Literature of Russian abroad (about the emigration of writers in the 20th century). Three waves of Russian emigrant literature Characteristic features of Russian literature abroad

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The literature of Russian emigration consists of three waves of Russian emigration. The emigration of the first wave is a tragic page in Russian culture. This is a unique phenomenon both in terms of its popularity and its contribution to world culture. The mass exodus from Soviet Russia began already in 1919. More than 150 writers and more than 2 million people left. In 1922, by order of the state political administration (GPU), more than 160 religious and philosophical writers were expelled from the country on the so-called “philosophical ship” (N. Berdyaev, N. Lossky, S. Frank, I. Ilyin, F. Stepun, L. Shestov), prose writers and critics (M. Osorgin, Yu. Aikhenvald, etc.), doctors, university professors. The flower of Russian literature left Russia: I. Bunin, A. Kuprin (later returned), B. Zaitsev, I. Shmelev, A. Tolstoy (returned in 1923), D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, K. Balmont , I. Severya-nin, Vyach. Ivanov and others. The emigration of the first wave preserved all the main features of Russian society and represented, in the words of Z. Gippius, “Russia in miniature.”

The main centers of Russian emigration in Europe were Berlin (mainly playwrights and theater workers settled here), Prague (professors, artists, poets), Paris (which became the capital of Russian culture). In the East, emigrants were received by Shanghai and Harbin (S. Gusev-Orenburgsky, S. Petrov-Skitalets, A. Vertinsky, N. Baikov).

In the literature of the first wave of emigration, two generations clearly stood out: the older one, whose representatives were formed as writers on Russian soil, they were known to the Russian reader, had their own established style, and were widely published not only in Russia. These are almost all symbolists, except A. Blok, V. Bryusov and the returning A. Bely (3. Gippius, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky), futurists (I. Severyanin, N. Otsup), Ak-meists (G. Ivanov , G. Adamovich), realists (I. Bunin, I. Shmelev, B. Zaitsev, A. Kuprin, A. Tolstoy, M. Osorgin). Groups and circles of writers of the younger, so-called “unnoticed” generation formed around them. These are those who were still beginning their formation in Russia, published individual works, but did not have time to develop as a writer or poet with their own style. Some of them grouped around Bunin, forming the “Bunin circle” (G. Kuznetsova, L. Zurov). Others united around Khodasevich, creating the group “Perekrestok”. They focused on strict forms (neoclassicism). This is Y. Terapiano, Vl. Smolensky, N. Berberova, D. Knut, Jur. Mandelstam.

Around G. Adamovich and G. Ivanov the group “Parisian Note” (I. Odoevtseva, B. Poplavsky, A. Ladinsky) formed. The main thing in creativity is simplicity: no complex metaphors, no detailing, only the most general, even abstract. They continued Acmeism, although they also turned to the experience of the Symbolists. Themes: love, death, pity. Material from the site

Members of the “Kochevye” group (leader M. Slonim) sought to experiment with words and form. They inherited the traditions of futurism, especially V. Khlebnikov (A. Ginker, A. Prismanova, V. Mamchenko).

The main theme of creativity at the very beginning of emigration (1918-1920) was the “explosion of anti-Soviet passions.” “Cursed Days” by I. Bunin is published, a book of notes and diary entries of a man who saw the first post-war years from the inside. In a number of places it echoes M. Gorky’s “Untimely Thoughts” (about the Asianness and savagery in Russian people, about the guilt of the intelligentsia, which for so long taught the people to think that they are a sufferer and passion-bearer, for so long fostered hatred in them , that now she herself is horrified by the fruits; about the atrocities of soldiers and commissars, etc.).

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Literature of the Russian Abroad is a branch of Russian literature that arose after the Bolshevik revolution of 1917. There are three periods or three waves of Russian emigrant literature. The first wave - from 1918 until the start of the Second World War and the occupation of Paris - was massive. The second wave arose at the end of World War II (I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, L. Rzhevsky, N. Morshen, B. Fillipov). The third wave began after Khrushchev’s “thaw” and carried the greatest writers outside Russia (A. Solzhenitsyn, I. Brodsky, S. Dovlatov). The works of writers of the first wave of Russian emigration have the greatest cultural and literary significance. literature abroad emigrant writer

First wave of emigration(1918-1940)

The concept of “Russian abroad” arose and took shape after the October revolution, when refugees began to leave Russia en masse. After 1917, about 2 million people left Russia. In the centers of dispersion - Berlin, Paris, Harbin - "Russia in miniature" was formed, preserving all the features of Russian society.

Russian newspapers and magazines were published abroad, schools and universities were opened, and the Russian Orthodox Church operated. But, despite the preservation by the first wave of emigration of all the features of Russian pre-revolutionary society, the situation of refugees was tragic: in the past - the loss of family, homeland, social status, a way of life that had collapsed into oblivion, in the present - the cruel need to get used to an alien reality. The hope for a quick return did not materialize; by the mid-20s it became obvious that Russia could not be returned and that Russia could not return. The pain of nostalgia was accompanied by the need for hard physical labor and everyday instability: most emigrants were forced to enlist in Renault factories or, what was considered more privileged, to master the profession of a taxi driver.

The flower of the Russian intelligentsia left Russia. More than half of the philosophers, writers, and artists were expelled from the country or emigrated for life. Religious philosophers N. Berdyaev, S. Bulgakov, N. Lossky, L. Shestov, L. Karsavin found themselves outside their homeland. The emigrants were F. Chaliapin, I. Repin, K. Korovin, famous actors M. Chekhov and I. Mozzhukhin, ballet stars Anna Pavlova, Vaslav Nijinsky, composers S. Rachmaninov and I. Stravinsky. Among the famous writers who emigrated: Iv. Bunin, Iv. Shmelev, A. Averchenko, K. Balmont, Z. Gippius, Don-Aminado, B. Zaitsev, A. Kuprin, A. Remizov, I. Severyanin, A. Tolstoy, Teffi, I. Shmelev, Sasha Cherny. Young writers also went abroad: M. Tsvetaeva, M. Aldanov, G. Adamovich, G. Ivanov, V. Khodasevich. Russian literature, which responded to the events of the revolution and civil war, depicting the pre-revolutionary way of life that had collapsed into oblivion, turned out to be one of the spiritual strongholds of the nation in emigration. The national holiday of Russian emigration was Pushkin's birthday.

At the same time, in emigration, literature was placed in unfavorable conditions: lack of readers, collapse of socio-psychological foundations, homelessness, need for the majority of writers should inevitably undermine the strength of Russian culture. But this did not happen: in 1927, Russian foreign literature began to flourish, and great books were created in Russian. In 1930, Bunin wrote: “In my opinion, there has been no decline over the last decade. Of the prominent writers, both foreign and “Soviet,” not one seems to have lost their talent; on the contrary, almost all have strengthened and grown. And “In addition, here, abroad, several new talents have appeared, undeniable in their artistic qualities and very interesting in terms of the influence of modernity on them.”

Seniorgeneration of emigrant writers

The desire to “keep that truly valuable thing that inspired the past” (G. Adamovich) is at the heart of the work of writers of the older generation, who managed to enter literature and make a name for themselves back in pre-revolutionary Russia. The older generation of writers includes: Iv. Bunin, Iv. Shmelev, A. Remizov, A. Kuprin, Z. Gippius, D. Merezhkovsky, M. Osorgin. The literature of the “elders” is represented mainly by prose. In exile, prose writers of the older generation created great books: “The Life of Arsenyev” (Nobel Prize 1933), “Dark Alleys” by Iv. Bunin; “Sun of the Dead”, “Summer of the Lord”, “Pilgrim of Iv. Shmelev”; "Sivtsev Vrazhek" by M. Osorgin; "The Journey of Gleb", "Reverend Sergius of Radonezh" by B. Zaitsev; "Jesus the Unknown" by D. Merezhkovsky. A. Kuprin publishes two novels, “The Dome of St. Isaac of Dalmatia and Juncker,” and the story “The Wheel of Time.” A significant literary event was the appearance of the book of memoirs “Living Faces” by Z. Gippius.

The main motive of the literature of the older generation was the motive of nostalgic memory of the lost homeland. The tragedy of exile was opposed by the enormous heritage of Russian culture, the mythologized and poeticized past. The topics most often addressed by prose writers of the older generation are retrospective: longing for “eternal Russia,” the events of the revolution and civil war, the historical past, memories of childhood and youth.

The meaning of the appeal to “eternal Russia” was given to the biographies of writers, composers, and the lives of saints: Iv. Bunin writes about Tolstoy (The Liberation of Tolstoy), M. Tsvetaeva - about Pushkin (My Pushkin), V. Khodasevich - about Derzhavin (Derzhavin), B. Zaitsev - about Zhukovsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Sergius of Radonezh (biographies of the same name), M. Tsetlin about the Decembrists and the mighty handful (Decembrists: the fate of one generation, Five and others). Autobiographical books are created in which the world of childhood and youth, not yet affected by the great catastrophe, is seen “from the other shore” as idyllic, enlightened: Iv. Shmelev poetizes the past (Bogomolye, Summer of the Lord), the events of his youth are reconstructed by A. Kuprin (Junker), the last The autobiographical book of the Russian writer-nobleman is written by Iv. Bunin (The Life of Arsenyev), the journey to the “origins of days” is captured by B. Zaitsev (The Journey of Gleb) and A. Tolstoy (The Childhood of Nikita). A special layer of Russian emigrant literature consists of works that evaluate the tragic events of the revolution and civil war.

