M. Gorbachev as a cultural phenomenon “...It seems to me that it is time to remove the halo of some kind of holiness, martyrdom and greatness from the figure of Gorbachev. This is an ordinary party worker who, due to circumstances, fell into history and contributed to the collapse of the huge Soviet state.

BBK 83.3(2 ros=rus)

Anastasia Mikhailovna Krasilnikova,

postgraduate student, St. Petersburg State University of Technology and Design (St. Petersburg, Russia), e-mail: [email protected]

Latin American literature in Russian book publishing

Latin American literature is popular all over the world, the history of its publication in Russia goes back 80 years, during which time a large amount of editorial experience has been accumulated, which needs to be analyzed. The work examines the reasons for the appearance of the first editions of Latin American literature in the USSR, changes in the choice of authors, circulation, preparation of the publishing apparatus in Soviet times and perestroika, as well as the state of publishing Latin American literature in modern Russia. The results of the work can be used in the preparation of new publications by Latin American authors, and can also become the basis for studying reader interest in Latin American literature in Russia. The paper concludes that readers have a strong interest in Latin American literature and suggests several ways in which its publication can develop.

Key words: Latin American literature, book publishing, publishing history, editing.

Anastasia Mikhailovna Krasilnikova,

Postgraduate Student, St. Petersburg State University of Technology and Design (St. Petersburg, Russia), e-mail: [email protected]

Latin American Literature in Russian Book Publishing

Latin American literature is popular all other the world, history of its publishing in Russia numbers 80 years, during this time the great experience of editing was accumulated, which is needed to be analyzed. The paper deals with the reasons for the appearance of the first publications of Latin American literature in the Soviet Union, changes in the selection of authors, number of printed copies and editing the secondary matter of publications in the Soviet period, as well as the state of publishing Latin American literature in modern Russia. The results of the research could be used in preparing new publications of Latin American authors as well as become a basis for research of the reader's interest in Latin American literature in Russia. The paper concludes that reader's interest in Latin American literature is strong and proposes several ways in which publishing of Latin American literature can develop.

Keywords: Latin American literature, book publishing, history of publishing, editing.

Latin American literature made itself known to the whole world in the middle of the 20th century. The reasons for the popularity of the “new” Latin American novel are many; In addition to cultural reasons, there were also economic reasons. Only in the 30s. last century, an extensive system of book publishing and, most importantly, book distribution began to emerge in Latin America. Until this moment, if something interesting could have appeared, no one would have known about it: the books were not published, let alone beyond the continent, beyond the borders of a single country.

However, over time, literary magazines and publishing houses began to appear. Thanks to the largest Argentine publishing house, Sudamericana, many authors have gained fame: for example, from this publishing house

The world fame of García Márquez began. One of the channels through which Latin American literature penetrated into Europe was, of course, Spain: “It is appropriate to emphasize here that at this time, despite the activities of the Sudamericana publishing house, it was Spain, or more precisely, Barcelona, ​​that followed all the processes taking place in literature , and served as a showcase for boom authors, most of whom were published by the Seik-Barral publishing house, which occupied a leading position in this sense. Some of the writers lived in this city for a long time: García Márquez, Vargas Llosa, Donoso, Edwards, Bruce Echenique, Benedetti and, finally, Onetti." The role of the Pre-mio Bibliotheca Brive award, established by this Barcelona publishing house, is also important: since in Spain

© A. M. Krasilnikova, 2012

No significant authors appeared at the institute; they tried to choose winners from Spanish-speaking countries (the winners of this prestigious prize were Vargas Llosa, Cabrera Infante, Haroldo Conti, Carlos Fuentos). Many Latin American writers have traveled widely, some of them lived in Europe for quite a long time. So Julio Cortazar lived for 30 years in Paris, and the French publishing house Gallimard also contributed to the spread of Latin American literature.

If with Europe everything is more or less clear: once translated, a book became famous and was translated into other European languages, then with the penetration of Latin American literature into the USSR the situation is much more complicated. European recognition of this or that author was not authoritative for the Soviet Union; rather, on the contrary, approval by ideological enemies could hardly have a positive impact on the publishing fate of the writer in the USSR

However, this does not mean that Latinos were banned. The very first book edition appeared back in 1932 - it was Cesar Vallejo’s novel “Tungsten” - a work in the spirit of socialist realism. The October Revolution attracted the attention of Latin American writers to the Soviet Union: “In Latin America, left-wing communist movements formed independently, practically without emissaries of the USSR, and left-wing ideology took a particularly strong position among the creative intelligentsia.” Cesar Vallejo visited the USSR three times - in 1928, 1929 and 1931, and shared his impressions in Parisian newspapers: “Driven by passion, enthusiasm and sincerity, the poet defends the achievements of socialism with propaganda pressure and dogmatism, as if borrowed from the pages of the newspaper Pravda ".

Another supporter of the Soviet Union was Pablo Neruda, about whom translator Ella Braginskaya said: “Neruda is one of those great dramatic figures of the 20th century.<...>, who became ideological friends of the USSR and in some incomprehensible, fatal way were happy to be deceived, like many of their peers in our country, and saw with us what they dreamed of seeing.” Neruda's books were actively published in the USSR from 1939 to 1989.

sideways, as a rule, they could not be identified with exemplary works of socialist realism, however, the political views of their authors made it possible for translators and editors to publish such works. The memoirs of L. Ospovat, who wrote the first book in Russian about Neruda’s work, are very indicative in this regard: “When asked whether he could be called a socialist realist, the Chilean poet grinned and said understandingly: “If you really need it, then you can.”

