3.4. Reading as an essential component of the process of literary education USEFUL QUOTE “Reading a work of art is a complex creative process, which is a fusion of pictures of objective reality, depicted, understood and evaluated by the writer, and

CHAPTER 4 Organization of the process of literary education Key words: organizational form of education, extracurricular activities, classification of lessons, non-traditional lesson, lesson structure, independent activity. USEFUL QUOTE “Organizational form of training -

4.1. Forms of organizing the process of literary education The main forms of organizing the process of literary education of schoolchildren are: lesson; independent activity of students; extracurricular activities. Successful implementation of the literary process

Pushkin's estates and parks in the verses of Russian poets of the late 18th - early 20th centuries Anthology Wonderful estates and parks, where the great Pushkin lived and worked, attract more and more pilgrims every year, seeking not just to see the sights and find out what -

For what and to whom did Kudzhava pray in poems and songs of the late fifties and early sixties? Although many of Okudzhava’s creations were born at a time when the word “God” was avoided as much as possible in works of art, in his writings,

Advanced Russian literature has always spoken out in defense of the people, always sought to truthfully illuminate the conditions of their life, to show their spiritual wealth - and its role in the development of self-awareness of Russian people was exceptional.

Since the 80s. Russian literature began to widely penetrate abroad, amazing foreign readers with its love for man and faith in him, with his passionate denunciation of social evil, with his ineradicable desire to make life more just. Readers were attracted by the tendency of Russian authors to create broad pictures of Russian life, in which the depiction of the fate of the heroes was intertwined with the formulation of many fundamental social, philosophical and moral problems.

By the beginning of the 20th century. Russian literature began to be perceived as one of the powerful streams of the world literary process. Noting the unusual nature of Russian realism in connection with Gogol’s centenary, English writers wrote: “...Russian literature has become a torch shining brightly in the darkest corners of Russian national life. But the light of this torch spread far beyond the borders of Russia - it illuminated the whole of Europe.”

Russian literature (in the person of Pushkin, Gogol, Turgenev, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy) was recognized as the highest art of speech due to its unique attitude towards the world and man, revealed by original artistic means. Russian psychologism, the ability of Russian authors to show the interconnection and conditionality of social, philosophical and moral problems, the genre looseness of Russian writers who created the free form of the novel, and then the short story and drama, were perceived as something new.

In the 19th century Russian literature adopted a lot from world literature, now it generously enriched it.

Having become the property of foreign readers, Russian literature widely introduced them to the little-known life of a huge country, to the spiritual needs and social aspirations of its people, to their difficult historical fate.

The importance of Russian literature increased even more on the eve of the first Russian revolution - both for Russian (which had grown significantly in number) and for foreign readers. The words of V.I. Lenin in the work “What to do?” are very significant. (1902) about the need to think “about the worldwide significance that Russian literature is now acquiring.”

Both literature of the 19th century and modern literature helped to understand what exactly contributed to the maturation of the explosion of popular anger and what the general state of modern Russian reality was.

L. Tolstoy’s merciless criticism of the state and social foundations of Russian life, Chekhov’s depiction of the everyday tragedy of this life, Gorky’s search for the true hero of new history and his call “Let the storm strike stronger!” - all this, despite the difference in the writers' worldviews, indicated that Russia found itself at a sharp turning point in its history.

The year 1905 marked the beginning of the “end of the “eastern” immobility” in which Russia found itself, and foreign readers sought an answer to the question of how all this happened in the most accessible source to them - Russian literature. And it is quite natural that special attention has now begun to attract the work of modern writers, reflecting the mood and social aspirations of Russian society. At the turn of the century, translators of fiction were paying great attention to which works were most successful in Russia, and were rushing to translate them into Western European languages. Released in 1898–1899 Three volumes of “Essays and Stories” brought Gorky all-Russian fame; in 1901 he was already a famous writer in Europe.

At the beginning of the 20th century. there was no doubt that Russia, which had learned a lot from the historical experience of Europe, was itself beginning to play a huge role in the world historical process, hence the increasingly increasing role of Russian literature in revealing changes in all areas of Russian life and in the psychology of Russian people.