Comparing “yesterday” and “today,” the older generation made a choice in favor of the lost cultural world of old Russia, not recognizing the need to get used to the new reality of emigration. This also determined the aesthetic conservatism of the “elders”: “Is it time to stop following in Tolstoy’s footsteps?” Bunin was perplexed.And whose footsteps should we follow?"

The younger generation of writers in exile. A different position was held by the younger “unnoticed generation” (the term of the writer and literary critic V. Varshavsky), dependent on a different social and spiritual environment, who refused to reconstruct what was hopelessly lost. The “unnoticed generation” included young writers who did not have time to create a strong literary reputation for themselves in Russia: V. Nabokov, G. Gazdanov, M. Aldanov, M. Ageev, B. Poplavsky, N. Berberova, A. Steiger, D. Knut , I. Knorring, L. Chervinskaya, V. Smolensky, I. Odoevtseva, N. Otsup, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Y. Mandelstam, Y. Terapiano and others. Their fates were different. V. Nabokov and G. Gazdanov won pan-European, and in Nabokov’s case, even world fame. M. Aldanov, who began actively publishing historical novels in the most famous emigrant magazine "Modern Notes", joined the "elders".

V. Nabokov and G. Gazdanov belonged to the “unnoticed generation”, but did not share its fate, having adopted neither the bohemian-beggarly lifestyle of the “Russian Montparnots”, nor their hopeless worldview. They were united by the desire to find an alternative to despair, exile restlessness, without participating in the mutual responsibility of memories characteristic of the “elders.” G. Gazdanov's meditative prose, technically witty and fictionally elegant, was addressed to the Parisian reality of the 20s - 60s. At the heart of Gazdanov’s worldview is the philosophy of life as resistance and survival.

The experience of the Russian emigrant was refracted in a unique way in V. Nabokov’s first novel “Mashenka”, in which a journey to the depths of memory, to “deliciously precise Russia” freed the hero from the captivity of a dull existence. Nabokov depicts brilliant characters, victorious heroes who achieved victory in difficult and sometimes dramatic life situations in his novels “Invitation to Execution”, “The Gift”, “Ada”, “Feat”. The triumph of consciousness over the dramatic and wretched circumstances of life - such is the pathos of Nabokov’s work, hidden behind the playful doctrine and declarative aestheticism. In exile, Nabokov also created: the collection of short stories "Spring in Fialta", the world bestseller "Lolita", the novels "Despair", "Camera Obscura", "King, Queen, Jack", "Look at the Harlequins", "Pnin", "Pale" flame" etc.

Scattering centers. The main centers of dispersion of Russian emigration were Constantinople, Sofia, Prague, Berlin, Paris, Harbin. The first place of refugee was Constantinople - the center of Russian culture in the early 20s. The Russian White Guards who fled with Wrangel from Crimea ended up here and then scattered throughout Europe. In Constantinople, the weekly Zarnitsy was published for several months, and A. Vertinsky spoke. A significant Russian colony also arose in Sofia, where the magazine “Russian Thought” was published. In the early 20s, Berlin became the literary capital of the Russian emigration. The Russian diaspora in Berlin before Hitler came to power amounted to 150 thousand people.

From 1918 to 1928, 188 Russian publishing houses were registered in Berlin, and Russian classics were printed in large quantities. When hope for a quick return to Russia began to fade and an economic crisis began in Germany, the center of emigration moved to Paris - from the mid-20s - the capital of the Russian diaspora.

By 1923, 300 thousand Russian refugees settled in Paris. The activities of the main literary circles and groups are associated with Paris, the leading position among which was occupied by the Green Lamp. The “Green Lamp” was organized in Paris by Z. Gippius and D. Merezhkovsky, and G. Ivanov became the head of the society. At the Green Lamp meeting, new books and magazines were discussed, and the conversation was about Russian writers of the older generation. The "Green Lamp" united the "seniors" and the "youngers", and during all the pre-war years it was the busiest literary center in Paris.

The eastern centers of dispersion are Harbin and Shanghai. The young poet A. Achair organizes the literary association "Churaevka" in Harbin. Churaevka meetings included up to 1000 people. Over the years of the existence of "Churaevka" in Harbin, more than 60 poetry collections of Russian poets were published. The Harbin magazine "Rubezh" published poets A. Nesmelov, V. Pereleshin, M. Kolosova. A significant direction of the Harbin branch of Russian literature will be ethnographic prose (N. Baikov “In the Wilds of Manchuria”, “The Great Wang”, “Across the World”). From 1942 literary life shifted from Harbin to Shanghai. For a long time Prague was the scientific center of Russian emigration.

The Russian dispersion also affected Latin America, Canada, Scandinavia, and the USA. The writer G. Grebenshchikov, having moved to the USA in 1924, organized the Russian publishing house "Alatas" here. Several Russian publishing houses were opened in New York, Detroit, and Chicago.

The atmosphere of Russian literature in exile will be significantly influenced by the polemics between Smenovekhists and Eurasians. In 1921, the collection Change of Milestones was published in Prague (authors N. Ustryalov, S. Lukyanov, A. Bobrishchev-Pushkin - former White Guards). Smenovekhites called for accepting the Bolshevik regime and for the sake of the homeland to compromise with the Bolsheviks. National Bolshevism - “the use of Bolshevism for national purposes” - would emerge among the Smenovekhites. Change of leadership will play a tragic role in the fate of M. Tsvetaeva, whose husband S. Efron was recruited by Soviet services. Also in 1921, the collection “Exodus to the East” was published in Sofia. The authors of the collection (P. Savitsky, P. Suvchinsky, Prince N. Trubetskoy, G. Florovsky) insisted on a special intermediate position for Russia - between Europe and Asia, and saw Russia as a country with a messianic destiny. The magazine "Versty" was published on the Eurasian platform, in which M. Tsvetaeva, A. Remizov, A. Bely were published.

Literary and social publications of the Russian emigration. One of the most influential socio-political and literary magazines of the Russian emigration was “Modern Notes”, published by the Socialist Revolutionaries V. Rudnev, M. Vishnyak, I. Bunakov (Paris, 1920-1939, founder I. Fondaminsky-Bunyakov). The magazine was distinguished by its breadth of aesthetic views and political tolerance. A total of 70 issues of the magazine were published, in which the most famous writers of Russian diaspora were published. In "Modern Notes" the following were published: Luzhin's Defense, Invitation to Execution, V. Nabokov's Gift, Mitya's Love and the Life of Arsenyev Iv. Bunin, poems by G. Ivanov, Sivtsev Vrazhek M. Osorgin, Walking through the Torment of A. Tolstoy, Key M. Aldanov, autobiographical prose of Chaliapin. The magazine provided reviews of the majority of books published in Russia and abroad in almost all fields of knowledge.

Since 1937, the publishers of "Modern Notes" also began to publish the monthly magazine "Russian Notes", which published works by A. Remizov, A. Achair, G. Gazdanov, I. Knorring, L. Chervinskaya.

The main printed organ of the writers of the “unnoticed generation”, who for a long time did not have their own publication, became the magazine “Numbers” (Paris, 1930-1934, ed. N. Otsup). Over 4 years, 10 issues of the magazine were published. "Numbers" became the mouthpiece of the ideas of the "unnoticed generation", the opposition to the traditional "Modern Notes". “Numbers” cultivated the “Parisian note” and published G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich, B. Poplavsky, R. Bloch, L. Chervinskaya, M. Ageev, I. Odoevtseva. B. Poplavsky defined the meaning of the new magazine as follows: "Numbers" is an atmospheric phenomenon, almost the only atmosphere of boundless freedom where a new person can breathe." The magazine also published notes about cinema, photography, and sports. The magazine was distinguished by its high, at the level of pre-revolutionary publications, quality of printing execution.

Second wave of emigration(1940-1950)

The second wave of emigration, generated by the Second World War, was not as massive as the emigration from Bolshevik Russia. With the second wave of the USSR, prisoners of war, the so-called displaced persons, were leaving the USSR - citizens deported by the Germans to work in Germany, those who did not accept the totalitarian regime. Most of the second wave of emigrants settled in Germany (mainly in Munich, which had numerous emigrant organizations) and America. By 1952, there were 452 thousand former citizens of the USSR in Europe. By 1950, 548 thousand Russian emigrants arrived in America.

Among the writers carried out with the second wave of emigration outside the homeland: I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, Yu. Ivask, B. Nartsisov, I. Chinnov, V. Sinkevich, N. Narokov, N. Morshen, S. Maksimov, V. Markov, B. Shiryaev, L. Rzhevsky, V. Yurasov and others. Those who left the USSR in the 40s faced no less difficult trials than refugees from Bolshevik Russia: war, captivity, the Gulag, arrests and torture. This could not but affect the worldview of writers: the most common themes in the works of writers of the second wave were the hardships of war, captivity, and the horrors of Stalin’s terror. In emigrant poetry of the 40s and 50s, political themes predominate.