If in the 30s and 40s only a few publications appeared, then in the 50s more than 10 books by Latin American writers were published, and then this number increased.

Most of the publications that were prepared in Soviet times are distinguished by high-quality preparation. In relation to Latin American literature, this is important in two aspects. Firstly, Latin American realities, unknown and therefore incomprehensible to the Soviet reader, require commentary. And secondly, Latin American culture as a whole is characterized by the concept of “transculturation”, proposed by the Cuban anthropologist Fernando Ortiz, “... which does not mean the assimilation of one culture by another or the introduction of foreign elements of another into one of them, but the emergence as a result of cultural interaction of a new culture". In practice, this means that any Latin American author turns in his work to the world cultural heritage: the work of European writers and philosophers, the world epic, religious dogmas, reinterprets it and creates his own world. These references to a variety of works require intertextual commentary.

If intertextual commentary is important in scientific publications, then real commentary is an urgent need for any mass publication. These do not necessarily have to be notes; an introductory article can also prepare readers for getting to know the work.

Soviet publications can be accused of being too ideological, but they were produced very professionally. Famous translators and literary scholars participated in the preparation of the books, who were passionate about what they did, so most of the translations made in Soviet times, although imperfect, are in many ways superior to later ones. The same applies to

comments. Such famous translators as E. Braginskaya, M. Bylinka, B. Dubin, V. Stolbov, I. Terteryan, V. Kuteyshchikova, L. Sinyanskaya and others worked on the publications of Latin American authors.

The works of more than thirty Latin American writers have been translated into Russian and published in separate editions. Most of the authors are represented by two or three books, for example, Augusto Roa Bastos, the author of the famous anti-dictatorship novel “I, Supreme,” published only two books in the Soviet Union: “Son of Man” (M., 1967) and “ I, the Supreme" (M., 1980). However, there are authors who continue to be published today, for example, Jorge Amado's first book was published in 1951, and the last in 2011. His works have been published for sixty years without any significant interruptions. But there are few such authors: Miguel Angel Asturias was published in the USSR and Russia in 1958-2003, Mario Vargas Llosa in 1965-2011, Alejo Carpentier in 1968-2000, Gabriel García Márquez in 1971-2012, Julio Cortazar in 1971-2011, Carlos Fuentes in 1974-2011, Jorge Luis Borges in 1984-2011, Bioy Casares in 1987-2010.

The principles for selecting authors often remain unclear. First of all, of course, the writers of the “boom” were published, but not all of their works, and even not all of their authors, have yet been translated. Thus, the book by Lewis Harss “On the crest of a wave” (Luis Harss Into the mainstream; conversations with Latin-American writers), which is considered to be the first work that shaped the very concept of the “boom” of Latin American literature, includes ten authors. Nine of them have been translated into Russian and published, but the works of João Guimarães Rosa remain untranslated into Russian.

The “boom” itself took place in the 60s, but publications by Latin American writers in the USSR, as already mentioned, began to appear much earlier. The “new” novel was preceded by a long development. Already in the first half of the 20th century. Such venerable writers as Jorge Luis Borges and Jorge Amado worked, anticipating the “boom.” More writers, of course, are published in the 20th century, but not only. Thus, in 1964, poems by the Brazilian poet of the 18th century were translated and published into Russian. Thomas Antonio Gonzaga.

ny prizes awarded to him. Latin American writers include six Nobel Prize winners: Gabriela Mistral (1945), Miguel Angel Asturias Rosales (1967), Pablo Neruda (1971), Gabriel García Márquez (1982), Octavio Paz (1990), Mario Vargas Llosa (2010). All of them have been translated into Russian. However, the work of Gabriela Mistral is represented by only two books; Octavio Paz published four of them. This can be explained, first of all, by the fact that Spanish-language poetry is generally less popular in Russia than prose.

In the 80s, hitherto banned authors who did not share communist views began to appear. In 1984, the first edition by Jorge Luis Borges appeared.

If until the 90s the number of publications by Latin American writers grew steadily (more than 50 books were published in the 80s), then in the 90s there was a noticeable decline in everything: the number of publications sharply decreased, circulation fell, and the printing performance of books deteriorated. In the first half of the 90s, the usual for the USSR circulations of 50, 100 thousand were still possible, but in the second half the circulations were five, ten thousand and remain so to this day.

In the 90s There is a sharp reassessment of values: there are only a few authors left who continue to be published very actively. Collected works of Marquez, Cortazar, and Borges appear. The first collected works of Borges, published in 1994 (Riga: Polaris), are distinguished by a fairly high level of preparation: it included all the works translated at that time, accompanied by a detailed commentary.

During the period from 1991 to 1998, only 19 books were published, and the same number were published in 1999 alone. 1999 was a harbinger of the 2000s, when there was an unprecedented increase in the number of publications: in the period from 2000 to 2009. Over two hundred books by Latin American authors have been published. However, the total circulation was incomparably less than in the 80s, since the average circulation in the 2000s was five thousand copies.

Marquez and Cortazar are the constant favorites. The work that has been published in Russia more than any other work by a Latin American author is undoubtedly “One Hundred Years of Solitude.” Borges and Vargas Llosa continue to publish quite actively. Popularity by

The latter was facilitated by receiving the Nobel Prize in 2010: in 2011, 5 of his books were immediately published.