Turgenev and Gorky called the liberated Russia “teenager” in the European family of nations; Now this teenager was turning into a giant, calling to follow him.

V.I. Lenin's articles about Tolstoy show that the global significance of his work (Tolstoy was already recognized as a world genius during his lifetime) is inseparable from the global significance of the first Russian revolution. Viewing Tolstoy as an exponent of the sentiments and aspirations of the patriarchal peasantry, Lenin wrote that Tolstoy with remarkable power reflected “the features of the historical originality of the entire first Russian revolution, its strength and its weakness.” At the same time, Lenin clearly outlined the boundaries of the material subject to the writer’s depiction. “The era to which L. Tolstoy belongs,” he wrote, “and which was reflected in remarkable relief both in his brilliant works of art and in his teaching, is the era after 1861 and before 1905.”

The work of the greatest writer of the new century, Gorky, was inextricably linked with the Russian revolution, who reflected in his work the third stage of the liberation struggle of the Russian people, which led him to 1905, and then to the socialist revolution.

And not only Russian, but also foreign readers perceived Gorky as a writer who saw a true historical figure of the 20th century. in the person of the proletarian and who showed how the psychology of the working masses changes under the influence of new historical circumstances.

Tolstoy depicted with amazing power a Russia already receding into the past. But, recognizing that the existing system is becoming obsolete and that the 20th century is the century of revolutions, he still remained faithful to the ideological foundations of his teaching, his preaching of non-resistance to evil through violence.

Gorky showed Russia as it replaced the old one. He becomes the singer of young, new Russia. He is interested in the historical modification of the Russian character, the new psychology of the people, in which, unlike previous and a number of modern writers, he looks for and reveals anti-humble and strong-willed traits. And this makes Gorky’s work especially significant.

The confrontation between two great artists in this regard - Tolstoy, who has long been perceived as the pinnacle of realistic literature of the 19th century, and the young writer, reflecting in his work the leading trends of modern times, was caught by many contemporaries.

K. Kautsky’s response to the novel “Mother” he had just read in 1907 is very characteristic. “Balzac shows us,” Kautsky wrote to Gorky, “more accurately than any historian, the character of young capitalism after the French Revolution; and if, on the other hand, I managed to understand Russian affairs to some extent, then I owe this not so much to Russian theoreticians as, perhaps to an even greater extent, to Russian writers, primarily Tolstoy and you. But if Tolstoy teaches me to understand the Russia that was, then your works teach me to understand the Russia that will be; understand the forces that are nurturing a new Russia.”

Later, saying that “Tolstoy, more than any other Russian, plowed and prepared the ground for a violent explosion,” S. Zweig will say that it was not Dostoevsky or Tolstoy who showed the world the amazing Slavic soul, but Gorky allowed the amazed West understand what and why happened in Russia in October 1917, and will especially highlight Gorky’s novel “Mother”.

Giving a high assessment of Tolstoy’s work, V.I. Lenin wrote: “The era of preparation for the revolution in one of the countries oppressed by the feudal owners, thanks to Tolstoy’s brilliant illumination, appeared as a step forward in the artistic development of all mankind.”

Gorky became the writer who illuminated with great artistic force the pre-revolutionary moods of Russian society and the era of 1905–1917, and thanks to this illumination, the revolutionary era, which ended with the October Socialist Revolution, in turn, was a step forward in the artistic development of mankind. By showing those who walked towards this revolution and then carried it out, Gorky opened a new page in the history of realism.

Gorky’s new concept of man and social romanticism, his new coverage of the problem of “man and history,” the writer’s ability to identify the sprouts of the new everywhere, the huge gallery he created of people representing old and new Russia - all this contributed to both the expansion and deepening of artistic knowledge of life. New representatives of critical realism also made their contribution to this knowledge.

