When did the church split occur? Church schism of the 17th century in Rus' and the Old Believers

One of the most significant events of the 17th century. there was a church schism. He seriously influenced the formation of cultural values ​​and worldview of the Russian people. Among the prerequisites and causes of church schism, one can single out both political factors, formed as a result of the turbulent events of the beginning of the century, and church factors, which, however, are of secondary importance.

At the beginning of the century, the first representative of the Romanov dynasty, Mikhail, ascended the throne. He and, later, his son, Alexey, nicknamed “The Quiet One,” gradually restored the internal economy that had been ruined during the Time of Troubles. Foreign trade was restored, the first manufactories appeared, and state power was strengthened. But, at the same time, serfdom was formalized into law, which could not but cause mass discontent among the people. Initially, the foreign policy of the first Romanovs was cautious. But already in Alexei Mikhailovich’s plans there is a desire to unite Orthodox peoples who lived outside the territories of Eastern Europe and the Balkans.

This confronted the Tsar and the Patriarch, already during the period of annexation of Left Bank Ukraine, with a rather difficult problem of an ideological nature. Most of the Orthodox peoples, having accepted Greek innovations, were baptized with three fingers. According to Moscow tradition, two fingers were used for baptism. You could either impose your own traditions or submit to the canon accepted by the entire Orthodox world. Alexey Mikhailovich and Patriarch Nikon chose the second option. The centralization of power that was taking place at that time and the emerging idea of ​​the future primacy of Moscow in the Orthodox world, the “Third Rome,” required a unified ideology capable of uniting the people. The reform carried out subsequently split Russian society for a long time. Discrepancies in the sacred books and interpretations of the performance of rituals required changes and restoration of uniformity. The need to correct church books was noted not only by spiritual authorities, but also by secular ones.

The name of Patriarch Nikon and the church schism are closely connected. The Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' was distinguished not only by his intelligence, but also by his tough character, determination, lust for power, and love of luxury. He gave his consent to become the head of the church only after the request of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The beginning of the church schism of the 17th century was laid by the reform prepared by Nikon and carried out in 1652, which included such innovations as triplicate, serving the liturgy on 5 prosphoras, etc. All these changes were subsequently approved at the Council of 1654.

But the transition to new customs was too abrupt. The situation in the church schism in Russia was further aggravated by the brutal persecution of opponents of innovations. Many refused to accept the changes in rituals. They refused to give up the old sacred books according to which the ancestors lived; many families fled to the forests. An opposition movement formed at court. But in 1658 Nikon's position changed dramatically. The royal disgrace turned into a demonstrative departure of the patriarch. However, he overestimated his influence on Alexei. Nikon was completely deprived of power, but retained wealth and honors. At the council of 1666, in which the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch participated, Nikon’s hood was removed. And the former patriarch was sent into exile, to the Ferapontov Monastery on White Lake. However, Nikon, who loved luxury, lived there far from living like a simple monk.

The Church Council, which deposed the willful patriarch and eased the fate of opponents of innovation, fully approved the reforms carried out, declaring them not the whim of Nikon, but the work of the church. Those who did not submit to the innovations were declared heretics.

The final stage of the split was the Solovetsky uprising of 1667–1676, which ended in death or exile for those dissatisfied. Heretics were persecuted even after the death of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. After the fall of Nikon, the church retained its influence and strength, but not a single patriarch any longer laid claim to supreme power.

21. Foreign policy in the 17th century.

The years of the Great Troubles resulted in the loss of many lands for Rus'. The most important task during the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich was to overcome the consequences of this difficult time for Russia. The renunciation of the rights to the throne of Moscow by the Polish prince Vladislav was of great importance.

Novgorod and Smolensk, lost during the Time of Troubles, were not immediately returned. Russia, at that time, was seriously weakened and the wars with Poland and Sweden were not successful. Novgorod was returned only in 1617 after the conclusion of the Pillar Peace with Sweden, but the coast of the Gulf of Finland was lost. Only in 1634, according to the Treaty of Polyana, Vladislav finally renounced his claim to the Moscow throne. However, the Seversky lands and Smolensk remained in the power of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich focused his energy on resolving the problems left by the previous reign. At this time, most of Ukraine and Belarus belonged to the Polish Crown. The riots that began against the Poles in 1648 in Ukraine grew into a large-scale war of liberation that covered all Belarusian lands. At the head of this powerful movement was Bogdan Khmelnitsky. The rebels turned to Moscow for help. However, the decision to unite Russia and Ukraine was made only in 1654. This became the reason for another war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The result was “Eternal Peace.” Russia was finally able to regain Smolensk, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was forced to recognize the reunification of Russia and Ukraine. Also, according to the terms of this peace, Kyiv also ceded to Russia.