Third wave of emigration(1960-1980)

With the third wave of emigration, mostly artists and creative intelligentsia left the USSR. In 1971, 15 thousand Soviet citizens left the Soviet Union, in 1972 this figure will increase to 35 thousand. The emigrant writers of the third wave, as a rule, belonged to the generation of the “sixties”, which welcomed the 20th Congress of the CPSU and the dethronement of the Stalinist regime with hope. V. Aksenov will call this time of heightened expectations “the decade of Soviet quixoticism.” An important role for the generation of the 60s was played by the fact of its formation in war and post-war times. B. Pasternak characterized this period as follows: “In relation to the entire previous life of the 30s, even in freedom, even in the prosperity of university activities, books, money, amenities, the war turned out to be a cleansing storm, a stream of fresh air, a breath of deliverance. Tragically difficult The war period was a living period: a free, joyful return of a sense of community with everyone." The “children of war,” who grew up in an atmosphere of spiritual uplift, pinned their hopes on Khrushchev’s “thaw.”

However, it soon became obvious that the “thaw” did not promise fundamental changes in the life of Soviet society. Romantic dreams were followed by 20 years of stagnation. The beginning of the curtailment of freedom in the country is considered to be 1963, when N.S. Khrushchev visited an exhibition of avant-garde artists in the Manege. The mid-60s was a period of new persecution of the creative intelligentsia and, first of all, writers. The works of A. Solzhenitsyn are prohibited from publication. A criminal case was initiated against Yu. Daniel and A. Sinyavsky, A. Sinyavsky was arrested. I. Brodsky was convicted of parasitism and exiled to the village of Norenskaya. S. Sokolov is deprived of the opportunity to publish. The poet and journalist N. Gorbanevskaya (for participating in a protest demonstration against the invasion of Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia) was placed in a psychiatric hospital. The first writer deported to the West was V. Tarsis in 1966.

Persecution and bans gave rise to a new flow of emigration, significantly different from the previous two: in the early 70s, the intelligentsia, cultural and scientific figures, including writers, began to leave the USSR. Many of them were deprived of Soviet citizenship (A. Solzhenitsyn, V. Aksenov, V. Maksimov, V. Voinovich, etc.).

Writers of the third wave found themselves in emigration in completely new conditions; they were largely not accepted by their predecessors and were alien to the “old emigration.” Unlike the emigrants of the first and second waves, they did not set themselves the task of “preserving culture” or capturing the hardships experienced in their homeland. Completely different experiences, worldviews, even different languages (as A. Solzhenitsyn published the Dictionary of Language Expansion, which included dialects and camp jargon) prevented the emergence of connections between generations.

The Russian language has undergone significant changes over the 50 years of Soviet power, the work of representatives of the third wave was formed not so much under the influence of Russian classics, but under the influence of American and Latin American literature popular in the 60s in the USSR, as well as the poetry of M. Tsvetaeva, B. Pasternak, prose by A. Platonov. One of the main features of Russian emigrant literature of the third wave will be its attraction to the avant-garde and postmodernism.

The two largest writers of the realistic movement who worked in exile are A. Solzhenitsyn and G. Vladimov. A. Solzhenitsyn, having been forced to go abroad, creates in exile the epic novel “The Red Wheel”, in which he addresses the key events of Russian history of the 20th century, interpreting them in an original way. Having emigrated shortly before perestroika (in 1983), G. Vladimov publishes the novel “The General and His Army”, which also touches on a historical theme: in the center of the novel are the events of the Great Patriotic War, which abolished the ideological and class confrontation within Soviet society, muzzled by the repressions of the 30s years. V. Maksimov dedicates his novel “Seven Days” to the fate of the peasant family. V. Nekrasov, who received the Stalin Prize for his novel “In the Trenches of Stalingrad,” after leaving, published “Notes of an Onlooker” and “A Little Sad Tale.”

Among the poets who found themselves in exile are N. Korzhavin, Y. Kublanovsky, A. Tsvetkov, A. Galich, I. Brodsky. A prominent place in the history of Russian poetry belongs to I. Brodsky, who received the Nobel Prize in 1987 for the “development and modernization of classical forms.” In exile, Brodsky published collections of poetry and poems: “Stop in the Desert”, “Part of Speech”, “The End of a Beautiful Era”, “Roman Elegies”, “New Stanzas for Augusta”, “Autumn Cry of a Hawk”.

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Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education

"Astrakhan State Technical University"

Separate structural unit "Volga-Caspian Marine Fishery College"

on the topic: “Literature of Russian Abroad”

Literature of Russian abroad is a branch of Russian literature that arose after 1917 and was published outside the USSR and Russia. There are three periods or three waves of Russian emigrant literature. The first wave - from 1918 until the start of World War II, the occupation of Paris - was massive. The second wave arose at the end of World War II (I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, L. Rzhevsky, N. Morshen, B. Fillipov).

The third wave began after Khrushchev’s “thaw” and carried the greatest writers outside Russia (A. Solzhenitsyn, I. Brodsky, S. Dovlatov). The works of writers of the first wave of Russian emigration have the greatest cultural and literary significance.

At the same time, in emigration, literature was placed in unfavorable conditions: the absence of a mass reader, the collapse of socio-psychological foundations, homelessness, and the need of the majority of writers were bound to inevitably undermine the strength of Russian culture. But this did not happen: in 1927, Russian foreign literature began to flourish, and great books were created in Russian. In 1930, Bunin wrote: “In my opinion, there has been no decline over the last decade. Of the prominent writers, both foreign and “Soviet,” not one, it seems, has lost his talent; on the contrary, almost all have strengthened and grown. And, in addition, here, abroad, several new talents have appeared, undeniable in their artistic qualities and very interesting in terms of the influence of modernity on them.”

Having lost loved ones, homeland, any support in life, support anywhere, exiles from Russia received in return the right of creative freedom. This did not reduce the literary process to ideological disputes. The atmosphere of emigrant literature was determined not by the political or civil lack of accountability of writers, but by the variety of free creative searches.

In new unusual conditions (“Here there is neither the element of living life nor the ocean of living language that feeds the artist’s work,” defined B. Zaitsev), the writers retained not only political, but also internal freedom, creative wealth in confrontation with the bitter realities of emigrant existence.

The development of Russian literature in exile went in different directions: writers of the older generation professed the position of “preserving covenants”, the intrinsic value of the tragic experience of emigration was recognized by the younger generation (the poetry of G. Ivanov, “Parisian note”), writers oriented towards the Western tradition appeared (V. Nabokov , G. Gazdanov). “We are not in exile, we are in exile,” D. Merezhkovsky formulated the “messianic” position of the “elders.” “Be aware that in Russia or in exile, in Berlin or Montparnasse, human life continues, life with a capital letter, in a Western way, with sincere respect for it, as the focus of all content, all the depth of life in general...” , - this was the task of a writer for the writer of the younger generation B. Poplavsky. “Should we remind you once again that culture and art are dynamic concepts,” G. Gazdanov questioned the nostalgic tradition.

The older generation of emigrant writers. The desire to “keep that truly valuable thing that inspired the past” (G. Adamovich) is at the heart of the work of writers of the older generation, who managed to enter literature and make a name for themselves back in pre-revolutionary Russia. The older generation of writers includes: Bunin, Shmelev, Remizov, Kuprin, Gippius, Merezhkovsky, M. Osorgin. The literature of the “elders” is represented mainly by prose. In exile, prose writers of the older generation created great books: Life of Arsenyev(Nobel Prize 1933), Dark alleys Bunin; Sun of the Dead, Summer of the Lord, Pilgrimage Shmeleva; Sivtsev Vrazhek Osorgina; Gleb's journey, Venerable Sergius of Radonezh Zaitseva; Jesus Unknown Merezhkovsky. Kuprin releases two novels Dome of St. Isaac of Dalmatia And Juncker, story Wheel of Time. A significant literary event is the appearance of a book of memoirs Living faces Gippius.

Among the poets whose work developed in Russia, I. Severyanin, S. Cherny, D. Burliuk, K. Balmont, Gippius, Vyach went abroad. Ivanov. They made a minor contribution to the history of Russian poetry in exile, losing the palm to young poets - G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich, V. Khodasevich, M. Tsvetaeva, B. Poplavsky, A. Steiger and others. The main motive of the literature of the older generation was the theme nostalgic memory of a lost homeland. The tragedy of exile was opposed by the enormous heritage of Russian culture, the mythologized and poeticized past. The topics most often addressed by prose writers of the older generation are retrospective: longing for “eternal Russia,” the events of the revolution and civil war, Russian history, memories of childhood and youth. The meaning of the appeal to “eternal Russia” was given to biographies of writers, composers, and biographies of saints: Iv. Bunin writes about Tolstoy ( Liberation of Tolstoy), M. Tsvetaeva - about Pushkin ( My Pushkin), V. Khodasevich - about Derzhavin ( Derzhavin), B. Zaitsev - about Zhukovsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Sergius of Radonezh (biographies of the same name). Autobiographical books are created in which the world of childhood and youth, not yet affected by the great catastrophe, is seen “from the other shore” as idyllic and enlightened: Yves poetizes the past. Shmelev ( Pilgrimage, Summer of the Lord), the events of his youth are reconstructed by Kuprin ( Juncker), the last autobiographical book of a Russian writer-nobleman is written by Bunin ( Life of Arsenyev), the journey to the “origins of days” is captured by B. Zaitsev ( Gleb's journey) and Tolstoy ( Nikita's childhood). A special layer of Russian emigrant literature consists of works that evaluate the tragic events of the revolution and civil war. These events are interspersed with dreams and visions, leading into the depths of the people's consciousness, the Russian spirit in Remizov's books Swirling Rus', Music teacher, Through the fire of sorrows. Bunin's diaries are filled with mournful accusatoryness. Damn days. Roman Osorgina Sivtsev Vrazhek reflects the life of Moscow in the war and pre-war years, during the revolution. Shmelev creates a tragic narrative about the Red Terror in Crimea - an epic Sun of the Dead, which T. Mann called “a nightmarish document of the era, shrouded in poetic brilliance.” Dedicated to understanding the causes of the revolution Ice trek R. Gulya, Beast from the Abyss E. Chirikova, historical novels by Aldanov, who joined the writers of the older generation ( Key, Escape, Cave), three volume Rasputin V. Nazhivina. Contrasting “yesterday’s” and “today’s”, the older generation made a choice in favor of the lost cultural world of old Russia, not recognizing the need to get used to the new reality of emigration. This also determined the aesthetic conservatism of the “elders”: “Is it time to stop following in Tolstoy’s footsteps? - Bunin was perplexed. “Whose footsteps should we follow?”

