the ancestors of the Karelians, fire was used to make boats. The tree, which was set on fire only on one side, fell and was subjected to gradual burning of the core. The Karelian-Finnish epic song about the search for wood for a boat also indirectly reflects the motive of making a boat from a whole tree. The technique of making boats from animal skins has also become somewhat widespread. In this regard, a strange at first glance motive associated with Antero Vipunen is explained, according to which in order to make a boat Väinämöinen had to:

Kill a herd of deer

Shoot a bunch of squirrels.

In many runes, when describing a boat, the epithet “big”, “hundred-sided”, “hundred-sided” is used. This perhaps indicates that the boats were jointly owned and manufactured collectively, which in turn could actually lead to the production of larger boats:

The boat from Pohjola is approaching,

Strikes the sea with a hundred oars

A hundred men sit at the oars

Thousands are sitting there in the boat.

But not only the boat, but also other fishing tools are realistically depicted in Karelian-Finnish epic songs. In particular, fishing nets and seines are mentioned here:

And the nets lay in the boat,

There were seines in the boat,

On the sides there are poles and nets;

There were hooks on the benches...

With the help of runes, we can find out who the Karelians and Finns caught in their rivers and seas. These are mainly whitefish, salmon and, of course, the queen of the underwater world, the big pike Tuonela, which caused a lot of trouble for Ilmarinen. To capture her, he created an iron eagle. This motif of creating or transforming a hero into an eagle dates back to the ancient period of the Finno-Ugric community (rune 19). The depiction of hunting in the Karelian-Finnish epic is much less common than the depiction of fishing. The plot of the hunt is primarily connected with the hero Lemminkäinen, since during his matchmaking in Pohjola the bride's mother asks him a number of tasks. He must catch a moose, a horse and a swan. For this Lemminkäinen:

The tip hastily

I put it on a fast dart.

He also pulled the bowstring,

Prepared arrows for the bow (rune 13).

But he also needs skis for successful hunting. Their manufacture was considered a difficult task, and such craftsmen were respected among the people. All this tells us that hunting still remained one of the most important industries, despite the development of agriculture. In rune 46 we see the attitude of the Kalevala people towards the owner of the forest - the bear. On the one hand, he is a coveted object of hunting, and on the other, a respected animal, bearing traces of totemism, a tribal cult, affectionately called: “Otso, apple of the forest, Beauty with a honey paw.”

A real treasure trove of information on the peculiarities of life of the Karelian-Finns are runes from 20 to 25. In their value they are comparable to Speeches of the High from Elder Edda . But there is one big difference. In them we see advice that is given to a young housewife after the wedding. It’s easy to imagine how the household was run, what kind of relationships there were between relatives, and how the young wife had to behave in order to earn the approval of her new relatives:

Bow lower,

Use better words!

Learn new morals

Forget your old customs:

We can safely say that such advice can be useful in modern life. These runes depict a wedding ceremony. It all starts with preparations for a big and rich wedding feast. This episode is also interesting because most of it is devoted to the process of making beer and the recipe is similar to the modern one. In fact, you rarely see episodes with the theme of food in epics. Here in rune 20 many dishes of Karelian-Finnish cuisine are presented:

I baked big loaves of bread

I cooked a lot of oatmeal,

They gave them meat in pieces,

They gave me beautiful gingerbreads,

They gave them some barley beer,

Pies lie in pieces

The oil is folded in parts,

The whitefish are torn to pieces,

And cut the salmon (runes 20 and 25)

This is followed by all the stages characteristic of the wedding ceremony: meeting the groom, a feast, gathering the bride and a list of instructions on how to behave, combined with traditional crying, which is a traditional reflection of ideas about the death of the bride for her clan and her rebirth in a new capacity as a wife in her husband’s clan. The next stage is the meeting of the bride at the groom's house. Here the description of the bride's dowry is most valuable:

She brought fur coats with her,

I brought some dresses with me,

And she has plenty of cloth (rune 25)

But all this information lies on the surface. What other conclusions can we find here? E. Lönnrot included material that was not typical for him into the epic narrative women's folklore , and thereby significantly expanded the significance of the Kalevala as a historical source. Interesting observations regarding the dual and contradictory position of women throughout life. Some women are slaves of their husbands, their husbands' families, but other women are the heads of clans and occupy the highest places in the social hierarchy. Here's what they say about the position of a young daughter-in-law in her husband's house:

You'll find out, you wretch,

You will experience it on you

father-in-law's bone jaw,

mother-in-law's stone tongue,

brother-in-law's tongue is frosty,

the proud disposition of the sister-in-law.