So, for the literature of the early 20th century. The simultaneous development of critical realism, which at the turn of the century was experiencing a time of renewal, but without losing its critical pathos, and socialist realism, became characteristic. Noting this remarkable feature of the literature of the new century, V. A. Keldysh wrote: “In the context of the revolution of 1905–1907. For the first time, that type of literary relationship arose, which was later destined to play such a significant role in the world literary process of the 20th century: “old”, critical realism develops simultaneously with socialist realism, and the appearance of signs of a new quality in critical realism is largely the result of this interaction.”

Socialist realists (Gorky, Serafimovich) did not forget that the origins of a new image of life go back to the artistic quests of such realists as Tolstoy and Chekhov, while some representatives of critical realism began to master the creative principles of socialist realism.

Such coexistence would later be characteristic of other literatures during the years of the emergence of socialist realism in them.

The simultaneous flowering of a significant number of great and dissimilar talents, noted by Gorky as the uniqueness of Russian literature of the last century, was also characteristic of the literature of the new century. The creativity of its representatives develops, as in the previous period, in close artistic relationships with Western European literature, also revealing its artistic originality. Like the literature of the 19th century, it has enriched and continues to enrich world literature. Particularly indicative in this case is the work of Gorky and Chekhov. Under the sign of the artistic discoveries of the revolutionary writer, Soviet literature will develop; his artistic method will also have a great influence on the creative development of democratic writers in the foreign world. Chekhov's innovation was not immediately recognized abroad, but starting in the 20s. it found itself in the sphere of intensive study and development. World fame first came to Chekhov the playwright, and then to Chekhov the prose writer.

The work of a number of other authors was also noted for innovation. Translators, as we have already said, paid attention in the 1900s. attention to both the works of Chekhov, Gorky, Korolenko, and the works of writers who came to prominence on the eve and during the years of the first Russian revolution. They especially followed the writers grouped around the publishing house “Znanie”. L. Andreev’s responses to the Russo-Japanese War and the rampant tsarist terror (“Red Laughter,” “The Tale of the Seven Hanged Men”) became widely known abroad. Interest in Andreev’s prose did not disappear even after 1917. The trembling heart of Sashka Zhegulev found an echo in distant Chile. A young student of one of the Chilean lyceums, Pablo Neruda, will sign with the name of St. Andrew’s hero, whom he chose as a pseudonym, his first major work, “Festive Song,” which will receive a prize at the “Spring Festival” in 1921.

Andreev's dramaturgy, which anticipated the emergence of expressionism in foreign literature, also gained fame. In “Letters on Proletarian Literature” (1914), A. Lunacharsky pointed out the overlap between individual scenes and characters in E. Barnavol’s play “Cosmos” and Andreev’s play “Tsar Hunger.” Later, researchers will note the impact of Andreevsky drama on L. Pirandello, O’Neill and other foreign playwrights.

Among the features of the literary process of the early 20th century. The extraordinary variety of dramaturgical searches and the rise of dramatic thought should be attributed. At the turn of the century, Chekhov's theater appeared. And before the viewer had time to master the innovation of Chekhov’s psychological drama that amazed him, a new, social drama by Gorky appeared, and then the unexpected expressionist drama of Andreev. Three special dramaturgies, three different stage systems.

Simultaneously with the enormous interest shown in Russian literature abroad at the beginning of the new century, interest in old and new Russian music, the art of opera, ballet, and decorative painting is also growing. A major role in arousing this interest was played by concerts and performances organized by S. Diaghilev in Paris, performances by F. Chaliapin, and the first trip of the Moscow Art Theater abroad. In the article “Russian Performances in Paris” (1913), Lunacharsky wrote: “Russian music has become a completely definite concept, including the characteristics of freshness, originality and, above all, enormous instrumental skill.”

At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, all aspects of Russian life were radically transformed: politics, economics, science, technology, culture, art. Various, sometimes directly opposite, assessments of the socio-economic and cultural prospects for the country's development arise. What becomes common is the feeling of the onset of a new era, bringing a change in the political situation and a revaluation of previous spiritual and aesthetic ideals. Literature could not help but respond to the fundamental changes in the life of the country. There is a revision of artistic guidelines and a radical renewal of literary techniques. At this time, Russian poetry was developing especially dynamically. A little later, this period will be called the “poetic renaissance” or the Silver Age of Russian literature.