The younger generation of writers in exile. A different position was held by the younger “unnoticed generation” of writers in emigration (the term of the writer, literary critic V. Varshavsky), who rose in a different social and spiritual environment, refusing to reconstruct what was hopelessly lost. The “unnoticed generation” included young writers who did not have time to create a strong literary reputation for themselves in Russia: V. Nabokov, G. Gazdanov, M. Aldanov, M. Ageev, B. Poplavsky, N. Berberova, A. Steiger, D. Knuth , I. Knorring, L. Chervinskaya, V. Smolensky, I. Odoevtseva, N. Otsup, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Y. Mandelstam, Y. Terapiano and others. Their fates were different. Nabokov and Gazdanov won pan-European, and in Nabokov’s case, even world fame. Aldanov, who began actively publishing historical novels in the most famous emigrant magazine “Modern Notes”, joined the “elders”. Almost none of the younger generation of writers could make a living from literary work: Gazdanov became a taxi driver, Knut delivered goods, Terapiano worked in a pharmaceutical company, many earned a penny extra. Characterizing the situation of the “unnoticed generation” that lived in the small cheap cafes of Montparnasse, V. Khodasevich wrote: “The despair that owns the souls of Montparnasse... is fed and supported by insults and poverty... People are sitting at the tables of Montparnasse, many of whom have not had dinner during the day, and in the evening find it difficult to ask get yourself a cup of coffee. In Montparnasse they sometimes sit until the morning because there is nowhere to sleep. Poverty also deforms creativity itself.” The most acute and dramatic hardships that befell the “unnoticed generation” were reflected in the colorless poetry of the “Parisian note” created by G. Adamovich. An extremely confessional, metaphysical and hopeless “Parisian note” sounds in Poplavsky’s collections ( Flags), Otsupa ( In the smoke), Steiger ( This life, Two by two is four), Chervinskaya ( Approximation), Smolensky ( Alone), Knut ( Parisian nights), A. Prismanova ( Shadow and body), Knorring ( Poems about yourself). If the older generation was inspired by nostalgic motives, the younger generation left documents of the Russian soul in exile, depicting the reality of emigration. The life of the “Russian Montparneau” is captured in Poplavsky’s novels Apollo Bezobrazov, Home from Heaven. Also enjoyed considerable popularity Romance with cocaine Ageeva. Everyday prose has also become widespread: Odoevtseva Angel of Death, Isolde, Mirror, Berberova The last and the first. A novel from emigrant life.

Researcher of emigrant literature G. Struve wrote: “Perhaps the most valuable contribution of writers to the general treasury of Russian literature will have to be recognized as various forms of non-fiction literature - criticism, essays, philosophical prose, high journalism and memoir prose.” The younger generation of writers made significant contributions to memoirs: Nabokov Other shores, Berberova Italics are mine, Terapiano Meetings, Warsaw The Unsung Generation, V. Yanovsky Champs Elysees, Odoevtseva On the banks of the Neva, On the banks of the Seine, G. Kuznetsova Grasse Diary.

Nabokov and Gazdanov belonged to the “unnoticed generation”, but did not share its fate, having adopted neither the bohemian-beggarly lifestyle of the “Russian Montparnots”, nor their hopeless worldview. They were united by the desire to find an alternative to despair, exile restlessness, without participating in the mutual responsibility of memories characteristic of the “elders.” Gazdanov's meditative prose, technically witty and fictionally elegant, was addressed to the Parisian reality of the 1920s - 1960s. At the heart of his worldview is the philosophy of life as a form of resistance and survival. In the first, largely autobiographical novel Evening at Claire's Gazdanov gave a peculiar twist to the theme of nostalgia, traditional for emigrant literature, replacing longing for what was lost with the real embodiment of a “beautiful dream.” In novels Night roads, The Ghost of Alexander Wolf, Return of Buddha Gazdanov contrasted the calm despair of the “unnoticed generation” with heroic stoicism, faith in the spiritual powers of the individual, in his ability to transform. The experience of a Russian emigrant was refracted in a unique way in V. Nabokov’s first novel Mashenka, in which a journey to the depths of memory, to “deliciously precise Russia” freed the hero from the captivity of a dull existence. Nabokov portrays brilliant characters, victorious heroes who triumphed in difficult and sometimes dramatic life situations Invitation to execution, Gift, Ada, Feat. The triumph of consciousness over the dramatic and wretched circumstances of life - such is the pathos of Nabokov’s work, hidden behind the playful doctrine and declarative aestheticism. In exile, Nabokov also created: a collection of short stories Spring in Fialta, global bestseller Lolita, novels Despair, Pinhole camera, King, Queen, Jack, Look at the harlequins, Pnin, Pale Flame and etc.

In an intermediate position between the “older” and “younger” were the poets who published their first collections before the revolution and quite confidently declared themselves in Russia: Khodasevich, Ivanov, Tsvetaeva, Adamovich. In emigrant poetry they stand apart. Tsvetaeva experienced a creative takeoff in exile and turned to the genre of the poem, “monumental” verse. In the Czech Republic, and then in France, they wrote to her Tsar Maiden, Poem of the Mountain, Poem of the End, Poem of the air, Pied Piper, Ladder,New Year's, Room attempt. Khodasevich publishes his top collections in exile Heavy lyre, European night, becomes a mentor to young poets united in the group “Crossroads”. Ivanov, having survived the lightness of the early collections, received the status of the first poet of emigration, published poetry books included in the golden fund of Russian poetry: Poetry, Portrait without likeness, Posthumous diary. Ivanov’s memoirs occupy a special place in the literary heritage of emigration St. Petersburg winters, Chinese shadows, his famous prose poem Atomic decay. Adamovich publishes a program collection Unity, a famous book of essays Comments.

Scattering centers. The main centers of dispersion of Russian emigration were Constantinople, Sofia, Prague, Berlin, Paris, Harbin. The first place of refugee was Constantinople - the center of Russian culture in the early 1920s. The Russian White Guards who fled with Wrangel from Crimea ended up here and then scattered throughout Europe. In Constantinople, the weekly Zarnitsy was published for several months, and A. Vertinsky spoke. A significant Russian colony also arose in Sofia, where the magazine “Russian Thought” was published. In the early 1920s, Berlin became the literary capital of the Russian emigration. The Russian diaspora in Berlin before Hitler came to power amounted to 150 thousand people. From 1918 to 1928, 188 Russian publishing houses were registered in Berlin, Russian classics - Pushkin, Tolstoy, works of modern authors - Bunin, Remizov, Berberova, Tsvetaeva were published in large editions, the House of Arts was restored (in the likeness of Petrograd), a community of writers, musicians, artists "Vereteno", the "Academy of Prose" worked. An essential feature of Russian Berlin is the dialogue between two branches of culture - foreign and those remaining in Russia. Many Soviet writers travel to Germany: M. Gorky, V. Mayakovsky, Y. Tynyanov, K. Fedin. “For us, in the field of books, there is no division between Soviet Russia and emigration,” declared the Berlin magazine “Russian Book”. When hope for a quick return to Russia began to fade and an economic crisis began in Germany, the center of emigration moved to Paris, from the mid-1920s the capital of the Russian diaspora.

By 1923, 300 thousand Russian refugees settled in Paris. The following people live in Paris: Bunin, Kuprin, Remizov, Gippius, Merezhkovsky, Khodasevich, Ivanov, Adamovich, Gazdanov, Poplavsky, Tsvetaeva, etc. The activities of the main literary circles and groups are connected with Paris, the leading position among which was occupied by the “Green Lamp”. The “Green Lamp” was organized in Paris by Gippius and Merezhkovsky, and G. Ivanov became the head of the society. At the Green Lamp meeting, new books and magazines were discussed, and the works of older Russian writers were discussed. The “Green Lamp” united “seniors” and “youngers” and was the busiest literary center in Paris throughout the pre-war years. Young Parisian writers united in the “Kochevye” group, founded by the philologist and critic M. Slonim. From 1923 to 1924, a group of poets and artists called “Through” also met in Paris. Parisian emigrant newspapers and magazines were a chronicle of the cultural and literary life of the Russian diaspora. Literary discussions took place in the cheap cafes of Montparnasse, and a new school of emigrant poetry, known as the “Parisian note,” was created. The literary life of Paris will come to naught with the outbreak of World War II, when, according to Nabokov, “it will become dark on Russian Parnassus.” Russian emigrant writers will remain faithful to the country that sheltered them, occupied Paris. The term “Resistance” will arise and take root among Russian emigrants, many of whom will be its active participants. Adamovich will sign up as a volunteer for the front. Writer Z. Shakhovskaya will become a sister in a military hospital. Mother Maria (poetess E. Kuzmina-Karavaeva) will die in a German concentration camp, Gazdanov, Otsup, Knut will join the Resistance. During the bitter years of occupation, Bunin will write a book about the triumph of love and humanity ( Dark alleys).