Publications of the early 21st century. distinguished by a minimum of preparation: as a rule, there are no introductory articles or comments in books - publishers prefer to publish a “bare” text, devoid of any accompanying apparatus. This is due to the desire to reduce the cost of the publication and reduce the time of its preparation. Another innovation is the publication of the same books in different designs - in different series. As a result, an illusion of choice appears: on the shelf in a bookstore there are several editions of “The Hopscotch Game,” but in reality it turns out that they are the same translation, the same text without an introductory article and without comments. It can be said that large publishing houses (AST, Eksmo) use names and titles known to readers as brands and do not care about wider familiarity of readers with the literature of Latin America.

Another topic that needs to be addressed is the lag of several years in the publication of works. Initially, many writers began to be published in the USSR when they had already become world famous. So “One Hundred Years of Solitude” was published in Argentina in 1967, in the USSR in 1971, and this was Marquez’s first book in Russia. Such a lag is typical for all Latin American publications, but for the USSR this was normal and was explained by the complex organization of book publishing. However, much later, even when the writers were well known in Russia and created new works, the delay in publication remained: Cortazar’s last novel, “Farewell Robinson,” was written in 1995, but it was published in Russia only in 2001.

At the same time, Marquez’s last novel, “Remembering My Sad Whores,” published in Spanish in 2004, was published in Russia a year later - in 2005. The same thing happened with Vargas Llosa’s novel “Adventures of a Bad Girl,” completed in 2006 . and published in Russia already in 2007. However, the novel by the same author “Paradise on the Other Corner”, written in 2003, was never translated. The interest of publishers in works imbued with eroticism is explained by an attempt to add scandal to the work of writers and to attract the attention of unprepared readers. Often this approach leads to a simplification of problems and incorrect presentation of works.

The fact that interest in Latin American literature continues even without artificial heating on the part of publishers is evidenced by the appearance of books by authors who were not published in the USSR. This is, for example, a writer of the early 20th century. Leopoldo Lugones; two authors who anticipated the emergence of the “new” Latin American novel - Juan José Arreola and Juan Rulfo; poet Octavio Paz and prose writer Ernesto Sabato - authors of the mid-20th century. These books were published both in publishing houses that periodically published Latin American literature (“Amphora”, “ABC”, “Symposium”, “Terra-Book Club”), and in those that had never previously been interested in Latin American writers (“Swallowtail” , “Don Quixote”, “Ivan Limbach Publishing House”).

Today, Latin American literature is represented in Russia by the works of prose writers (Mario Vargas Llosa, Ernesto Sabato, Juan Rulfo), poets (Gabriela Mistral, Octavio Paz, Leopoldo Lugones), playwrights (Emilio Carballido, Julio Cortazar). The vast majority are Spanish-language authors. The only actively published Portuguese-language author is Jorge Amado.

The first publications of Latin American authors in the USSR were caused by ideological reasons - the writers’ loyalty to the communist government, but thanks to this, Soviet readers discovered the world of Latin American literature and fell in love with it, which is confirmed by the fact that Latin Americans continue to be actively published in modern Russia.

During the Soviet years, the best translations and commentaries of Latin American works were created; with perestroika, much less attention was paid to the preparation of publications. Publishing houses were faced with a new problem for them in making money, and therefore the approach to book publishing completely changed, including changes in the publishing of Latin American literature: preference began to be given to mass publications with a minimum of preparation.

Today, print publications compete with the increasingly popular e-books. The text of almost any published work can be downloaded for free from the Internet, so it is unlikely that publishers will be able to exist without changing their strategy in preparing books. One of the ways is to improve printing performance and release expensive exclusive publications. So,

for example, the Vita Nova publishing house released in 2011 a luxurious leather-bound gift edition of “One Hundred Years of Solitude” by Gabriel Marquez. Another way is to release high-quality publications with detailed, conveniently structured

Lecture No. 26

Literature of Latin America

Plan

1. Distinctive features of Latin American literature.

2. Magic realism in the works of G. G. Marquez:

a) magical realism in literature;

b) a brief overview of the writer’s life and creative path;

c) the ideological and artistic originality of the novel “One Hundred Years of Solitude.”

1. Distinctive features of Latin American literature

In the mid-twentieth century, the Latin American novel experienced a real boom. The works of Argentine writers Jorge Luis Borges and Julio Cortazar, Cuban Alejo Carpentier, Colombian Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Mexican novelist Carlos Fuentes, and Peruvian prose writer Mario Vargas Lluos are becoming widely known not only outside their countries, but also outside the continent. Somewhat earlier, the Brazilian prose writer Jorge Amado and the Chilean poet Pablo Neruda won world recognition. Interest in Latin American literature was not accidental: there was a discovery of the culture of a distant continent with its own customs and traditions, nature, history and culture. But the point is not only the educational value of the works of Latin American writers. The prose of South America has enriched world literature with masterpieces, the appearance of which is natural. Latin American prose of the 60s and 70s compensated for the lack of epic. The authors listed above spoke on behalf of the people, telling the world about the formation of new nations as a result of the European invasion of the continent inhabited by Indian tribes, reflected the presence in the subconscious of the people of ideas about the Universe that existed in the pre-Columbian era, revealed the formation of a mythopoetic vision of natural and social disasters in conditions of synthesis various international cultures. In addition, turning to the novel genre required Latin American writers to assimilate and adapt genre patterns to specific literature.