To be an eternal slave to my father-in-law,

In eternal slavery to the mother-in-law (rune 22).

From the above lines it is clear that the young woman occupied the position of a slave, a farm laborer in the house. But unlike the slave, she could not complain, because it was her family.

In the matter of matchmaking, the girl’s opinion was important; it was believed that she should like the groom, but the final word remained with the parents and the choice of the groom. And if she doesn’t love him, then she has only one way to refuse marriage - her own death. This was, for example, the choice of Aino, Eukahainen’s sister, who bought her with a promise to give her his own life in marriage to Väinämöinen. Aino's mother was very happy to become related to the great rune singer and sorcerer Väinämöinen, she did not want to listen to any objections. The poem also contains examples of the conquest of a girl who was forcibly married to her husband. This is the story of Kyllikki and Lemminkäinen.

Lemminkäinen was a dissolute and cheerful man who never left any girl unattended. And then one day he heard rumors about the greatest beauty who lived in one village. And he went there in order to take her as his wife. But the beautiful Kyllikki was unapproachable. Then the hero solved the problem simply: he kidnapped her. But who oppresses a young woman like that? Loving spouse? Perhaps he too, but mainly the mother-in-law is another woman. She is the mistress of the house. And not only in name, but in a very real way. She is in charge of the livestock, supplies, workers, and the entire family. In song 32 there are lines confirming this statement. Here the mistress decides where to assign the worker and appoints him as a shepherd. Those. she is in charge of both the farm laborers and the herds on the farm. Thus, a woman’s status was not constant and could change dramatically throughout her life.

But at the same time, in the sacred sphere, all the elements in the world of Kalevala have Mistresses, and not Masters (as in Russian folklore, where the brownie, vodyanoy, goblin are all men). Kuutar - Maid of the Moon, Vellamo - Mistress of Water, Ilmatar - Maiden of Air and Mother of Water, Mielikki - Mistress of the Forest, Osmotar - brewer of beer and wisest of wives, Tuoni - mistress of the underworld. And in the harsh northern country of Pohjel, the reflection of the ancient high position of women is most visible, since it is the woman, the strong and evil sorceress Louhi, who runs everything here.

So, during a woman’s life she goes through a number of social stages. When she was born, a girl, and then a girl, was a child in her parents’ house, for her there was everything that her parents owned. But by getting married and becoming a woman, she dramatically changed not only her status, but also her actual position in society. And only by starting her own home, separating from her husband’s parents, did a woman become a Mistress. Mistress of the house, mistress of all good things. And now it was her turn to manage the young daughters-in-law who were brought into the house by her sons.

But this one path was not strictly defined at all. If the man who took the girl as his wife already lived in his own house (like the blacksmith Ilmarinen), then his wife immediately became the head of the house, bypassing the position of a worker.

After a detailed study of the Kalevala as an information source. We can admit that, despite the specifics of mythopoetics, the poetic lines of the epic reflected a considerable part of information about various aspects of the life of ordinary ordinary people: peasants, early artisans, fishermen and hunters. We see a detailed description of their occupations, tools, and relationships. Additionally, there is data about their way of life, types of homes, costumes, jewelry, holidays, rituals, and customs. Of particular interest is the practice of treating diseases, based on ancient ideas that knowledge of the origin of a disease gives power over it. But at the same time, there are references to very specific medicines consisting of honey and herbs. And the content of such small facts in the epic is large enough to create a three-dimensional picture of the life of the Karelian-Finns, and confirm the opinion that “Kalevala” is not just an epic, but an encyclopedia of the life of ordinary people.

3.4 Religious beliefs

In the last part of this study we will talk about the entire set of gods and master spirits of the Karelian-Finns, as well as the practice of beliefs. Mythological characters of “Kalevala” and Karelian folklore reflect the development of folk beliefs from totemism through polytheism to monotheism. This epic reflects all three types of beliefs, thus summarizing the religious practice of many centuries.

Among the mythological characters of Kalevala, several types can be distinguished.