The eastern centers of dispersion are Harbin and Shanghai. The young poet A. Achair organizes the literary association “Churaevka” in Harbin. His meetings included up to 1000 people. Over the years of the existence of “Churaevka” in Harbin, more than 60 poetry collections of Russian poets were published. The Harbin magazine Rubezh published poets A. Nesmelov, V. Pereleshin, M. Kolosova. A significant direction of the Harbin branch of Russian literature will be ethnographic prose (N. Baikov In the wilds of Manchuria, Great Wang, Around the world). From 1942 literary life shifted from Harbin to Shanghai.

For a long time Prague was the scientific center of Russian emigration. The Russian People's University was founded in Prague, and 5 thousand Russian students studied there for free. Many professors and university teachers also moved here. The Prague Linguistic Circle played an important role in the preservation of Slavic culture and the development of science. The work of Tsvetaeva, who creates her best works in the Czech Republic, is associated with Prague. Before the start of World War II, about 20 Russian literary magazines and 18 newspapers were published in Prague. Among the Prague literary associations are the “Skete of Poets” and the Union of Russian Writers and Journalists.

The Russian dispersion also affected Latin America, Canada, Scandinavia, and the USA. The writer G. Grebenshchikov, having moved to the USA in 1924, organized the Russian publishing house “Alatas” here. Several Russian publishing houses were opened in New York, Detroit, and Chicago.

The main events in the life of Russian literary emigration. One of the central events in the life of the Russian emigration will be the controversy between Khodasevich and Adamovich, which lasted from 1927 to 1937. Basically, the controversy unfolded on the pages of the Parisian newspapers “Last News” (published by Adamovich) and “Vozrozhdenie” (published by Khodasevich). Khodasevich believed that the main task of Russian literature in exile was the preservation of the Russian language and culture. He stood up for mastery, insisted that emigrant literature should inherit the greatest achievements of its predecessors, “graft a classic rose” onto the emigrant wild. The young poets of the “Perekrestok” group united around Khodasevich: G. Raevsky, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Yu. Mandelstam, V. Smolensky. Adamovich demanded from young poets not so much skill as simplicity and truthfulness of “human documents,” and raised his voice in defense of “drafts, notebooks.” Unlike Khodasevich, who contrasted the harmony of Pushkin’s language with the dramatic realities of emigration, Adamovich did not reject the decadent, mournful worldview, but reflected it. Adamovich is the inspirer of the literary school, which entered the history of Russian foreign literature under the name of the “Parisian note” (A. Steiger, L. Chervinskaya, etc.). The emigrant press, the most prominent critics of emigration A. Bem, P. Bicilli, M. Slonim, as well as V. Nabokov, V. Varshavsky, joined the literary disputes between Adamovich and Khodasevich.

Disputes about literature also took place among the “unnoticed generation.” Articles by Gazdanov and Poplavsky on the situation of young emigrant literature contributed to the understanding of the literary process abroad. In the article Oh young emigrant literature Gazdanov recognized that the new social experience and status of the intellectuals who left Russia made it impossible to maintain the hierarchical appearance and artificially maintained atmosphere of pre-revolutionary culture. The absence of modern interests, the spell of the past turns emigration into a “living hieroglyph.” Emigrant literature faces the inevitability of mastering a new reality. "How to live? - Poplavsky asked in the article About the mystical atmosphere of young literature in emigration. - Die. Smile, cry, make tragic gestures, walk smiling at great depths, in terrible poverty. Emigration is the ideal setting for this.” The suffering of Russian emigrants, which should feed literature, is identical to revelation; they merge with the mystical symphony of the world. Exiled Paris, according to Poplavsky, will become “the seed of future mystical life”, the cradle of the revival of Russia.

The atmosphere of Russian literature in exile will be significantly influenced by the polemics between Smenovekhists and Eurasians. In 1921 a collection was published in Prague Change of milestones(authors N. Ustryalov, S. Lukyanov, A. Bobrishchev-Pushkin - former White Guards). Smenovekhites called for accepting the Bolshevik regime and for the sake of the homeland to compromise with the Bolsheviks. Among the Smenovekhites, the idea of national Bolshevism and the use of Bolshevism for national purposes arose. Change of leadership will play a tragic role in the fate of Tsvetaeva, whose husband S. Efron worked for the Soviet secret services. Also in 1921, a collection was published in Sofia Exodus to the East. Premonitions and accomplishments. Eurasian statements. The authors of the collection (P. Savitsky, P. Suvchinsky, Prince N. Trubetskoy, G. Florovsky) insisted on a special intermediate position for Russia - between Europe and Asia, and saw Russia as a country with a messianic destiny. The magazine “Versty” was published on the Eurasian platform, in which Tsvetaeva, Remizov, and Bely were published.

Literary and social publications of the Russian emigration. One of the most influential socio-political and literary magazines of the Russian emigration was “Modern Notes”, published by the Socialist Revolutionaries V. Rudnev, M. Vishnyak, I. Bunakov (Paris, 1920-1939, founder I. Fondaminsky-Bunyakov). The magazine was distinguished by its breadth of aesthetic views and political tolerance. A total of 70 issues of the magazine were published, in which the most famous writers of Russian diaspora were published. The following was published in Modern Notes: Luzhin's defense, Invitation to execution, Gift Nabokov, Mitya's love And Life Arsenyev Bunin, poems by Ivanov, Sivtsev Vrazhek Osorgina, The Road to Calvary Tolstoy, Key Aldanov, autobiographical prose of Chaliapin. The magazine provided reviews of the majority of books published in Russia and abroad in almost all fields of knowledge.

Since 1937, the publishers of “Modern Notes” also began to publish the monthly magazine “Russian Notes” (Paris, 1937-1939, ed. P. Milyukov), which published works by Remizov, Achair, Gazdanov, Knorring, and Chervinskaya. literature Russian emigration

The main printed organ of the writers of the “unnoticed generation”, who did not have their own publication for a long time, became the magazine “Numbers” (Paris, 1930-1934, editor Otsup). Over 4 years, 10 issues of the magazine were published. “Numbers” became the mouthpiece of the ideas of the “unnoticed generation”, the opposition to the traditional “Modern Notes”. “Numbers” cultivated the “Parisian note” and published Ivanov, Adamovich, Poplavsky, Bloch, Chervinskaya, Ageev, Odoevtseva. Poplavsky defined the meaning of the new magazine this way: “Numbers” is an atmospheric phenomenon, almost the only atmosphere of boundless freedom where a new person can breathe.” The magazine also published notes about cinema, photography, and sports. The magazine was distinguished by high quality of printing, at the level of pre-revolutionary publications.

Among the most famous newspapers of the Russian emigration is the organ of the republican-democratic association “Last News” (Paris, 1920-1940, ed. P. Milyukov), the monarchical organization that expressed the idea of the white movement “Renaissance” (Paris, 1925-1940, ed. P. Struve ), newspapers “Link” (Paris, 1923-928, ed. Milyukov), “Days” (Paris, 1925-1932, ed. A. Kerensky), “Russia and the Slavs” (Paris, 1928-1934, ed. Zaitsev ) and etc.

The fate and cultural heritage of the writers of the first wave of Russian emigration are an integral part of Russian culture of the 20th century. , a brilliant and tragic page in the history of Russian literature.

Second wave of emigration (1940s - 1950s)

The second wave of emigration, generated by the Second World War, was not as massive as the emigration from Bolshevik Russia. With the second wave of the USSR, prisoners of war and displaced persons - citizens deported by the Germans to work in Germany - left the USSR. Most of the second wave of emigrants settled in Germany (mainly in Munich, which had numerous emigrant organizations) and America. By 1952, there were 452 thousand former citizens of the USSR in Europe. By 1950, 548 thousand Russian emigrants arrived in America.

Among the writers carried out with the second wave of emigration outside their homeland were I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, Yu. Ivask, B. Nartsisov, I. Chinnov, V. Sinkevich, N. Narokov, N. Morshen, S. Maksimov, V. Markov, B. Shiryaev, L. Rzhevsky, V. Yurasov and others. Those who left the USSR in the 1940s faced difficult trials. This could not but affect the worldview of writers: the most common themes in the works of writers of the second wave were the hardships of war, captivity, and the horrors of the Bolshevik terror.

In emigrant poetry of the 1940-1950s, political themes predominate: Elagin writes Political feuilletons in verse, Morshen publishes anti-totalitarian poems ( Seal, On the evening of November 7). Criticism most often names Elagin as the most prominent poet of the second wave. He called citizenship, refugee and camp themes, horror of machine civilization, and urban fantasy the main “nodes” of his work. In terms of social emphasis, political and civic pathos, Elagin’s poems turned out to be closer to Soviet wartime poetry than to the “Parisian note.”

Ivask, Klenovsky, and Sinkevich turned to philosophical, meditative lyrics. Religious motives are heard in Ivask’s poems. Acceptance of the world - in the collections of Sinkevich Coming of the day, Flowering herbs, I live here. Optimism and harmonious clarity mark the lyrics of D. Klenovsky (books Palette, Trace of life, Towards the sky,Touch, Outgoing sails, Singing burden, Warm evening e R, Last thing). Chinnova, T. Fesenko, V. Zavalishin, I. Burkina also made significant contributions to emigrant poetry.