Success for Latin American writers came as a result of the fusion of history and myth, epic traditions and avant-garde quests, the sophisticated psychologism of realists and the variety of visual forms of the Spanish Baroque. In the diversity of talents of Latin American writers, there is something that unites them, most often expressed by the formula “magical realism,” which captures the organic unity of fact and myth.

2. Magic realism in the works of G. G. Marquez

A. Magical realism in literature

The term magical realism was introduced by the German critic F. Roch in his monograph “Post-Expressionism” (1925), where the establishment of magical realism as a new method in art was stated. The term magical realism was originally used by Franz Roch to describe a painting that depicted an altered reality.

Magic realism is one of the most radical methods of artistic modernism, based on the rejection of the ontologization of visual experience characteristic of classical realism. Elements of this trend can objectively be found in the majority of representatives of modernism (although not all of them state their adherence to this method).

The term magical realism in relation to literature was first coined by the French critic Edmond Jaloux in 1931. He wrote: “The role of magical realism is to find in reality what is strange, lyrical and even fantastic in it - those elements thanks to which everyday life becomes accessible to poetic, surreal and even symbolic transformations.”

The same term was later used by Venezuelan Arturo Uslar-Petri to describe the works of some Latin American writers. Cuban writer Alejo Carpentier (a friend of Uslar-Petri) used the term lo real maravilloso (roughly translated - miraculous reality) in the preface to his story The Kingdom of the Earth (1949). Carpentier's idea was to describe a kind of heightened reality in which strange-looking elements of the miraculous could appear. Carpentier's works had a strong influence on the European boom of the genre, which began in the 60s of the 20th century.

Elements of magical realism:

• fantastical elements may be internally consistent but are never explained;
• the characters accept and do not challenge the logic of the magical elements;
• numerous sensory details;
• symbols and images are often used;
• the emotions and sexuality of humans as social beings are often described in great detail;
• the flow of time is distorted so that it is cyclical or appears to be absent. Another technique is the collapse of time, when the present repeats or resembles the past;
• cause and effect change places - for example, a character may suffer before tragic events;
• contains elements of folklore and/or legends;
• events are presented from alternative points of view, that is, the narrator's voice switches from third to first person, frequent transitions between the points of view of different characters and internal monologue regarding shared relationships and memories;
• the past contrasts with the present, the astral with the physical, characters with each other;
• The open ending of the work allows the reader to determine for himself what was more truthful and consistent with the structure of the world - fantastic or everyday.

B. Brief overview of the writer’s life and creative path

Gabriel Garcia Marquez(b. 1928) occupies a central place in the literature of the Latin American countries. Nobel Prize winner (1982). The Colombian writer, using specific historical material, was able to show the general patterns of the formation of civilization in South America. Combining the ancient pre-Columbian beliefs of the peoples who inhabited the distant continent with the traditions of European culture, revealing the originality of the national character of the Creoles and Indians, he, based on the material of the struggle for independence under the leadership of Simon Bolivar, who became the President of Colombia, created a heroic epic of his people. At the same time, based on reality, Márquez impressively revealed the tragic consequences of the civil wars that rocked Latin America over the past two centuries.

The future writer was born in the small town of Aracataca on the Atlantic coast into a family of hereditary military men. He studied at the Faculty of Law in Bogota and collaborated with the press. As a correspondent for one of the capital's newspapers, he visited Rome and Paris.

In 1957, during the World Festival of Youth and Students, he came to Moscow. Since the early 60s, Marquez has lived primarily in Mexico.

In the work, the action takes place in a provincial Colombian village. Somewhere nearby is the town of Macondo mentioned in the story, in which all the events of the novel “One Hundred Years of Solitude” (1967) will be concentrated. But if in the story “Nobody Writes to the Colonel” the influence of E. Hemingway, who portrayed similar characters, is noticeable, then in the novel the tradition of W. Faulkner is noticeable, who thoroughly recreated a tiny world in which the laws of the universe are reflected.

In the works created after One Hundred Years of Solitude, the writer continues to develop similar motifs. He is still occupied with a topical problem for Latin American countries: “the tyrant and the people.” In the novel “The Autumn of the Patriarch” (1975), Marquez creates the most generalized image of the ruler of an unnamed country. By resorting to grotesque images, the author makes visible the relationship between the totalitarian ruler and the people, based on suppression and voluntary submission, characteristic of the political history of Latin American countries in the twentieth century.

V. Ideological and artistic originality of the novel “One Hundred Years of Solitude”

The novel “One Hundred Years of Solitude” was published in 1967 in Buenos Aires. The writer worked on this work for 20 years. The success was stunning. The circulation amounted to more than half a million copies in 3.5 years, which is sensational for Latin America. The world started talking about a new era in the history of the novel and realism. The term “magical realism” appeared on the pages of numerous works. This is how they defined the narrative style inherent in Marquez’s novel and the works of many Latin American writers.

“Magical realism” is characterized by unlimited freedom, with which Latin American writers compare the sphere of grounded everyday life and the sphere of the hidden depths of consciousness.

The town of Macondo, founded by the ancestor of the Buenia family clan, the inquisitive and naive José Arcadio, has remained the center of action for a hundred years. This is an iconic image in which the local flavor of a semi-rural village and the features of a city characteristic of modern civilization have merged together.