The first includes characters of the most ancient level, the most archaic myths, of whose images only fragments have survived. In the runes of Kalevala they clearly faded. This is a huge eagle, and a large bull, on whose horns a squirrel has to jump for several days and nights, and the image of a salmon girl, and the miraculous image of Sampo, and the revered bear Otso, in whose honor even a real ritualized holiday was held. The contrasting images of the “little bee” and the evil hornet also belong to this type. This is the most mysterious mythological section of the Kalevala; it bears a vivid imprint of the most ancient totemistic beliefs of the Karelians, when a person was looking for a patron among the living and inanimate nature that surrounded him.

The next group of mythological images are represented by characters of lower mythology and polytheism. V.V. Ivanov compared lower mythology and polytheism with unofficial and official cult. In Karelian mythology, the pagan divine pantheon was overwhelmingly male, spirits were both male and female, and the most important of them, the mother of the earth, did not have a corresponding male hypostasis at all. Among the lower mythological characters present both in folklore and in the Kalevala, one can distinguish the masters and spirits of various elements: air, earth, water. Their abundance in Kalevala is striking. Many of them were invented by Lönnrot, but the vast majority penetrated into the poem from incantatory poetry, or rather, together with it, since Lönnrot included many incantatory runes in the last edition of the Kalevala. From ancient spells, Lönnrot took the bright colors characteristic of the description of certain spirits, and many brilliant, sonorous epithets and metaphors, and an extensive system of names.

The spirits in “Kalevala”, as in conspiracies and mythological prose, are both good (Virgin of the Sun, Virgin of the Moon, Virgin of the Good Rowan), and evil (Syuyatar, who created the snake, or “Virgin Tuoni, mistress of the underworld, Loviatar, the ancestor of all evils and diseases). But in mythological prose there is sometimes no absolute division into absolutely good and evil spirits. So, for example, the owner of the Tapio forest is considered very dangerous, but he can also give a hunter an elk, the mistress of the house mainly patronizes the residents, but, being offended by something, can begin to harm them. Therefore, in almost every rune there is an appeal to the spirit with a request for protection or patronage.

Almost all of these spirits have families, children, servants and maids. Sometimes in runes, they do the most ordinary work. When Väinämöinen gets to Tuonela, he sees that “Tuoni a little maiden, a short servant, was busy washing dresses.” And at the same time, everyday life is mythologized, Ilmarinen’s wife asks the Maiden of the South and the Maiden of Warmth to cover the cattle from the rain and wind with her aprons and hemlines. Incantatory poetry, mythological prose, and epic songs demonstrate the people's faith in spirits, in the masters of nature. But each genre has its own storytelling goals. Archaic conspiracies certainly included the story of the origin of some phenomenon - a disease, wound or other misfortune, and then they tried to defeat it, destroy it, or, conversely, call on the corresponding spirit, the owner, for help. In other words, the healer and sorcerer needed the protection of spirits. In Lönnrot, spirits are often presented as beings with a highly developed sense of beauty. An example of this is the admiration of the Spirits of earth, air and water at Väinämöinen’s playing on the kantele. The description of their anger is grotesque.

Belief in characters of lower mythology as an unofficial religion is widespread in folklore today. About the official religion of the Karelians of the first half of the 2nd millennium AD. the most complete idea can be obtained from the preface of M. Agricola to the translation of the Psalter, written in 1551. The famous preacher of Christianity pointed out in it the worship of the people of eleven pagan gods hyama and twelve Karelian gods. As gods, Agricola noted Vainamoinen, who “forged songs”, Ilmarinen, who “created the sky and the world and led travelers to the place”, “the sons of Kaleva”, who mowed the meadows, Tapio, who hunted animals in the forest, and Ahti, who took fish out of the water . Also named as “idols that were previously worshiped” by the people are Turisas, Lieckio, Cratti, Tontu, Rachkoi, Capeet.

The most famous names from Agricola's list are the two main characters of the Kalevala - Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen. But neither in the folk runes nor in the Kalevala are they perceived as gods. These are, first of all, cultural heroes who made a lot of pioneering items. Moreover, in southern Karelia, priority is often given to Ilmarinen (Ilmoilline).

The water deity Ahti and the forest deity Tapio are widespread in both folklore and the Kalevala. Here Lönnrot is faithful to the contemporary folk tradition. These are not the gods of the mid-millennium, but they fully retain the rights to own the territory under their control. We will find out in what conditions their families live. And at the same time, these deities are almost identical in their functions to the Spirits of the forest and water.