Heroes who did not come to terms with Soviet reality are depicted in the books of prose writers of the second wave. The fate of Fyodor Panin in Yurasov’s novel is tragic Parallax. S. Markov polemicizes with Sholokhov Virgin soil upturned in the novel Denis Bushuev. B. Filippov addresses the camp theme (stories Happiness, People, In the taiga,Love, Motif from La Bayadère), L. Rzhevsky (story Bunker Girl (Between two stars)). Scenes from the life of besieged Leningrad are depicted by A. Darov in the book Blockade, Shiryaev writes about the history of Solovki ( Unquenchable lamp). Rzhevsky's books stand out Dina And Two lines of time, which tell the story of the love of an elderly man and a girl, of overcoming misunderstandings, life’s tragedy, and barriers to communication.

Most of the writers of the second wave of emigration were published in the New Journal published in America and in the magazine Grani.

Third wave of emigration (1960-1980s)

With the third wave of emigration, mainly representatives of the creative intelligentsia left the USSR. The emigrant writers of the third wave, as a rule, belonged to the generation of the “sixties”; the fact of its formation in war and post-war times played an important role for this generation. The “children of war,” who grew up in an atmosphere of spiritual uplift, pinned their hopes on Khrushchev’s “thaw,” but it soon became obvious that the “thaw” did not promise fundamental changes in the life of Soviet society. The beginning of the curtailment of freedom in the country is considered to be 1963, when N. S. Khrushchev visited an exhibition of avant-garde artists in the Manege. The mid-1960s was a period of new persecution of the creative intelligentsia and, first of all, writers. The first writer exiled abroad was V. Tarsis in 1966.

In the early 1970s, the intelligentsia, cultural and scientific figures, including writers, began to leave the USSR. Many of them were deprived of Soviet citizenship (A. Solzhenitsyn, V. Aksenov, V. Maksimov, V. Voinovich, etc.). With the third wave of emigration, the following are leaving abroad: Aksenov, Yu. Aleshkovsky, Brodsky, G. Vladimov, V. Voinovich, F. Gorenshtein, I. Guberman, S. Dovlatov, A. Galich, L. Kopelev, N. Korzhavin, Yu. Kublanovsky, E. Limonov, V. Maksimov, Yu. Mamleev, V. Nekrasov, S. Sokolov, A. Sinyavsky, Solzhenitsyn, D. Rubina, etc. Most writers emigrate to the USA, where a powerful Russian diaspora is being formed (Brodsky, Korzhavin, Aksenov, Dovlatov, Aleshkovsky, etc.), to France (Sinyavsky, Rozanova, Nekrasov, Limonov, Maksimov, N. Gorbanevskaya), to Germany (Voinovich, Gorenshtein).

Writers of the third wave found themselves in emigration in completely new conditions; in many ways they were not accepted by their predecessors and were alien to the “old emigration.” Unlike emigrants of the first and second waves, they did not set themselves the task of “preserving culture” or capturing the hardships experienced in their homeland. Completely different experiences, worldviews, even different languages prevented the formation of connections between generations. The Russian language in the USSR and abroad has undergone significant changes over 50 years; the work of representatives of the third wave was formed not so much under the influence of Russian classics, but under the influence of American and Latin American literature popular in the 1960s, as well as the poetry of M. Tsvetaeva, B. Pasternak, prose by A. Platonov. One of the main features of Russian emigrant literature of the third wave will be its attraction to the avant-garde and postmodernism. At the same time, the third wave was quite heterogeneous: writers of a realistic direction (Solzhenitsyn, Vladimov), postmodernists (Sokolov, Mamleev, Limonov), and anti-formalist Korzhavin ended up in emigration. Russian literature of the third wave in emigration, according to Korzhavin, is a “tangle of conflicts”: “We left in order to be able to fight with each other.”

The two largest writers of the realistic movement who worked in exile are Solzhenitsyn and Vladimov. Solzhenitsyn creates an epic novel in exile Red wheel, which addresses key events in Russian history of the 20th century. Vladimov publishes a novel General and his army, which also touches on a historical theme: at the center of the novel are the events of the Great Patriotic War, which abolished the ideological and class confrontation within Soviet society. Dedicates his novel to the fate of the peasant family Seven days of creation V. Maksimov. V. Nekrasov, who received the Stalin Prize for his novel In the trenches of Stalingrad, publishes after departure Notes from an onlooker, A little sad story.

The work of Aksenov, deprived of Soviet citizenship in 1980, reflects the Soviet reality of the 1950-1970s, the evolution of his generation. Novel Burn gives a panorama of post-war Moscow life, brings to the fore the heroes of the 1960s - a surgeon, writer, saxophonist, sculptor and physicist. Aksenov also acts as a chronicler of the generation in Moscow saga.

In Dovlatov’s work there is a rare combination of a grotesque worldview with a rejection of moral invective and conclusions, which is not typical for Russian literature. His stories and tales continue the tradition of depicting the “little man.” In his short stories, he conveys the lifestyle and attitude of the generation of the 1960s, the atmosphere of bohemian gatherings in Leningrad and Moscow kitchens, Soviet reality, and the ordeals of Russian emigrants in America. Written in exile Foreign woman Dovlatov ironically depicts emigrant existence. 108th Street Queens, pictured in Foreign woman, - gallery of cartoons of Russian emigrants.

Voinovich tries himself abroad in the dystopian genre - in a novel Moscow 2042, which parodies Solzhenitsyn and depicts the agony of Soviet society.

Sinyavsky publishes in exile Walking with Pushkin, In the shadow of Gogol.

Sokolov, Mamleev, and Limonov include their work in the postmodernist tradition. Sokolov's novels School for fools, Between a dog and a wolf, Rosewood are sophisticated verbal structures, they reflect the postmodernist attitude towards playing with the reader, shifting time plans. The marginality of the text is in the prose of Mamleev, who has now regained his Russian citizenship. The most famous works of Mamleev are Wings of Terror, Drown my head,Eternal Home, Voice from nothing. Limonov imitates socialist realism in the story We had a wonderful era, denies the establishment in the books It's me - Eddie, Diary of a Loser, Teenager Savenko, Young scoundrel.

A prominent place in the history of Russian poetry belongs to Brodsky, who received the Nobel Prize in 1987 for the “development and modernization of classical forms.” In exile, he publishes poetry collections and poems.

Finding themselves isolated from the “old emigration,” representatives of the third wave opened their own publishing houses and created almanacs and magazines. One of the most famous magazines of the third wave, Continent, was created by Maximov and was published in Paris. The magazine “Syntax” was also published in Paris (M. Rozanova, Sinyavsky). The most famous American publications are the New American and Panorama newspapers, and the Kaleidoscope magazine. The magazine “Time and We” was founded in Israel, and “Forum” was founded in Munich. In 1972, the Ardis publishing house began operating in the USA, and I. Efimov founded the Hermitage publishing house. At the same time, such publications as “New Russian Word” (New York), “New Journal” (New York), “Russian Thought” (Paris), “Grani” (Frankfurt am Main) retain their positions. .

Literature

1. Gul R. I took away Russia. New York, 1984-1989

2. Glad John. Conversations in exile. M., 1991

3. Mikhailov O. Literature of Russian abroad. M., 1995

4. Struve G. Russian literature in exile. Paris - M., 1996

5. Agenosov V. Literature of Russian abroad (1918-1996). M., 1998

6. Russian Paris. M., 1998

7. Modern Russian abroad. M., 1998

8. Menegaldo E. Russians in Paris. 1919-1939. M., 2001

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Conditions for the development of Russian literature in the 19th century. Amazingly vibrant flowering and one of the first places in Europe. Pushkin, Karamzin, Zhukovsky, Krylov, Griboyedov, Tyutchev, Lermontov, Gogol, Belinsky, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky, Turgenev, Herzen, Nekrasov.

abstract, added 09/06/2006

abstract, added 12/19/2008

Development of Russian literature of the 19th century. The main directions of sentimentalism. Romanticism in Russian literature of 1810-1820. The political orientation of public interests towards a patriotic spirit, the idea of the religious revival of the country and people.

1st wave. The concept of "Russian" zarub." arose and took shape after Oct. rev., when refugees began to leave Russia en masse. Emigration creatures and to Tsarskoye Russia (Andrei Kurbsky is considered the first Russian emigre writer), but was not of such a scale. After 1917, about 2 million people left Russia. The Russian color left Russia. intelligent. More than half of the philosophers, writers, artists. were expelled from the country or emigrants. for life: N. Berdyaev, S. Bulgakov, N. Lossky, L. Shestov, L. Karsavin, F. Chaliapin, I. Repin, K. Korovin, Anna Pavlova, Vaslav Nijinsky, S. Rachmaninov and I. Stravinsky. Writers: Iv. Bunin, Iv. Shmelev, A. Averchenko, K. Balmont, Z. Gippius, B. Zaitsev, A. Kuprin, A. Remizov, I. Severyanin, A. Tolstoy, Teffi, I. Shmelev, Sasha Cherny; M. Tsvetaeva, M. Aldanov, G. Adamovich, G. Ivanov, V. Khodasevich. They left on their own, fled, retreated with troops, many were expelled (philosophical ships: in 1922, on Lenin’s instructions, about 300 representatives of Russian intellectuals were deported to Germany; some of them were sent by trains, some by ships; subsequently This kind of expulsion was practiced constantly), some went “for treatment” and did not return.

The 1st wave covers the period from the 20s to the 40s. Dispersion centers are Constantinople, Sofia, Prague, Berlin, Paris, Harbin, etc.