Using folklore and mythological motifs and parodying various artistic traditions, Marquez created a phantasmagoric world, the history of which, refracting the real historical features of Colombia and all of Latin America, is also interpreted as a metaphor for the development of humanity as a whole.

The eccentric José Arcadio Buendia, the founder of the extensive Buendia family, in the village of Macondo he founded, succumbed to the temptation of the gypsy Melquiades and believed in the miraculous power of alchemy.

The author introduces alchemy into the novel not only to show the eccentricities of José Arcadio Buendia, who was alternately interested in the magic of magnetism, magnifying glasses, and spyglasses. In fact, José Arcadio Buendía, “the most intelligent man in the village, ordered the houses to be placed in such a way that no one had to spend more effort than the rest in going to the river for water; he laid out the streets so wisely that during the hottest hours of the day each dwelling received an equal amount of sunlight.” Alchemy in the novel is a kind of refrain of loneliness, not eccentricity. The alchemist is as eccentric as he is lonely. And yet loneliness is primary. It is quite possible to say that alchemy is the lot of single eccentrics. In addition, alchemy is a type of adventure, and in the novel, almost all the men and women belonging to the Buendia family are adventurers.

Spanish researcher Sally Ortiz Aponte believes that “Latin American literature bears the stamp of esotericism.” Belief in miracles and witchcraft, especially characteristic of the European Middle Ages, came to Latin American soil and was enriched by Indian myths. Magic as an integral part of existence is present not only in the works of Marquez, but also in other major Latin American writers - the Argentines Jorge Luis Borges and Julio Cortazar, the Guatemalan Miguel Angel Asturias and the Cuban Alejo Carpentier. Fiction as a literary device is generally characteristic of Spanish-language literature.

Alchemists have been chasing the philosopher's stone for more than a millennium. After all, it was believed that the lucky person who possessed it would not only become fabulously rich, but also receive a panacea for all diseases and ailments of old age.

The hero of the novel needed a philosopher's stone, because he dreamed of gold: “Seduced by the simplicity of the formulas for doubling gold, José Arcadio Buendia courted Ursula for several weeks, luring her permission to take out ancient coins from the treasured chest and enlarge them as many times as possible. divide the mercury... José Arcadio Buendia threw thirty doubloons into a pan and melted them along with orpiment, copper shavings, mercury and lead. Then he poured it all into a kettle with castor oil and boiled it over high heat until a thick, foul syrup was obtained, reminiscent not of double gold, but of ordinary molasses. After desperate and risky attempts at distillation, melting with seven planetary metals, treatment with hermetic mercury and vitriol, repeated boiling in lard - for lack of rare oil - Ursula's precious inheritance turned into burnt cracklings that could not be torn from the bottom of the pot.

We don’t think that García Márquez deliberately contrasted chemistry with alchemy, but it turned out that adventurers and losers were associated with alchemy, and quite decent people were associated with chemistry. Latin American researcher Maria Eulalia Montener Ferrer reveals the etymology of the Buendia surname, which sounds like the usual greeting buen dia - good afternoon. It turns out that for a long time this word had another meaning: this was the name given to Spanish-speaking immigrants from the Old World - “losers and mediocre people.”

The novel continues throughout the 19th century. However, this time is conditional, since the author presents events as occurring in a given specific period of time and always. The contours of the dates are vague, which gives the impression that the Buendia family originated in archaic times.

One of the strange shocks in the novel is associated with the loss of memory of the old and young Buendia, and then all the inhabitants of Macondo. The loss of the past threatens the people with deprivation of self-worth and integrity. The function of historical memory is performed by the epic. In Colombia, as in other countries of this continent, there was no heroic epic. Marquez takes on an exceptional mission: to compensate for the lack of epic with his creativity. The author saturates the narrative with myths, legends, and beliefs that existed in Latin American society. All this gives the novel a folk flavor.

The heroic epics of different nations are dedicated to the formation of the clan, and then the family. The unification of individual clans into a single clan occurred as a result of wars that divided people into friends and foes. But Marquez is a writer of the twentieth century, therefore, while maintaining an ethically neutral manner of recreating battle events, he nevertheless convinces that war, and especially civil war, is the greatest disaster of modern civilization.

The novel traces the family chronicle of six generations of Buendia. Some relatives turn out to be temporary guests in the family and on earth, die young or leave their father's house. Others, like Big Mama, remain the guardians of the family hearth for a century. In the Buendia family there are forces of attraction and repulsion. Blood ties are indissoluble, but Amaranta’s hidden hatred for her brother’s wife pushes her to commit crimes. And a super-personal desire for family binds José Arcadio and Rebeca not only by family ties, but also by marriage. Both of them are adopted in the Buendia family and, by marrying, they cement their devotion to the family. All this happens not as a result of calculation, but on a subconscious intuitive level.

The role of the epic hero is played in the novel by Aureliano Buendia. What makes an amateur poet and a modest jeweler leave their craft, leave the workshop into the vast world to fight, having, in fact, no political ideals? In the novel there is only one explanation for this: it was written in his destiny. The epic hero guesses his mission and carries it out.

Aureliano Buendía proclaimed himself a civil and military ruler, and at the same time a colonel. He is not a real colonel; at first he has only twenty young thugs under his arms. Entering the sphere of politics and war, Marquez does not abandon grotesque and fantastic techniques of writing, but strives for authenticity in the depiction of political cataclysms.

The hero’s biography begins with the famous phrase: “Colonel Aureliano Buendia raised thirty-two armed uprisings and lost all thirty-two. He had seventeen male children by seventeen women, and all his sons were killed in one single night before the eldest of them was thirty-five years old.”