Russian-Turkish relations also remained difficult. The Crimean campaigns of Prince Golitsin in 1687 and 1689 did not bring success. Russia never managed to gain access to the Black Sea. However, it is worth noting the Azov campaigns of 1695 and 1676. But the capture of Azov was clearly insufficient to ensure safe trade routes to the west. The Black Sea remained completely under the control of the Ottoman Empire.

A striking success of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century was the annexation of the lands of Eastern Siberia to the country's territory. Dezhnev and Poyarkov, famous Russian pioneers, were able to reach the shores of the Amur and the Pacific Ocean. The expansion of the territory of the Russian Empire at the expense of the Amur lands could not but cause concern to the rulers of China. However, in 1689 the border along the Amur River (and its tributaries) was fixed by the Treaty of Nerchinsk.

The church schism in Russia in the 17th century did not occur immediately or suddenly. It can be compared to a protracted, long-lasting abscess, which was opened, but could not cure the entire body, and it was necessary to resort to amputation of a small part in order to save the larger part. Therefore, on May 13, 1667, at an Orthodox council meeting in Moscow, everyone who continued to resist the new rituals and new liturgical books was condemned and anathematized. The Orthodox faith has been the driving force of Russian society for several centuries. The Russian sovereign was considered a legally elected anointed one of God only after the blessing of the metropolitan - the head of the Russian Orthodox Church. The Metropolitan in the Russian hierarchy was the second person in the state. Russian sovereigns always consulted with their spiritual fathers and made important, fateful decisions only with their blessing.

Church canons in the Russian Orthodox Church were unshakable and observed very strictly. To violate them meant committing the most serious sin, for which the death penalty was imposed. The church schism that occurred in 1667 significantly influenced the spiritual life of the entire Russian society, affecting all its layers - both lower and higher. After all, the church was a single component for the Russian state.

Church reform of the 17th century

The church reform, the initiator and zealous executor of which was considered to be Metropolitan Nikon, split Russian society in two. Some reacted calmly to church innovations and took the side of church reformers, especially since the Russian sovereign Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov, God’s anointed, also belonged to the supporters of the reform. So, going against church reform was tantamount to going against the sovereign. But there were also those who blindly and fervently believed in the correctness of the old rituals, icons and liturgical books, with which their ancestors vindicated their faith for almost six centuries. Departure from the usual canons seemed to them blasphemy, and they were convinced that they, with their old canons, were heretics and apostates.

The Russian Orthodox people were confused and turned to their spiritual mentors for clarification. The priests also did not have a common opinion on church reforms. Part of this was due to their literal illiteracy. Many did not read the texts of prayers from books, but pronounced them by heart, having learned them orally. In addition, just less than a century ago, the Hundred-Glavy Church Council, held in 1551, already established the double hallelujah, the two-fingered sign of the cross and the procession of the cross as the only correct one, seemingly thereby putting an end to some doubt. Now it turned out that all this was a mistake and this mistake of the Russian Orthodox Church, which positioned itself with the only and true zealot of the Christian Orthodox faith throughout the world, was pointed out by the Greeks, who themselves were apostates. After all, it was they who decided to unite with the Roman Catholic Church, signing the Union of Florence in 1439, which the Russian Church did not recognize, removing the Moscow Metropolitan Isidore, a Greek by birth, who signed this agreement. Therefore, most of the priests themselves did not keep up with those demands, which were completely opposite to the understandable and familiar canons.

The books had to be replaced with new ones, printed according to Greek translations, and the church demanded that all the familiar icons prayed for centuries and generations with two-fingered baptism and the usual spelling of the name of the Son of God Jesus be replaced with new ones. It was necessary to make the sign of the cross with three fingers, pronounce and write Jesus, and carry out the procession against the sun. The majority of Russian Orthodox Christians did not want to come to terms with the new canons and preferred to start fighting for the old faith, which they considered true. Those who disagreed with the church reform began to be called Old Believers and wage a merciless fight against them. They were thrown into prisons, burned alive in log houses if they could not break their faith. The Old Believers went to the northern forests, built monasteries there and continued to live without abandoning their faith.