Five characters from the Karelian pagan pantheon of Agricola are found in folklore and Kalevala. Wedhen Erne - mother of water. Her image is comparable to Ilmatar, to whom Lönnrot, in contrast to the folk runes, gave primacy in the creation of the earth from a duck’s egg. In “Kalevala” she is “the mother of water and the maiden of the sky.” Wedhen Erne is the only deity who has no name. Therefore, she can also be compared with the Mistress of Water, which Lönnrot, following the rune singers, raised even higher than Ahto. Nyrckes, who, according to Karelian beliefs, “gave the forest squirrels,” is comparable to Nyurikki, the son of the god and master Metsola. Hiisi is a deity from Agricola's list, widespread in almost all genres of folklore. Hiisi is the personification of the evil one, in contrast to Tapio, the owner of the forest. He is very close to the image of kara, pira, that is, the devil. Therefore, in parallel with the name Hiisi, the name Lempo or Yutas appears, evil spirits inhabiting mountains, water, fire, and cemeteries. from Agricola's list is consonant with Virokannos from Kalevala and runes. But this is a completely different image. In the 20th song of “Kalevala” it is a butcher who slaughtered a large bull, and at the end of the poem it is a priest who baptized the miraculously born son of Maryatta (an analogue of Christ), who replaced Väinämöinen. This is very symbolic, since Virocannos represents a bridge to monotheism, which replaced pagan polytheism.

Likewise, Ukko is the supreme deity from Agricola's list, comparable to Perun, Zeus and Horus, and, according to Lönnrot, is the Christian biblical God. Thus, “Kalevala,” like all Karelian folklore, demonstrates the development of folk beliefs from totemism to polytheism, and then monotheism. At the same time, the system of characters in Karelian mythological prose is original and diverse. On the one hand, it includes images that are not in the folklore of neighboring peoples, and on the other hand, it does not contain, for example, such common images in Russian folklore as the mermaid, kikimora, Sami gnomes and Lapland kuffitars.

I would like to dwell separately and in more detail on the topic of reflecting Christian motifs in the runes of Kalevala. The official baptism of Ancient Karelia began in 1227, when the Novgorod prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich sent priests to “baptize many Karelians; not all people are few.”<#"center">Conclusion

Karelians Finns epic Kalevala

Studying the Kalevala convinced us of the significance of this work for the development of Finland. The runes of the epic contain information about the history of this country, dating back to a fairly extensive period from the 1st millennium BC to the 1st millennium AD. With the help of Kalevala, many norms of the Finnish language were established. In fact, the Karelian-Finnish epic is the first major work of literature in Finland. The appearance of the epic also contributed to the formation of Finnish national identity. All researchers recognize the importance of “Kalevala” for global culture

The question of the authorship of the Karelian-Finnish epic in historiography has not been finally resolved in the 21st century. There are two main theories. Followers of the first theory find evidence that the Kalevala is a folk work, and E. Lönnrot simply collected, processed and published the runes. Supporters of Lönnrot's authorship claim that he relied on runes, but at the same time he changed them so much and subordinated them to his plan that a completely new book was obtained. The origin of the runes that make up the Kalevala epic is also a controversial point. Since they could have arisen both in Karelia and in the western regions of Finland. Related to these questions is the problem of the reliability of the epic as a source, i.e. whether the events described in it have a historical basis. Each researcher tries to find certain points in the runes that are consistent with archaeological data and with pan-European historical processes.

The study of the prerequisites for the appearance of the epic showed that the direction of romanticism in the culture of Europe at the beginning of the 19th century also affected Finland. Kalevala became the contribution of the Finnish people to global culture. This was also facilitated by the historical conditions in which Finland was located. Gaining independence from Sweden and acquiring the status of autonomy within the Russian Empire created the necessary situation for the formation in society of a social order for the creation of a work similar to “Kalevala”. This epic, as recognized by all researchers, played a big role in the growth of Finnish national identity. The example of Kalevala inspired folklore collectors in other countries who dared to create similar works.

Comparing the text of the epic rune with the original version received from the Karelian rune singers, we came to the conclusion that Kalevala is an independent work with one author, E. Lönnrot. Naturally, E. Lennrot worked with folklore material, but he selected the runes based on his own plan. He could add or change the poetic text, giving it a look averaged for all areas and linking the runes into a single logical composition. The great merit of the author of “Kalevala” lies in the fact that through his work he recorded invaluable material that was in danger of complete oblivion.