Colonel Aureliano Buendia appears in the narrative in various guises. His subordinates and those around him see him in the realm of a hero; his mother considers him the executioner of his own people and his family. Showing miracles of courage, he is invulnerable to bullets, poison and daggers, but because of his carelessly thrown word, all his sons die.

An idealist, he leads an army of liberals, but soon realizes that his comrades are no different from his enemies, since both are fighting for power and land ownership. Having gained power, Colonel Buendia is doomed to complete loneliness and personality degradation. Repeating in his dreams the exploits of Bolivar and anticipating the political slogans of Che Guevara, the colonel dreams of a revolution throughout Latin America. The writer limits revolutionary events to the framework of one town, where in the name of his own ideas, neighbor shoots neighbor, brother shoots brother. The civil war, as interpreted by Marquez, is a fratricidal war in the literal and figurative sense.

The Buendia family is destined to last a hundred years. The names of their parents and grandfathers will be repeated in their descendants, their destinies will vary, but everyone who at birth receives the names Aureliano or Jose Arcadio will inherit family oddities and eccentricities, excessive passions and loneliness.

Loneliness, inherent in all Marquez's characters, is a passion for self-affirmation through trampling on loved ones. Loneliness becomes especially obvious when Colonel Aureliano, at the zenith of his glory, orders a circle with a diameter of three meters to be drawn around him so that no one, not even his mother, dares to approach him.

Only the ancestress Ursula is devoid of selfish feelings. As it fades, the family also dies out. Buendia will touch the blessings of civilization, they will be affected by banking fever, some of them will get rich, some will go bankrupt. But the time for the establishment of bourgeois laws is not their time. They belong to the historical past and quietly leave Macondo one by one. The unrecognizably changed city founded by the first Buendia will be demolished by a hurricane.

The stylistic diversity of the novel “One Hundred Years of Solitude”, the complex relationship between fantasy (the most important constructive element of the writer’s artistic world) and reality, the mixture of prosaic tone, poetry, fantasy, and grotesqueness reflect, in the author’s opinion, the “fantastic Latin American reality” itself, incredible and ordinary at the same time, most clearly illustrating the method of “magical realism” declared by Latin American prose writers of the second half of the twentieth century.

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7. Kofman, A.F. Latin American artistic image of the world / A.F. Kofman. - M., 1997.

8. Kuteyshchikova, V. N. New Latin American novel / V. N. Kuteyshchikova, L. S. Ospovat. - M., 1983.

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The victory over fascism entailed disruptions and the collapse of the colonial system in a number of formerly dependent countries of the African continent and Latin America. Liberation from military and economic domination and mass migrations during the Second World War led to an increase in national self-awareness. Liberation from colonial dependence in the second half of the 20th century led to the emergence of new literary continents. As a result of these processes, such concepts as the new Latin American novel, modern African prose and ethnic literature in the USA and Canada entered into reading and literary usage. Another important factor was the growth of planetary thinking, which did not allow for the “silence” of entire continents and the exclusion of cultural experience.

It is noteworthy that in the 1960s. In Russia, the so-called “multinational prose” is emerging - writers from among the indigenous peoples of Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Siberia.

The interaction of traditional literatures with new realities has enriched world literature and given impetus to the development of new mythopoetic images. Around the mid-1960s. It became clear that ethnic literatures, previously doomed to extinction or assimilation, could survive and develop in their own way within the dominant civilizations. The most striking phenomenon of the relationship between the ethnocultural factor and literature was the rise of Latin American prose.

Even in the first half of the 20th century, the literature of Latin American countries could not compete with the countries of Europe (and even the East), because were mostly aesthetic epigones. However, starting from the second half of the 20th century, many young writers began to build their creative path, focusing on local traditions. Having absorbed the experience of the European experimental school, they were able to develop an original national literary style.

For the 1960-70s. This is the period of the so-called “boom” of the Latin American novel. During these years, the term “magical realism” spread in European and Latin American criticism. In a narrow sense, it denotes a certain movement in Latin American literature of the second half of the 20th century. In a broad sense, it is understood as a constant of Latin American artistic thinking and a general property of the culture of the continent.

The concept of Latin American magical realism is intended to highlight and distinguish it from European mythology and fantasy. These features were clearly embodied in the first works of Latin American magical realism - the story by A. Carpentier “The Dark Kingdom” (1949) and the novel by M.A. Asturias "The Corn People" (1949).

In their heroes, the personal element is muted and does not interest the writer. The heroes act as carriers of collective mythological consciousness. It is this that becomes the main object of the image. At the same time, writers replace their view of a civilized person with that of a primitive person. Latin American realists highlight reality through the prism of mythological consciousness. As a result of this, the depicted reality undergoes fantastic transformations. Works of magical realism are built on the interaction of artistic resources. “Civilized” consciousness is comprehended and compared with the mythological one.

Throughout the 20th century, Latin America moved towards a flourishing of artistic creativity. A wide variety of trends have developed on the continent. Realism actively developed, an elitist-modernist (with echoes of European existentialism) and then a postmodernist direction arose. Jorge Luis Borges, Julio Cartazar Octavio Paz developed techniques and methods of “stream of consciousness” borrowed from Europe, the idea of ​​the absurdity of the world, “alienation”, and playful discourse.