An agnostic's opinion on the church schism in Russia

There is an opinion that the Old Believers were the true believers, since they were willing to accept inhuman torture or go to death for their faith. Those who agreed with the reforms chose the path of non-resistance not because they understood the correctness of the new canons, but because, by and large, they did not care.

Split of the Russian Orthodox Church

Church schism - in the 1650s - 1660s. a schism in the Russian Orthodox Church due to the reform of Patriarch Nikon, which consisted of liturgical and ritual innovations that were aimed at introducing changes into liturgical books and rituals in order to unify them with modern Greek ones.

Background

One of the most profound sociocultural upheavals in the state was the church schism. In the early 50s of the 17th century in Moscow, a circle of “zealots of piety” formed among the highest clergy, whose members wanted to eliminate various church disorders and unify worship throughout the vast territory of the state. The first step had already been taken: the Church Council of 1651, under pressure from the sovereign, introduced unanimous church singing. Now it was necessary to make a choice of what to follow in church reforms: our own Russian tradition or someone else’s.

This choice was made in the context of an internal church conflict that had already emerged in the late 1640s, caused by the struggle of Patriarch Joseph with increasing Ukrainian and Greek borrowings initiated by the sovereign’s entourage.

Church schism - causes, consequences

The Church, which strengthened its position after the Time of Troubles, tried to take a dominant position in the political system of the state. The desire of Patriarch Nikon to strengthen his position of power, to concentrate in his hands not only church, but also secular power. But in conditions of strengthening autocracy, this caused a conflict between church and secular authorities. The defeat of the church in this clash paved the way for its transformation into an appendage of state power.

The innovations in church rituals begun in 1652 by Patriarch Nikon and the correction of Orthodox books according to the Greek model led to a split in the Russian Orthodox Church.

Key dates

The main reason for the split was the reforms of Patriarch Nikon (1633–1656).
Nikon (worldly name - Nikita Minov) enjoyed unlimited influence on Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.
1649 – Appointment of Nikon as Metropolitan of Novgorod
1652 – Nikon elected patriarch
1653 – Church reform
As a result of the reform:
– Correction of church books in accordance with the “Greek” canons;
– Changes in the rituals of the Russian Orthodox Church;
– Introduction of three fingers during the sign of the cross.
1654 – Patriarchal reform was approved at a church council
1656 – Excommunication of opponents of the reform
1658 – Nikon’s abdication of the patriarchate
1666 – Nikon’s deposition at a church council
1667–1676 – Revolt of the monks of the Solovetsky Monastery.
Failure to accept the reforms led to a division into supporters of the reforms (Nikonians) and opponents (schismatics or Old Believers), as a result - the emergence of many movements and churches.

Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and Patriarch Nikon

Election of Metropolitan Nikon to Patriarchate

1652 - after the death of Joseph, the Kremlin clergy and the tsar wanted Novgorod Metropolitan Nikon to take his place: Nikon’s character and views seemed to belong to a man who was capable of leading the church-ritual reform planned by the sovereign and his confessor. But Nikon gave his consent to become patriarch only after much persuasion from Alexei Mikhailovich and on the condition that there were no restrictions on his patriarchal power. And such restrictions were created by the Monastic Order.

Nikon had great influence on the young sovereign, who considered the patriarch his closest friend and assistant. Departing from the capital, the tsar transferred control not to the boyar commission, as was previously customary, but to the care of Nikon. He was allowed to be called not only the patriarch, but also the “sovereign of all Rus'.” Having taken such an extraordinary position in power, Nikon began to abuse it, seize foreign lands for his monasteries, humiliate the boyars, and deal harshly with the clergy. He was not so interested in reform as in establishing strong patriarchal power, for which the power of the Pope served as a model.

Nikon reform

1653 - Nikon began to implement the reform, which he intended to carry out focusing on Greek models as more ancient. In fact, he reproduced contemporary Greek models and copied the Ukrainian reform of Peter Mohyla. The transformations of the Church had foreign policy implications: a new role for Russia and the Russian Church on the world stage. Counting on the annexation of the Kyiv Metropolis, the Russian authorities thought about creating a single Church. This required similarities in church practice between Kiev and Moscow, while they should have been guided by the Greek tradition. Of course, Patriarch Nikon did not need differences, but uniformity with the Kyiv Metropolis, which should become part of the Moscow Patriarchate. He tried in every possible way to develop the ideas of Orthodox universalism.