1. Const.- hotbed of Russian to-ry in the beginning 20s Here are the Russians who fled with Wrangel from Crimea. Whitetails. Then they scattered throughout Europe. In Const. in current. several months published weekly "Zarnitsy", performed A.Vertinsky.

2. Sofia. Means. rus. the colony. The magazine was published "Rus. thought".

3.In the beginning 20s lit. capital of Russia emigrant – Berlin. The Russian diaspora in Berlin before Hitler came to power amounted to 150 thousand people. In 1918–1928 in Berlin – 188 Russian. publishing house, Russian was published in large editions. classics - Pushkin, Tolstoy, modern production. authors – Iv. Bunin, A. Remizov, N. Berberova, M. Tsvetaeva, was reinstated. House of art (in the likeness of Petrograd), images. collaboration of writers, musicians, artists "Spindle", worked "Academy of Prose". Creatures especially Russian Berlin - dialogue of 2 branches of the k-ry - zarub. and remaining in Russia. Many owls go to Germany. writers: M. Gorky, V. Mayakovsky, Y. Tynyanov, K. Fedin. “For us there is no section of the book on Sov. Russia and emigration,” declared Berl. magazine "Rus. book".

Widespread publishing. affairs in Berlin contributed. several factors: 1) relates. cheap publishing dealing with inflation; 2) a cluster of a large number of Russians. publishers willing to invest their money; 3) close contacts between Russia and Germany after the Treaty of Rapala, allowing for a dialogue between two cultures (smenovekhovstvo).

In 1922 in Berlin - 48 Russians. publishing house, 145 magazines, newspapers and almanacs. The largest publishing houses: “Word”, “Helikon”, “Scythians”, “Petropolis”, “Bronze Horseman”, “Thought”, “Knowledge”, “Epoch”, “Conversation” etc. Mainly berl. publishing house issue. books humanize. Har-ra (children's and artistic literature, memoirs, textbooks, works of philosophers, literary critics, art critics).

Large berl. publishing house of landmarks. into Russian market. Between owls Russia and emigration to Germany in the mid-20s. there was no Iron Curtain. What appeared in emigration. published, soon found its way onto the pages of Sov. press. There were joint publishing houses. About 2 years old. Russian in Berlin "House of Arts": 60 different exhibitions and concerts, performance. rus. and German celebrities, mostly from Lit. circles (T. Mann, V. Mayakovsky, B. Pasternak, etc.). But to ser. 1920s In the USSR, a strict qualification begins to form. politics, as evidenced. many qualifications Glavlit documents. July 12, 1923 – special. Glavlit circular: “The following are not allowed to be imported into the USSR: 1) all products that have a definitely hostile character. power and communism; 2) pursuing an ideology alien and hostile to the proletariat; 3) literature hostile to Marxism; 4) idealistic books. for example; 5) children literature containing elements of bourgeois morality with praise of old living conditions; 6) works of counter-revolutionary authors; 7) works of writers who died in the fight against the owls. power; 8) Russian literature published by religion. societies, regardless of content."

Since the late 1920s. published boom will end. This has a detrimental effect on the condition of emigrants. liters. She begins to lose her reader.

4. When the hope for a quick return to Russia began to fade and an economic crisis began in Germany. crisis, emigration center. move V Paris, from the mid-20s. - the capital of Russia. zarub. By 1923 there were 300 thousand Russians in Paris. refugees. Live in Paris: Yves. Bunin, A. Kuprin, A. Remizov, Z. Gippius, D. Merezhkovsky, V. Khodasevich, G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich, G. Gazdanov, B. Poplavsky, M. Tsvetaeva and others. Activities connected with Paris basic lit. circles and groups, leading. position among which occupied. "Green Lamp". Lit. the life of Paris will come to naught with the beginning of the 2nd world. war, when, according to V. Nabokov, “it will become dark on Russian Parnassus.” Many Russian emigre writers. will remain in Paris and will become active participants in the Resistance. G. Adamovich will sign up good. to the front. Writer Z. Shakhovskaya will become a sister in a military hospital. Mother Maria (poetess E. Kuzmina-Karavaeva) will die in it. concentration camp. G. Gazdanov, N. Otsup, D. Knut joined the Resistance. Ivan Bunin, during the bitter years of occupation, will write a book about the triumph of love, man. started ( « Dark alleys").

One of the most influential. social-political or T. Russian magazines emigrant were “Contemporary. notes”, published by the Socialist Revolutionaries V. Rudnev, M. Vishnyak, I. Bunakov (Paris, 1920 - 1939, founder I. Fondaminsky-Bunyakov). Excellent magazine breadth of aesthetics views and politics. tolerance. In total, 70 issues of the magazine were published, in which the publication was published. max. famous writers rus. abroad. In “Let's modernize. Notes" were released: "Luzhin's Defense", "Invitation to Execution", "The Gift" by V. Nabokov, "Mitya's Love" and "The Life of Arsenyev" by Iv. Bunin, poetry by G. Ivanov, “Sivtsev the Enemy” by M. Osorgin, “Walking through Torment” by A. Tolstoy, “The Key” by M. Aldanov, autobiography. Chaliapin's prose. The magazine gave reviews of many practical books published in Russia and abroad. in all branches of knowledge.

Since 1937, the publishers of Sovrem. notes" became a release. also monthly magazine "Rus. notes" (Paris, 1937 - 1939, ed. P. Milyukov), which published the works of A. Remizov, A. Achair, G. Gazdanov, I. Knorring, L. Chervinskaya. Basic print. writing organ "unnoticed generation", which for a long time did not have their own publication, became the magazine "Numbers" (Paris, 1930 - 1934, ed. N. Otsup). Over 4 years, 10 issues of the magazine were published. “Numbers” became the mouthpiece of the ideas “unnoticed. generation", opposition. traditional “We’ll modernize. notes." "Numbers" of cultivar. "Paris. note" and print. G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich, B. Poplavsky, R. Bloch, L. Chervinskaya, M. Ageev, I. Odoevtseva. B. Poplavsky defines it this way. meaning new magazine: “Numbers” is an atmospheric phenomenon, almost the only atmosphere of boundless freedom where a new person can breathe.” The magazine also published notes about cinema, photography, and sports. The magazine was distinguished by high, at the pre-revolutionary level. publishing house, printing quality. executor

Among the most famous Russian newspapers emigrant - organ of the republic-democratic association “Latest News” (Paris, 1920 – 1940, ed. P. Milyukov), monarchist. “Renaissance” (Paris, 1925 – 1940, ed. P. Struve), newspapers “Zveno” (Paris, 1923 – 1928, ed. P. Milyukov), “Days” (Paris, 1925 – 1932, ed. A. Kerensky ), “Russia and the Slavs” (Paris, 1928 – 1934, ed. B. Zaitsev), etc.

The main activities are connected with Paris. lit. circles and groups, leading. the position among which was occupied by the “Green Lamp”. "Green Lamp" was organized by in Paris by Z. Gippius and D. Merezhkovsky, G. Ivanov became the head of the society. To the meeting “Green Lamp” discussed new books, magazines, it was about Russian. lit. older generation. The “Green Lamp” united the “seniors” and the “younger” and was the most popular during all the pre-war years. revived lit. the center of Paris. Young Parisian writers united. to the “Kochevye” group, founded by the philologist and critic M. Slonim. From 1923 to 1924, a group of poets and artists called “Through” also met in Paris. Parizhsk. emigrant newspapers and magazines were a chronicle of the cult. or T. Russian life abroad. In the cheap cafes of Montparnasse, lit. discussions, a new school of emigrants was created. poetry - “Parisian note”.

5. Eastern centers of dispersion – Harbin and Shanghai. The young poet A. Achair organizes a lit. ed. "Churaevka". “Churaevka” meetings included up to 1000 people. Over the years of the creation of “Churaevka” in Harbin, more than 60 poets were published. sb-kov rus. poets. In Harbin magazine "Rubezh" Poets A. Nesmelov, V. Pereleshin, M. Kolosova were published. Creatures direction of the Harbin branch of Russian. words - ethnographic. prose (N. Baikov “In the wilds of Manchuria”, “The Great Wang”, “Across the World”). Since 1942 lit. life shifted from Harbin to Shanghai.

6. Scientific Russian center emigrant – Prague. Rus was founded. adv. University, 5 thousand Russians invited. students who could continue their education at the state school. Many professors and university lecturers also moved here. Important role in conservation glory who played a role in the development of science "Prague Linguistic. circle". Connected with Prague. TV by M. Tsvetaeva, who creates her best productions in the Czech Republic. Before the start of the 2nd world. There were about 20 Russian wars in Prague. lit. magazines and 18 newspapers. Among the Prague lit. associations – “Skete of Poets”, “Union of Russian Writers and Journalists”.

7. The Russian dispersion also affected Lat. America, Canada, Scandinavia, USA. The writer G. Grebenshchikov, having moved to the USA in 1924, organized a Russian movement here. publishing house "Alatas". Several Russian publishing house was opened in New York, Detroit, Chicago.

The older generation of the “first wave” of emigration. General characteristics. Representatives.