Elite Latin American writers - Octavio Paz, Juan Carlos Onetti, Mario Vergas Llos - had a conversation with themselves, trying to identify personal uniqueness. They sought national identity within the confines of well-established European storytelling techniques. This gave them very limited fame.

The task of the “magical realists” was different: they directly addressed their message to humanity, combining the national and the universal in a unique synthesis. This explains their phenomenal success around the world.

The poetics and artistic principles of Latin American magical realism were formed under the influence of European avant-gardeism. The general interest in primitive thinking, magic, and primitive art that gripped Europeans in the first third of the 20th century stimulated the interest of Latin American writers in Indians and African Americans. In the bosom of European culture, the concept of the fundamental difference between pre-rationalistic thinking and civilized thinking was created. This concept will be actively developed by Latin American writers.

From the avant-garde artists, mainly the surrealists, Latin American writers borrowed some principles of the fantastic transformation of reality. The European abstract “savage” acquired ethnocultural concreteness and clarity in the works of magical realism.

The concept of different types of thinking was projected into the area of ​​cultural and civilizational confrontation between Latin America and Europe. The European surreal dream was replaced by a real-life myth. At the same time, Latin American writers relied not only on Indian and South American mythology, but also on the traditions of American chronicles of the 16th and 17th centuries. and their abundance of miraculous elements.

The ideological basis of magical realism was the writer’s desire to identify and affirm the originality of Latin American reality and culture, which is combined with the mythological consciousness of an Indian or African American.

Latin American magical realism had a significant impact on European and North American literature, and especially on the literature of the Third World.

In 1964, Costa Rican writer Joaquín Gutiérrez wrote in an article “On the Eve of the Great Bloom” reflected on the fate of the novel in Latin America: “Speaking of the characteristic features of the Latin American novel, we should first of all point out that it is relatively young. A little more than a hundred years have passed since its inception, and in Latin America there are countries where the first novel appeared only in our century. During the three-hundred-year colonial period of Latin American history, not a single novel was published - and, as far as we know, not written!... Over the past twenty years, the Latin American novel has moved forward with great momentum... While remaining Latin American, our novel has recently become more universal. And I think we can safely predict that he is on the eve of an era of great prosperity... A colossal novelist has not yet appeared in our literature, but we are not trailing behind. Let’s remember what we said at the beginning - that our romance dates back a little over a hundred years - and let’s wait some more time.”.

These words became prophetic for the Latin American novel. In 1963, the novel “Hopscotch” by Julio Cortazar appeared, in 1967, “One Hundred Years of Solitude” by Gabriel García Márquez, which became a classic of Latin American literature.

Topic: Japanese literature.

In 1868, events took place in Japan called the “Meiji Restoration” (translated as “enlightened rule”). There was a restoration of the power of the emperor and the fall of the system of samurai rule of the shogunate. These events led Japan to follow the path of the European powers. Foreign policy is changing sharply, the “opening of doors” is announced, the end of external isolation that has lasted more than two centuries, and the implementation of a number of reforms. These dramatic changes in the life of the country were reflected in the literature of the Meiji period (1868-1912). During this time, the Japanese went from being overly enthusiastic about everything European to disappointment, from boundless delight to despair.

A distinctive feature of the traditional Japanese method is the author's indifference. The writer describes everything that comes into view in everyday reality, without giving judgment. The desire to depict things without introducing anything from oneself is explained by the Buddhist attitude towards the world as non-existent, illusory. One's own experiences are described in the same way. The essence of the traditional Japanese method lies precisely in the author’s non-involvement in what is being discussed, the author “follows the brush,” the movement of his soul. The text contains a description of what the author saw or heard, experienced, but there is no desire to understand what is happening. There is no traditional European analyticism in them. The words of Daiseku Suzuki about Zen art can be attributed to all classical Japanese literature: “They sought to convey with their brush what moves them from within. They themselves were not aware of how to express the inner spirit, and expressed it with a cry or a blow of the brush. Maybe this is not art at all, because there is no art in what they did. And if there is, it is very primitive. But is it? Could we succeed in “civilization,” in other words, in artifice, if we strived for artlessness? This was precisely the goal and basis of all artistic quests.”

In the Buddhist worldview, which underlies Japanese literature, there could be no desire to explore human life, to understand its meaning, because the truth lies on the other side of the visible world and is inaccessible to understanding. It can only be experienced in a special state of mind, in a state of highest concentration, when a person merges with the world. In this system of thinking there was no idea of ​​​​creating the world; Buddha did not create the world, but understood it. Therefore, man was not looked at as a potential creator. From the point of view of Buddhist theory, a living being is not a being living in the world, but a being experiencing the world. In this system of values, a method of analysis that presupposes separation could not appear. Hence the indifferent attitude towards what is depicted, when the writer feels himself both a participant and a spectator of the events described.

Therefore, traditional Japanese literature is not characterized by torment, lamentation, and doubt. There are no internal struggles in it, no desire to change fate, challenge fate, all that permeates European literature, starting from ancient tragedy.

For many centuries, the aesthetic ideal has been embodied in Japanese poetry

Yasunari Kawabata (1899-1975)- classic of Japanese literature. In 1968, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for “writing that expresses with great force the essence of Japanese thought.”

Yasunari Kawabata was born in Osaka into the family of a doctor. He lost his parents early, and then his grandfather, who raised him. He lived with relatives, feeling bitterly about being an orphan. During my school years I dreamed of becoming an artist, but my passion for literature turned out to be stronger. His first writing experience was “The Diary of a Sixteen-Year-Old,” which conveyed sentiments of sadness and loneliness.