Having studied the Kalevala as an information source, we should note that the runes reflect a large amount of data telling about various aspects of the life of ordinary ordinary people: peasants, artisans, fishermen and hunters. We saw a detailed description of their occupations, tools, and relationships. Additionally, there is data about their way of life, types of homes, costumes, jewelry, holidays, rituals, and customs. Of particular interest is the practice of treating diseases, based on ancient ideas that knowledge of the origin of a disease gives power over it. But at the same time, there are references to very specific medicines consisting of honey and herbs. The number of such small facts in the epic is large enough to create a three-dimensional picture of the life of the Karelian-Finnish people, and confirm the opinion that Kalevala is not just an epic, but an encyclopedia of the life of ordinary people.

In our study of Kalevala, we obtained an evolutionary picture of the development of the religious life of the Karelian-Finns from primitive beliefs (animism and totemism) to developed Christianity. The Karelian-Finnish epic confirms the opinion that in the north, remnants were preserved longer and more persistently. Since the runes that make up the epic were recorded in the first half of the 19th century, they still contained quite a pagan influence.

Thus, the stated purpose and objectives of the study were realized. On this basis, we believe that the Karelian-Finnish epic Kalevala is a historical source. It reflected the history of the Finns and Karelians in the 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD. in its various manifestations.

List of sources and literature

Sources

Agricola M. Psalter of David.// History of Karelia in documents and materials (from ancient times to the beginning of the 20th century): a textbook for secondary schools./ comp. T. Varukhina and others; scientific ed. I. Afanasyeva. - Petrozavodsk, 2000. - from 16-22.

2.Certificate of Novgorod Bishop Theodosius.//History of Karelia in documents and materials (from ancient times to the beginning of the 20th century): a textbook for secondary schools./ comp. T. Varukhina and others; scientific ed. I. Afanasyeva. - Petrozavodsk, 2000.- p.30

Icelandic sagas: sagas: translation from ancient history / A.V. Tsimmirlinga - M., 1987. - 610 p.

4. Lönnrot, E. Kalevala: runes/E. Lönnrot; lane from Finnish L. Belsky. - M. 1977. -575 p.

5. Lönnrot, E. Travels of Elias Lönnrot: Travel notes, diaries, letters. 1828-1842: diary/ E. Lönnrot; lane from Finnish V. I. Kiiranen, R. P. Remshuevoy. - Petrozavodsk, 1985. - 300 p.

6. The story of the Karelian Nousia.: Register of complaints against the nobility in Finland 1556 // History of Karelia XVI-XVII centuries. in documents. -/ Comp. G. M. Kovalenko, I. A. Chernyakova, V. Petrozavodsk. 1991.-p.67-75.

7. The Elder Edda: songs: trans. from ancient history / A. Korsunova - St. Petersburg. 2008.-461p.

8. Sturluson , S. Younger Edda: songs / Sturluson Snorri; lane from ancient history O. A. Smirnitskaya. - M. 1970. - 487 p.

Literature

9. Evseev, V.Ya. Historical foundations of the Karelian-Finnish epic // V.Ya. Evseev. - M., 1957. - 423 p.

10. Evseev, V.Ya. Karelian folklore in historical light // V.Ya. Evseev. - L., 1968. - 540 p.

11. Zhirmunsky, V.M. Folklore of the West and East // V.M. Zhirmunsky. - M., 2004. -465 s.

12.Karhu, E.G. History of Finnish literature: from its origins to the 19th century // E.G. Karhu. - M., 1979.- 421 p.

13. Karhu E. G. “Kalevala” - its cultural, historical and modern significance / E. G. Karhu // "Carelia" .- 1999.- No. 3. - p.7-17.

14.Karhu, E.G. Karelian and Ingrian folklore // E.G. Karhu.- St. Petersburg. 1994. - 503 p.

Karhu, E.G. From runes to novel // E.G. Karhu. - M., 1978.- 311 p.

16.Karhu, E.G. Elias Lönnrot. Life and creativity // E.G. Karhu. - Petrozavodsk, 1996.-395 p.

17.Kiuru, E.S. Folklore origins of Kalevala.// E.S. Kiuru. - M., 2001. - 357 p.

Kosmenko, M. G. Problems of studying the ethnic history of the Bronze Age - Early Middle Ages in Karelia / M. G. Kosmenko // Collection. articles. Problems of the ethnocultural history of the population of Karelia (Mesolithic - Middle Ages). Ed. S.I. Kochkurkina, M.G. Kosmenko. Petrozavodsk, 2006. - P.56-65.