Church cathedral. 1654 The beginning of the split. A. Kivshenko

Innovations

But many of Nikon’s supporters, while not against the reform as such, preferred its other development - based on ancient Russian, rather than Greek and Ukrainian church traditions. As a result of the reform, the traditional Russian two-fingered consecration of oneself with a cross was replaced by a three-fingered one, the spelling “Isus” was changed to “Jesus”, the exclamation “Hallelujah!” proclaimed three times, not twice. Other words and figures of speech were introduced in prayers, psalms and Creeds, and some changes were made in the order of worship. The correction of the liturgical books was carried out by inspectors at the Printing Yard using Greek and Ukrainian books. The Church Council of 1656 decided to publish the revised Breviary and Service Book, the most important liturgical books for every priest.

Among different segments of the population there were those who refused to recognize the reform: it could mean that the Russian Orthodox custom, which their ancestors had adhered to since ancient times, was flawed. Given the great commitment of the Orthodox to the ritual side of the faith, it was its change that was perceived very painfully. After all, as contemporaries believed, only the exact execution of the ritual made it possible to create contact with sacred forces. “I will die for a single Az”! (that is, for changing at least one letter in the sacred texts), exclaimed the ideological leader of adherents of the old order, Old Believers, and a former member of the circle of “zealots of piety.”

Old Believers

The Old Believers initially fiercely resisted the reform. The boyars' wives and E. Urusova spoke out in defense of the old faith. The Solovetsky Monastery, which did not recognize the reform, resisted the tsarist troops besieging it for more than 8 years (1668 - 1676) and was taken only as a result of betrayal. Because of the innovations, a schism appeared not only in the Church, but also in society; it was accompanied by infighting, executions and suicides, and intense polemical struggle. The Old Believers formed a special type of religious culture with a sacred attitude to the written word, with loyalty to antiquity and an unfriendly attitude towards everything worldly, with belief in the imminent end of the world and with a hostile attitude towards power - both secular and ecclesiastical.

At the end of the 17th century, the Old Believers were divided into two main movements - the Bespopovtsy and the Popovtsy. The Bespopovites, not finding the possibility of establishing their own bishopric as a result, could not supply priests. As a result, based on the ancient canonical rules about the permissibility of the laity performing the sacraments in extreme situations, they began to reject the need for priests and the entire church hierarchy and began to choose spiritual mentors from among themselves. Over time, many Old Believer doctrines (trends) were formed. Some of whom, in anticipation of the imminent end of the world, subjected themselves to “fiery baptism,” that is, self-immolation. They realized that if their community was captured by the sovereign's troops, they would be burned at the stake as heretics. In the event of troops approaching, they preferred to burn themselves in advance, without deviating in any way from their faith, and thereby save their souls.

Patriarch Nikon's break with Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich

Nikon's deprivation of patriarchal rank

1658 - Patriarch Nikon, as a result of a disagreement with the sovereign, announced that he would no longer fulfill the duties of church head, took off his patriarchal vestments and retired to his beloved New Jerusalem Monastery. He believed that requests from the palace for his speedy return would not be long in coming. However, this did not happen: even if the conscientious tsar regretted what had happened, his entourage no longer wanted to put up with such a comprehensive and aggressive patriarchal power, which, as Nikon put it, was higher than the royal one, “like heaven is higher than earth.” Whose power in reality turned out to be more significant was demonstrated by subsequent events.

Alexei Mikhailovich, who accepted the ideas of Orthodox universalism, could no longer defrock the patriarch (as was constantly done in the Russian local church). The focus on Greek rules confronted him with the need to convene an ecumenical Church Council. Based on the stable recognition of the falling away from the true faith of the Roman See, the Ecumenical Council was to consist of Orthodox patriarchs. All of them took part in the cathedral in one way or another. 1666 - such a council condemned Nikon and deprived him of the patriarchal rank. Nikon was exiled to the Ferapontov Monastery, and later transferred to more harsh conditions in Solovki.

At the same time, the council approved church reform and ordered the persecution of Old Believers. Archpriest Avvakum was deprived of the priesthood, cursed and sent to Siberia, where his tongue was cut off. There he wrote many works, and from here he sent messages throughout the state. 1682 - he was executed.