His student years were spent at the University of Tokyo, where Kawabata Yasunari studied English and Japanese philology. At this time, an acquaintance with the works of the greatest Japanese and European writers and Russian literature took place. After graduating from university, he works as a reviewer, publishing reviews of published books. During these years, he was part of a group of “neosensualist” writers who were sensitive to new trends in the literature of European modernism. One of Kawabata Yasunari’s stories “Crystal Fantasy” (1930) was often called “Joycean”; in its structure and style of writing, the influence of the author of “Ulysses” was felt. The story is a stream of memories of the heroine, her whole life emerges in a series of “crystalline” moments flashing in her memory. Reproducing the stream of consciousness, conveying the work of memory, Kawabata was largely guided by Joyce and Proust. Like other writers of the 20th century, he did not ignore modernist experiments. But at the same time, he remains an exponent of the originality and originality of Japanese thinking. Kawabata maintains strong ties to the national Japanese tradition. Kawabata wrote: " Having become fascinated by modern Western literature, I sometimes tried to imitate its images. But I am fundamentally an Eastern person and have never lost sight of my own path ».

The poetics of Kawabata Yasunari's works are characterized by the following traditional Japanese motifs:

Spontaneity and clarity of conveying a heartfelt feeling for nature and man;

Merging with nature

Close attention to detail;

The ability to reveal enchanting beauty in everyday and small things;

Laconism in reproducing the nuances of mood;

Quiet sadness, wisdom bestowed by life.

All this allows you to feel the harmony of existence with its eternal secrets.

The originality of Kawabata Yasunari’s poetic prose was manifested in the stories “The Dancer from Izidu” (1926), “Snow Country” (1937), “A Thousand Cranes” (1949), “Lake” (1954), in the novels “The Moan of the Mountain” (1954), "Old Capital" (1962). All works are imbued with lyricism and a high level of psychologism. They describe Japanese traditions, customs, features of life and behavior of people. For example, in the story “A Thousand Cranes” the ritual of tea drinking, the “tea ceremony”, which is important in the life of the Japanese, is reproduced in every detail. The aesthetics of the tea ritual, as well as other customs that are always written out in detail, by no means isolate Kawabata from the problems of the modern era. He survived two world wars, the destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by atomic bomb explosions, and the Japanese-Chinese wars in his memory. Therefore, traditions associated with the concept of peace, harmony and beauty, and not with the exaltation of military power and samurai valor, are especially dear to him. Kawabata protects the souls of people from the cruelty of confrontation

Kawabata's work developed under the influence of Zen aesthetics. In accordance with the teachings of Zen, reality is understood as an indivisible whole, and the true nature of things can only be comprehended intuitively. It is not analysis and logic, but feeling and intuition that bring us closer to revealing the essence of phenomena, the eternal mystery. Not everything can be expressed in words and not everything needs to be said to the end. A mention or a hint is enough. The charm of understatement has an impressive power. These principles, developed over the centuries in Japanese poetry, are also realized in the work of Kawabata.

Kawabata sees the beauty of the ordinary, his life surroundings. He depicts nature, the world of plants, and scenes of everyday life in a lyrical way, with the insightful wisdom of humanity. The writer shows the life of nature and the life of man in their commonality, in continuous interpenetration. This reveals a feeling of belonging to the absolute of nature, the universe. Kawabata has the ability to recreate the atmosphere of reality, for this he accurately selects authentic colors and smells of his native land.

One of the central aspects of the aesthetics of Japanese art is the idea of ​​the sad charm of things. The beautiful in classical Japanese literature has an elegiac tone, poetic images are imbued with a mood of sadness and melancholy. In poetry, as in a traditional garden, there is nothing superfluous, nothing unnecessary, but there is always imagination, a hint, a certain incompleteness and surprise. The same feeling arises when reading Kawabata’s books; the reader discovers the author’s complex attitude towards his characters: sympathy and sympathy, mercy and tenderness, bitterness, pain. Kawabata's work is full of traditional Japanese contemplation, humor, and a subtle understanding of nature and its impact on the human soul. It reveals the inner world of a person striving for happiness. One of the main themes of his work is sadness, loneliness, and the impossibility of love.

In the most ordinary, in a small detail of boring everyday life, something essential is revealed, revealing a person’s state of mind. Details are constantly in the focus of Kawabata's vision. However, his objective world does not suppress the movement of character; the narrative contains psychological analysis and is distinguished by great artistic taste.

Many chapters of Kawabata’s works begin with lines about nature, which seem to set the tone for the subsequent narrative. Sometimes nature is just the background against which the characters’ lives unfold. But sometimes it seems to take on an independent meaning. The author seems to encourage us to learn from her, to comprehend her unknown secrets, seeing in communication with nature unique ways of moral and aesthetic improvement of man. Kawabata's work is characterized by a sense of the grandeur of nature and the sophistication of visual perception. Through images of nature, he reveals the movements of the human soul, and therefore many of his works are multifaceted and have hidden subtext. Kawabata's language is an example of Japanese style. Brief, succinct, deep, it has imagery and impeccable metaphor.

The poetry of the rose, high literary skill, humanistic thought about caring for nature and man, for the traditions of national art - all this makes Kawabata’s art an outstanding phenomenon in Japanese literature and in the global art of words.