Realism at the beginning of the 20th century

Realism does not disappear, it continues to develop. L.N. is still actively working. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov and V.G. Korolenko, M. Gorky, I.A. have already powerfully declared themselves. Bunin, A.I. Kuprin... Within the framework of the aesthetics of realism, the creative individuality of writers of the 19th century, their civic position and moral ideals found a vivid manifestation - realism equally reflected the views of authors who shared a Christian, primarily Orthodox, worldview - from F.M. Dostoevsky to I.A. Bunin, and those for whom this worldview was alien - from V.G. Belinsky to M. Gorky.

However, at the beginning of the 20th century, many writers were no longer satisfied with the aesthetics of realism - new aesthetic schools began to emerge. Writers unite in various groups, put forward creative principles, participate in polemics - literary movements are established: symbolism, acmeism, futurism, imagism, etc.

Symbolism at the beginning of the 20th century

Russian symbolism, the largest of the modernist movements, arose not only as a literary phenomenon, but also as a special worldview that combines artistic, philosophical and religious principles. The date of emergence of the new aesthetic system is considered to be 1892, when D.S. Merezhkovsky made a report "On the causes of the decline and on new trends in modern Russian literature." It proclaimed the main principles of future symbolists: “mystical content, symbols and the expansion of artistic impressionability.” The central place in the aesthetics of symbolism was given to the symbol, an image with the potential inexhaustibility of meaning.

The symbolists contrasted the rational knowledge of the world with the construction of the world in creativity, the knowledge of the environment through art, which V. Bryusov defined as “comprehension of the world in other, non-rational ways.” In the mythology of different nations, symbolists found universal philosophical models with the help of which it is possible to comprehend the deep foundations of the human soul and solve the spiritual problems of our time. Representatives of this trend also paid special attention to the heritage of Russian classical literature - new interpretations of the works of Pushkin, Gogol, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Tyutchev were reflected in the works and articles of the symbolists. Symbolism gave culture the names of outstanding writers - D. Merezhkovsky, A. Blok, Andrei Bely, V. Bryusov; the aesthetics of symbolism had a huge influence on many representatives of other literary movements.

Acmeism at the beginning of the 20th century

Acmeism was born in the bosom of symbolism: a group of young poets first founded the literary association “Poets Workshop”, and then proclaimed themselves representatives of a new literary movement - acmeism (from the Greek akme - the highest degree of something, blossoming, peak). Its main representatives are N. Gumilev, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, O. Mandelstam. Unlike the symbolists, who sought to know the unknowable and comprehend higher essences, the Acmeists again turned to the value of human life, the diversity of the vibrant earthly world. The main requirement for the artistic form of works was the pictorial clarity of images, verified and precise composition, stylistic balance, and precision of details. Acmeists assigned the most important place in the aesthetic system of values ​​to memory - a category associated with the preservation of the best domestic traditions and world cultural heritage.

Futurism at the beginning of the 20th century

Derogatory reviews of previous and contemporary literature were given by representatives of another modernist movement - futurism (from the Latin futurum - future). A necessary condition for the existence of this literary phenomenon, its representatives considered an atmosphere of outrageousness, a challenge to public taste, and a literary scandal. The Futurists' desire for mass theatrical performances with dressing up, painting faces and hands was caused by the idea that poetry should come out of books onto the square, to sound in front of spectators and listeners. Futurists (V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov, D. Burliuk, A. Kruchenykh, E. Guro, etc.) put forward a program for transforming the world with the help of new art, which abandoned the legacy of its predecessors. At the same time, unlike representatives of other literary movements, in substantiating their creativity they relied on fundamental sciences - mathematics, physics, philology. The formal and stylistic features of Futurism poetry were the renewal of the meaning of many words, word creation, the rejection of punctuation marks, special graphic design of poems, depoetization of language (the introduction of vulgarisms, technical terms, the destruction of the usual boundaries between “high” and “low”).