But Nikon’s aspirations to make the clergy beyond the jurisdiction of secular authorities found sympathy among many hierarchs. At the Church Council of 1667 they managed to achieve the destruction of the Monastery Order.

a) Avvakum Petrov, Ivan Neronov, Epiphanius, Deacon Fedor, Spiridon Potemkin (schismatics): denunciation of the wrongness of the Nikonians (and the strongest argument in the struggle was mass martyrdom - “sacrificing” oneself for the faith).

b) Simeon of Polotsk, Patriarch Joachim, Bishop Pitirim, Metropolitan Macarius (spiritual-academic school): condemnation of schismatics, accusing them of “ignorance”, “inertia”, “stubbornness”, “heresy” in order to prove the Old Believers wrong.

c) V. O. Klyuchevsky: the problem of the schism is the problem of the Third Rome, Holy Rus', Ecumenical Orthodoxy, the schism contributed to the spread of Western influences; highlighted not only the church-historical, but also the folk-psychological side of the schism.

d) S. M. Solovyov: schism is a conflict that affected only the sphere of ritual.

e) A.I. Herzen, M.A. Bakunin: schism is a manifestation of the freedom of spirit of the Russian people, proof of their ability to stand up for their beliefs.

Key events of the church schism

1652 - Nikon’s church reform;

1654, 1656 - church councils, excommunication and exile of opponents of the reform;

1658 - break between Nikon and Alexei Mikhailovich;

1666 - church council with the participation of the ecumenical patriarchs. Nikon's deprivation of the patriarchal rank, a curse on the schismatics;

1667-1676 - Solovetsky uprising.

Key figures: Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, Patriarch Nikon, Archpriest Avvakum, noblewoman Morozova.

Reasons for the split:

1) the power-hungry desire of Nikon and Alexei Mikhailovich for the world Orthodox kingdom (“Moscow is the Third Rome”);

2) the process of centralization of the Russian state inevitably required the development of a unified ideology capable of rallying the broad masses of the population around the center;

3) political fragmentation led to the collapse of a single church organization, and in different lands the development of religious thought and rituals took its own path;

4) the need for a census of the sacred books (during the rewriting, mistakes were inevitably made, the original meaning of the sacred books was distorted, therefore, discrepancies arose in the interpretation of rituals and the meaning of their performance); Maxim Grek began enormous work, acting as a translator and philologist, highlighting different ways of interpreting the Holy Scriptures - literal, allegorical and spiritual (sacred);

5) in February 1551, on the initiative of Metropolitan Macarius, a council was convened, which began the “church dispensation”, the development of a single pantheon of Russian saints, the introduction of uniformity in church life, which received the name Stoglavogo;

6) during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich and Patriarch Joseph, after long years of Troubles and the beginning of the restoration of the Russian state, the “topic of the day” became the problem with the introduction of triplets.

In March 1649, Nikon became Metropolitan of Novgorod and Velikolutsk, showing himself to be an energetic ruler. In 1650, Nikon took an active part in the massacre of the rebellious Novgorodians. On July 22, 1652, the church council elected Nikon as patriarch, who defended the principle "the priesthood is higher than the kingdom". Nikon's opponents: boyars, who were frightened by his imperious habits, former friends in the circle of zealots of piety.

The Council of 1654 approved the innovations and made changes to the divine service. Having the support of the tsar, Nikon conducted the matter hastily, autocratically, demanding the immediate abandonment of old rituals and the exact fulfillment of new ones. Russian culture was declared backward, and European standards were adopted. The broad masses did not accept such a sharp transition to new customs and greeted the innovations with hostility. Opposition to Nikon also formed at court (boyar F. P. Morozova, princess E. P. Urusova, etc.).

In December 1666, Nikon was deprived of the highest clergy (in his place was installed the “quiet and insignificant” Joasaph II, who was under the control of the king, i.e., secular power). The reason was Nikon’s extreme ambition and the intensifying conflict with Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. Nikon's place of exile was the Ferapontov Monastery on White Lake. Secular power triumphed over spiritual power.

The Church Council (1666-1667) completed the triumph of the Nikonians and Grecophiles, canceled the decisions of the Stoglavy Council, approved the reforms and marked the beginning of the church schism. From now on, all those who disagreed with the introduction of new details in the performance of rituals were subject to excommunication from the church, received the name schismatics (Old Believers) and were subjected to severe repression by the authorities.

The split took the form of extreme confrontation: ideological factors were touched upon, and the polemics between the Old Believers and the Nikonians resulted in a real ideological war. The most influential of the church traditionalists were Ivan Neronov, Avvakum Petrov, Stefan Vonifatiev (who had the opportunity to become patriarch instead of Nikon, but refused to nominate his candidacy), Andrei Denisov, Spiridon Potemkin. The Church Council of 1666 anathematized and cursed as heretics and rebellious all those who did not accept the reform.