19. Kochkurkina, S.I. Archaeological monuments of Korela (V-XV centuries) // S.I. Kochkurkina. -L., 1981. -571 p.

Kochkurkina, S.I. Ancient Karelians. // S.I. Kochkurkina. - Petrozavodsk, 1987. - 489 p.

Kochkurkina, S.I. The people of Karelia: history and culture // S.I. Kochkurkina. - Petrozavodsk. 2004. -507 p.

Kuusinen O.V. The epic “Kalevala” and its creators / O.V. Kuusinen // Lönnrot “Kalevala”. Selected runes of the Karelian-Finnish epic in composition. - M., 1970.- P. 8-23.

Meletinsky, E.M. The origin of the heroic epic // E.M. Meletinsky. - M., 1964. - 460 p.

Mishin, O.A. Travel to Kalevala // O.A. Mishin. - M., 1988. - 246 S.

26. Sedov, V.V. Archeology of the USSR. Finno-Ugrians and Balts in the Middle Ages // V.V. Sedov. - M., 1987. - 591 p.

27.Propp, V.Ya. Folklore and reality // V.Ya. Propp. - M., 1976. - 470 p.

28. Rakhimova, E.G. From the “Kalevala” oral runes to the neo-romantic mythopoetics of Eino Leino // E.G. Rakhimova. - M., 2001. - 317 p.

Hurmevaara, A.G. Kalevala in Russia // A.G. Hurmevaara. - Petrozavodsk, 1972.-395 p.

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29.10.2015

In the 1820s, Finnish educator Elias Lönnrot traveled through Russian Karelia. In remote villages: Voknavolok, Reboly, Khimoly and some others, he recorded the chants of local residents. These runes, after processing, were collected into a single set, known today throughout the world as the “Kalevala”.

“Kalevala” is a poem telling about the beliefs of the Karelians, their worldview, attitude towards nature and towards the surrounding tribes. The complete collection of works includes more than 20 thousand poems, and the work has been translated into almost all languages ​​of the world. The content of “Kalevala” is distinguished by its diversity; there is no single storyline. Researchers believe that when arranging the runes into a single text, Lönnrot allowed improvisation to convey artistic integrity. Of course, all the poems were collected in different places and, in fact, represent a compilation of oral folk art.

As in the epics of other peoples, one of the central themes of Kalevala is the creation of the world and the first man. Among the Karelians, the elder Väinämöinen is considered the first inhabitant of the earth. He arranges the world under the moon, sows barley and fights enemies. At the same time, he acts not with a sword, but with a word, representing the image of a shaman. Through stories about Väinämönen's journey, significant events in the history of the Karelian people are retold: the manufacture of a boat, which was necessary for life in the land of lakes, the beginning of iron processing and, finally, the invention of the Sampo mill. Thus, the first 11 runes reflect the appearance of those things without which the Karelians could not survive in the harsh northern regions.

The next 4 runes are dedicated to the gallant exploits of the young hunter Lemminkäinen. He goes to the mysterious country of Pohjola. Here, through a feat of arms, he wants to win the favor of the daughter of the mistress of the North. After several successful tricks, Lemminkäinen drowns, but is revived by his mother. Going to Pohjola next time, he kills the master of the North. Some Kalevala researchers believe that here the epic intersects with stories about Osiris and Isis from ancient Egyptian mythology. In addition, the work reveals themes of unhappy love (episodes with the adventures of the hero Kullervo), confrontation with neighbors from the north and the achievement of wealth.

Finally, one of the last songs tells about the emergence of the Karelian national musical instrument, the kantele. Thus, “Kalevala” is permeated with historicism. It tells about the most important milestones in the history of the Karelians, about their confrontation with the Sami tribes for fertile lands and control of waterways. The last rune ends with the birth of the Savior from a virgin named Maryatta. Väinämönen offers to kill the wonderful child, but, being misunderstood, sails away in an unknown direction. Here we see a clear hint at the passing of the pagan tradition into the past and the emergence of the Christian faith in Karelia.

The written tradition has not preserved any materials on the history of ancient Karelia. That is why “Kalevala”, as a work of folklore, provides valuable evidence for researchers. Despite the fact that all the adventures of the heroes are fairy-tale, shrouded in magic, the epic gives an idea of ​​the complex processes of the struggle for land in the Far North. “Kalevala” entered world history as a magnificent work of poetry, sometimes surpassing Scandinavian sagas or Russian epics.

Kalevala in abbreviation [VIDEO]