Conclusion

Thus, in the history of Russian culture, the beginning of the 20th century was marked by the emergence of diverse literary movements, various aesthetic views and schools. However, original writers, true artists of words, overcame the narrow framework of declarations, created highly artistic works that outlived their era and entered the treasury of Russian literature.

The most important feature of the beginning of the 20th century was the universal craving for culture. Not being at the premiere of a play in the theater, not being present at an evening of an original and already sensational poet, in literary drawing rooms and salons, not reading a newly published book of poetry was considered a sign of bad taste, unmodern, unfashionable. When a culture becomes a fashionable phenomenon, this is a good sign. “Fashion for culture” is not a new phenomenon for Russia. This was the case during the time of V.A. Zhukovsky and A.S. Pushkin: let’s remember the “Green Lamp” and “Arzamas”, “Society of Lovers of Russian Literature”, etc. At the beginning of the new century, exactly a hundred years later, the situation practically repeated itself. The Silver Age replaced the Golden Age, maintaining and preserving the connection of times.

When does the 20th century begin? Chronological boundary - from 1900 – 1901. , but it gives almost nothing in the sense of distinguishing eras. The first milestone of the new century is the revolution of 1905. The revolution passed, there was some calm - until the First World War. Akhmatova recalled this time in “Poem Without a Hero”: And along the legendary embankment the not calendar, the real twentieth century was approaching...

General characteristics of the era n At the turn of the eras, the worldview of a person who understood that the previous era was gone forever became different. The socio-economic and general cultural prospects of Russia began to be assessed completely differently. The new era was defined by contemporaries as “borderline.”

General characteristics of the era n Previous forms of life, work, and socio-political organization became history. The established, previously seemingly unchangeable, system of spiritual values ​​was radically revised. It is not surprising that the edge of the era was symbolized by the word “Crisis”. This “fashionable” word roamed the pages of journalistic and literary-critical articles along with the similar words “revival”, “turning point”, “crossroads”, etc.

A CRISIS? ? ? If there are ideas of time, then there are also forms of time V. G. Belinsky

The end of the 19th century revealed the deepest crisis phenomena in the economy of the Russian Empire. The reform of 1861 by no means decided the fate of the peasantry, who dreamed of “land and freedom.” This situation led to the emergence in Russia of a new revolutionary teaching - Marxism, which relied on the growth of industrial production and a new progressive class - the proletariat. In politics, this meant a transition to an organized struggle of the united masses, the result of which was to be the violent overthrow of the state system and the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat. The former methods of populist educators and populist terrorists have finally become a thing of the past.

The First World War turned out to be a disaster for the country, pushing it towards an inevitable revolution. February 1917 and the ensuing anarchy led to the October Revolution. As a result, Russia acquired a completely different face. n Throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the main background of literary development was tragic social contradictions, as well as the dual combination of difficult economic modernization and the revolutionary movement.

Changes in everything Changes in science occurred at a rapid pace, philosophical ideas about the world and man changed, and arts close to literature developed rapidly. Scientific and philosophical views at certain stages of cultural history radically influence the creators of words, who sought to reflect the paradoxes of time in their works. n

Why and how does literature change? Literary scholars answer this question from the present, analyzing the past. Writers, writing in the present, even if they describe the past, try to comprehend and show the future emerging in the present.

XVIII century New Russian literature was born in the 18th century and embodied an individual, living person on its pages. n Man becomes the central figure of social life, and literature begins a deep study of him n

19th century n n n Writers of the 19th century embodied the inner world of a person against the backdrop of real pictures of life, and historical time was a necessary basis for creating an artistic image. The works show the “history of the soul” of a person, its development over time. The main theme of the century: HERO AND TIME or MAN AND SOCIETY

A writer, unless he is a Wave and the ocean is Russia, cannot help but be outraged when the elements are outraged. A writer, if only he is the nerve of a great people, cannot help but be struck when freedom is struck. Ya. P. Polonsky

The emergence of new heroes n Historical transformations (wars, revolutions) could not but affect art. In search of ways out of the crisis, writers began to look for special people and bring them to the pages of their books. Those that can prevent the country from sliding into the abyss.