Consequences of the split

— Many ordinary people experienced the abandonment of previous rituals as a national and personal catastrophe.

— The reform was carried out from an elite position.

— The reform was carried out with the help of violence, the essence of the pre-Nikon understanding of Christianity in Rus' was that it was impossible to force people to believe by force.

— Before the split, Rus' was spiritually united. The reform prepared the ground for the spread of disdainful sentiments towards national customs and forms of organizing everyday life.

— The consequence of the split was a certain confusion in the people's worldview. The Old Believers perceived history as “eternity in the present.” In the worldview of the New Believers, more material practicality and a desire to quickly achieve practical results appeared.

— The state persecuted the Old Believers. Repressions against them expanded after the death of Alexei, during the reign of Fyodor Alekseevich and Princess Sophia. In 1681, any distribution of ancient books and writings of the Old Believers was prohibited. In 1682, by order of Tsar Fedor, the most prominent leader of the schism, Avvakum, was burned. Under Sophia, a law was passed that finally prohibited any activity of schismatics. The Old Believers showed exceptional spiritual fortitude, responded to repression with acts of mass self-immolation, and burned entire clans and communities.

— The remaining Old Believers introduced a unique current into Russian spiritual and cultural thought and did a lot to preserve antiquity. The reform outlined a substitution of the main goals of education: instead of a person - the bearer of the highest spiritual principle, they began to prepare a person who performs a narrow range of certain functions.

The career of Moscow Patriarch Nikon developed very rapidly. In a fairly short period of time, the son of a peasant, who took monastic vows, became the abbot of the local monastery. Then, having made friends with Alexei Mikhailovich, the reigning tsar, he becomes the abbot of the Moscow Novospassky Monastery. After a two-year stay as Metropolitan of Novgorod, he was elected Patriarch of Moscow.

His aspirations were aimed at transforming the Russian Church into the center of Orthodoxy for the whole world. The reforms primarily affected the unification of rituals and the establishment of the same church service in all churches. Nikon took the rituals and rules of the Greek Church as a model. The innovations were accompanied by massive popular discontent. The result occurred in the 17th century.

Nikon's opponents - the Old Believers - did not want to accept the new rules; they called for a return to the rules adopted before the reform. Among the adherents of the former foundation, Archpriest Avvakum especially stood out. The disagreements that resulted in the church schism of the 17th century consisted of a dispute over whether to unify church service books according to the Greek or Russian model. They also could not come to a consensus on whether to cross themselves with three or two fingers, along the solar procession, or to make a religious procession against it. But these are only external reasons for the church schism. The main obstacle for Nikon was the intrigues of the Orthodox hierarchs and boyars, who were worried that the changes would entail a decline in the authority of the church among the population, and therefore their authority and power. The schismatic teachers carried away a considerable number of peasants with their passionate sermons. They fled to Siberia, the Urals, and the North and formed settlements of Old Believers there. The common people associated the deterioration of their lives with Nikon's transformations. Thus, the church schism of the 17th century also became a unique form of popular protest.

Its most powerful wave swept in 1668-1676, when it happened. This monastery had thick walls and a large supply of food, which attracted opponents of the reforms. They flocked here from all over Russia. The Razins were also hiding here. For eight years, 600 people stayed in the fortress. And yet, a traitor was found who allowed the king’s troops into the monastery through a secret hole. As a result, only 50 defenders of the monastery remained alive.

Archpriest Avvakum and his like-minded people were exiled to Pustozersk. There they spent 14 years in an earthen prison, and then were burned alive. Since then, the Old Believers began to self-immolate as a sign of disagreement with the reforms of the Antichrist - the new patriarch.

Nikon himself, through whose fault the church schism of the 17th century occurred, had an equally tragic fate. And all because he took on too much, allowed himself too much. Nikon finally received the coveted title of “great sovereign” and, declaring that he wanted to be the patriarch of all Rus', and not of Moscow, he defiantly left the capital in 1658. Eight years later, in 1666, at a church council with the participation of the Patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria, who also had all the powers from the patriarchs of Jerusalem and Constantinople, Patriarch Nikon was removed from his post. He was sent to exile near Vologda. Nikon returned from there after the death of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The former patriarch died in 1681 not far from Yaroslavl, and was buried in the city of Istra in Voskresensky according to his own plan, which was once built.

The religious crisis in the country, as well as the people's dissatisfaction on other issues, required immediate changes that met the challenges of the time. And the answer to these demands began at the beginning of the 18th century.