“A poet in Russia is more than a poet” (E. Yevtushenko) When artists accept revolution as a way to reorganize life, a new era is born, and with it new artistic thinking, new problems n Literary manifestos appear, which are united by nihilism - the absolute denial of the past . n

Time stopped. Is it possible for man in such an era? n n We must fight, fight, create new art, reorganize life. The new “picture of the world” sacrifices details. Therefore, laconic forms arise that can reveal the deep essence of the phenomenon. A person’s personality is depicted in a dramatic collision with the entire hostile world opposing it

Man, as the center of the literary universe, gives way to the elements. The elements and evolution are incompatible n There is no longer a real person, because there is no historical time, but there is absolute (aesthetic) time n The place of the human soul is taken by a social function n The general becomes more significant than the private n

Proletarian poets Bravely, comrades, keep up! Having become stronger in spirit in the struggle, Let us pave the way for ourselves to the kingdom of freedom with our breasts! L. Radin We are blacksmiths, and our spirit is young, We forge the keys to happiness! . Rise higher, heavy hammer, Knock harder on the steel chest! F. Shkulev

Man-god in the works of modernist poets A wingless spirit, overwhelmed by the earth, A god who has forgotten himself and forgotten... Just one dream - and again, inspired, You rush upward from vain worries V. Soloviev

The fate of realism n At the origins of realistic literature of the 20th century are A.P. Chekhov and M. Gorky. They identified the problems and directions of development of realistic literature

The dilemma of “Being better” or “Better living” is the discovery of 20th century realism. “Being better” is not given by the environment or one’s own weakness, and “living better” means living with broken humanity or losing it altogether. n The psychological drama of a person losing his human qualities determines the tragedy of many works n

Realism of the 20th century There is increasing interest in the deep internal processes of human mental life, in the psychological shifts and transitions of the states and moods of the characters. n Large genre forms give way to small ones. The genre of the story comes first

Realism of the 20th century The works reflect the individual’s ability to resist the environment, and reveal the mechanisms of influence of society and time on a person. The principles of psychological analysis are being deepened and improved. n Authors: A. Chekhov, M. Gorky, V. Garshin, A. Kuprin, V. Veresaev, L. Andreev, I. Bunin n

The beginning of the 20th century is a stormy, bright, dramatic time. The heyday of poetry in the work of modernists, the discoveries of realist writers in prose, the rise of Russian realistic drama to the world level

The last decade of the 19th century. opens a new stage in Russian and world culture. Major fundamental natural scientific discoveries, including Albert Einstein's theory of relativity, sharply shook previous ideas about the structure of the world, formed in the traditions of the European Enlightenment and based on judgments about unambiguous patterns, on the fundamental principle of predictability of natural phenomena. Repeatability and predictability of processes were considered as generic properties of causality in general. On this basis they formed positivist principles of thinking, dominant in world science of the 19th century. These principles also extended to the social sphere: human life was understood as completely determined by external circumstances, by one or another chain of active causes. Although not everything in human life could be satisfactorily explained, it was understood that science would someday achieve universal omniscience and be able to understand and subordinate the entire world to the human mind. New discoveries sharply contradicted ideas about the structural completeness of the world. What previously seemed stable turned into instability and endless mobility. It turned out that any explanation is not universal and requires additions - this is ideological consequence of the principle of complementarity, born in line with theoretical physics. Moreover, the idea of ​​the knowability of the world, which was previously considered an axiom, was called into question.

The complication of ideas about the physical picture of the world was accompanied by reassessment of the principles of understanding history. The previously unshakable model of historical progress, based on the idea of ​​a linear relationship of causes and consequences, was replaced by an understanding of the conventionality and approximate nature of any historiosophical logic. The crisis of historical ideas was expressed primarily in the loss of a universal point of reference, of one or another ideological foundation. A variety of theories of social development have emerged. In particular, it has become widespread Marxism, who relied on the development of industry and the emergence of a new revolutionary class - the proletariat, free from property, united by the conditions of common labor in a team and ready to actively fight for social justice. In the political sphere, this meant a rejection of the enlightenment of the early populists and the terrorism of the later populists and a transition to the organized struggle of the masses - up to the violent overthrow of the system and the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat over all other classes.

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. The idea of ​​a person not only rebellious, but also capable of remaking an era, creating history, in addition to the philosophy of Marxism, is developed in the works of M. Gorky and his followers, who persistently highlighted Man with a capital M, the owner of the earth. Gorky's favorite heroes were the semi-legendary Novgorod merchant Vaska Buslaev and the biblical character Job, who challenged God himself. Gorky believed that revolutionary activity to rebuild the world transforms and enriches a person’s inner world. Thus, the heroine of his novel “Mother” (1907), Pelageya Nilovpa, having become a participant in the revolutionary movement, experiences a maternal feeling of love not only for her son, but also for all oppressed and powerless people.

The rebellious beginning sounded more anarchic in the early poetry of V.V. Mayakovsky, in the poems and poems of V. Khlebnikov, A.N. Kruchenykh, D.D. Burliuk, who contrasted (at least in manifestos and declarations) the ideals of a consumer society with inspired materialistic ideas. industrial utopias.

Another large group of writers, convinced after the tragic events of March 1, 1881 (the murder of the Tsar-Liberator) and especially after the defeat of the 1905 revolution of the futility of violent methods of influencing society, came to the idea of ​​spiritual transformation, albeit slow but consistent improvement of the inner world person. The guiding ideological star for them was Pushkin’s idea of ​​the inner harmony of man. They considered close in spirit the writers of the post-Pushkin era - N.V. Gogol, M.Yu. Lermontov, F.I. Tyutchev, F.M. Dostoevsky, who felt the tragedy of the destruction of world harmony, but yearned for it and foresaw its restoration in the future .

It was these writers who saw in the Pushkin era golden age national culture and taking into account the fundamental changes in the sociocultural context, they sought to develop its traditions, nevertheless realizing the dramatic complexity of such a task. And although the culture of the turn of the century is much more contradictory and internally conflicting than the culture of the first half of the 19th century, the new literary era will later receive (in memoirs, literary criticism and journalism of the Russian emigration of the 1920-1930s) a bright evaluative name - “Silver Age” ". This historical and literary metaphor connects the literature of the beginning of the century with the literature of the 19th century, in the second half of the 20th century. will acquire terminological status and will be extended, in fact, to all literature of the turn of the century: this is how in our time it is customary to call the era of M. Gorky and A. A. Blok, I. I. Bunin and A. A. Akhmatova. Although these writers looked very differently at the world and the place of man in it, there was something that united them: awareness of the crisis, the transition of the era, which was supposed to lead Russian society to new horizons of life.

The pluralism of political and philosophical views shared by different writers led to a radical change in the overall picture of artistic movements and movements. The former smooth gradualism, when, for example, classicism in literature gave way to sentimentalism, which, in turn, was replaced by romanticism; when at each stage of the history of literature one direction occupied a dominant position, such stadiality became a thing of the past. Now At the same time, different aesthetic systems existed.

In parallel and, as a rule, in struggle with each other, realism and modernism, the largest literary movements, developed, while realism was not a stylistically homogeneous formation, but was a complex complex of several “realisms” (each variety requires additional research from the literary historian definitions). Modernism, in turn, was distinguished by extreme internal instability: various movements and groupings were continuously transformed, emerged and disintegrated, united and differentiated. The new situation created the ground for the most unexpected combinations and interactions: stylistically intermediate works appeared, short-lived associations arose that tried to combine the principles of realism and modernism in their artistic practice. That is why, in relation to the art of the early 20th century. the classification of phenomena on the basis of “directions” and “currents” is obviously conditional and non-absolute.