The desire to “keep that truly valuable thing that inspired the past” (G. Adamovich) is the basis of the TV of writers of the older generation, who managed to enter the literary world and make a name for themselves even in pre-revolutionary times. Russia. This is Yves. Bunin, Iv. Shmelev, A. Remizov, A. Kuprin, Z. Gippius, D. Merezhkovsky, M. Osorgina. The literature of the “seniors” is represented predominantly. prose. In exile, prose writers of the older generation created great books: « Life of Arsenyev"(Nob. Prize 1933), "Dark alleys"Bunin; "Sun of the Dead", « Summer of the Lord", « Pilgrimage"Shmeleva; "Sivtsev Vrazhek"Osorgina; "Gleb's Journey", "Reverend Sergius of Radonezh"Zaitseva; "Jesus the Unknown"Merezhkovsky.A. Kuprin – 2 novels “Dome of St. Isaac of Dalmatia"And "Juncker", story "Wheel of Time". Means. lit. the appearance of a book of memories « Living faces"Gippius.

Poets of the older generation: I. Severyanin, S. Cherny, D. Burliuk, K. Balmont, Z. Gippius, Vyach. Ivanov. Ch. The motive of the older generation of writers is a nostalgic motive. memory of the loss. homeland. The tragedy of exile was opposed by the enormous heritage of the Russians. cultures, mythologized and poeticized past. Themes are retrospective: longing for “eternal Russia”, events of the revolution, etc. wars, historical the past, memories of childhood and youth. The meaning of the appeal to “eternal Russia” was given to biographies of writers, composers, and biographies of saints: Iv. Bunin writes about Tolstoy (“The Liberation of Tolstoy”), B. Zaitsev – about Zhukovsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Sergius of Radonezh (biography of the same name), etc. An autobiography is being created. books in which the world of childhood and youth, not yet affected by the great catastrophe, is seen “from the other shore” as idyllic, enlightened: poeticizes the past Iv. Shmelev (“Pilgrimage", « Summer of the Lord") , reconstructs the events of his youth A. Kuprin (“Juncker") , the latest autobiography. Russian book writer-nobleman writes Iv. Bunin (“Life of Arsenyev") , a journey to the “beginnings of days” is captured B. Zaitsev (“Gleb's Journey") And A. Tolstoy (“Nikita's childhood") . Special layer Russian. emigrant Literatures are works in which an assessment of the tragic is given. events of the revolution and gr. war. Events gr. wars and revolutions are interspersed with dreams and visions that lead into the depths of the people's consciousness, Russian. spirit in books A. Remizova "Whirled Rus'", « Music teacher", "Through the Fire of Sorrow". The diaries are filled with mournful denunciations Iv. Bunin "Damned days". Novel M. Osorgina "Sivtsev Vrazhek" reflects the life of Moscow in the war and pre-war years, during the revolution. Iv. Shmelev creates a tragic the story of the Red Terror in Crimea - an epic « Sundead", which T. Mann called “nightmarish, shrouded in poetry. shine as a document of the era." Comparing “yesterday’s” and “today’s”, the older generation made a choice in favor of losses. cult. the world of old Russia, not recognizing the need to get used to the new reality of emigration. This also determined the aesthetics. conservatism of the “elders”: “Is it time to stop following in Tolstoy’s footsteps? - Bunin was perplexed. “Whose footsteps should we follow?”

Poets of the older generation of emigration: Vyach. Ivanov, K. Balmont, I. Severyanin.

Vyach. Ivanov. In 1917, he tried to cooperate with the new government. 1918-1920 - Chairman historical and theatrical section of the Narkompros TEO, gave lectures, taught classes in sections of Proletkult. Accept. participation in the activities of the publishing house "Alkonost" and the magazine "Notes of Dreamers", writes "Winter Sonnets". They'll finish before they finish. departure abroad (1924) Ivanov writes the poetic cycle “Songs of Troubled Times” (1918) reflected Ivanov’s rejection of the non-religious nature of the Russian revolution. In 1919 he published the tragedy “Prometheus”, and in 1923 he completed the music. tragicomedy "Love - Mirage". In 1920, after the death of his third wife from tuberculosis and an unsuccessful attempt to obtain permission to travel abroad, Ivanov with his daughter and son left for the Caucasus, then to Baku, where he was invited as a professor at the department of classical philology. In 1921, he defended his doctoral dissertation here, on which he published the book “Dionysus and Proto-Dionysianism” (Baku, 1923). In 1924, Ivanov came to Moscow, where, together with A. Lunacharsky, he delivered an anniversary speech about Pushkin at the Bolshoi Theater. At the end of August of the same year, he left Russia forever and settled with his son and daughter in Rome. Until 1936 preserved. owls citizenship, which does not allow him to get a government job. service. Ivanov is not published as an emigrant. magazines, stands apart from social and political issues. life. On March 17, 1926, he accepted Catholicism without renouncing (by special, hard-won permission) Orthodoxy. In 1926-1931 - Professor at the Collegio Borromeo in Pavia. In 1934, he gave up teaching at the university and moved to Rome. The only one of all Russians. Simv-tov remained faithful to this trend almost until the end of his days. In recent decades there has been a relative decline in its TV. In 1924 - “Roman Sonnets”, and in 1944 - a cycle of 118 poems “Roman Diary”, included. in preparation by him, but the posthumously published final collection of poems “Evening Light” (Oxford, 1962). After Ivanov's death, it remained unfinished. the 5th book of the prose “poem”, “The Tale of Svetomir the Tsarevich,” which he began back in 1928. Cont. publ. in foreign publications their own individual articles and works. In 1932 he published a monograph on it. language “Dostoevsky. Tragedy – myth – mysticism.” In 1936 for encyclopedias. Trekani Ivanov dictionary into Italian. language writes an article “Symbolism”. Then for other Italian publications: “Building Form and Created Form” (1947) and “Lermontov” (1958). In the last 2 articles he returned to thinking. about Sophia (World Soul, Divine Wisdom) in the context of the world. and Russian culture. In 1948, commissioned by the Vatican, he worked on the introduction and notes to the Psalter. In the last years of his life, he led a solitary life, meeting only a few people close to him, among whom were the Merezhkovsky couple.

Balmont Konstantin Dmitrievich(1867 – 1942) Feb. and Oct. revol. 1917 Balmont first became famous. in his poems (“Foreshadowing” and others), but “chaos” and “hurricane of madness” gr. war categorically does not accept. He appears in print, works at the People's Commissariat for Education, prepares poems and translations for publication, and gives lectures. But in the publ. in 1918, the brochure “Am I a Revolutionary or Not?” appl. that the Bolsheviks - the carriers - will destroy. beginning, overwhelming. personality. He is convinced that a poet should be outside of parties, that a poet has his own paths, his own destiny - he is more of a comet than a planet (that is, he does not move in a certain orbit). J. Baltrushaitis, who was a lit. in those years. Ambassador to Russia, through A. Lunacharsky, managed to organize a business trip abroad for Balmont. On June 25, 1920, Balmont left Russia forever. In France, where the poet lived most of the rest of his life, he initially actively collaborated. in the newspaper “Paris News”, the magazine “Sovrem. notes" and other periodicals. publications, regularly publishes (in different countries) books of poetry: “Gift to the Earth”, “Bright Hour” (both 1921), “Haze”, “Song of the Working Hammer” (both 1922), “Mine is for her. Poems about Russia" (1923), "In the widening distance" (1929), "Northern Lights" (1933), "Blue Horseshoe", "Light Service" (both 1937). In 1923, 2 autobiographical books were published. prose - “Under the New Sickle” and “Air Route”. Balmont also works actively as a translator of Lithuanian, Polish, Czech and Bulgarian poets. In 1930 he published a translation of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” He is very homesick for his homeland and his daughter who remained in Russia (the 1905 collection “Fairy Tales” is dedicated to her). The last years of his life he was practical. didn't write. He died in Noisy-le-Grand, near Paris.

Igor Severyanin (Igor Vasilyevich Lotarev) February 27, 1918 at an evening at the Polytechnic. Museum in Moscow, IP was elected “King of Poets”. V. Mayakovsky was recognized as second, V. Kamensky as third. After several days, the “king” left with his family on vacation in Estonia. Primorsk the village of Toila, and in 1920 Estonia separated from Russia. IS found itself in forced emigrant, but felt comfortable there. Quite quickly he began to ledge again. in Tallinn and other places. In Estonia IP is withheld. and marriage to Felisa Kruut. The poet lived with her for 16 years and this was the only legal marriage in his life. Behind Felissa, IS was like behind the camera. with a wall, she protected him from all life. problems, and sometimes saved them. Before his death, IP admitted the break with Felissa in 1935 was tragic. mistake. In the 20s stays out of politics (he calls himself not an emigrant, but a summer resident) and is instead political. spoke out against the Soviets. authorities writes pamphlets against high-ranking emigrants. circles The emigrants needed other poetry and other poets. IS still wrote a lot and translated Estonian poets quite intensively: in 1919–1923. – 9 new books, including “The Nightingale.” Since 1921, the poet has toured outside Estonia: 1922 - Berlin, 1923 - Finland, 1924 - Germany, Latvia, Czech Republic... In 1922-1925, IP wrote in a rather rare genre - autobiography. novels in verse: “Falling Rapids”, “The Dew of the Orange Hour” and “Bells of the Cathedral of the Senses”. From 1925 to 1930 - not a single collection of poetry. 1931 – a new (no doubt outstanding) collection of poems “Classical Roses”, summarizing the experience of 1922 - 1930. In 1930 – 1934 - several tours around Europe, a resounding success, but it was not possible to find publishers for the books. IS published a small collection of poems “Adriatic” (1932) at his own expense and tried to distribute it himself. his. Especially worse. mater. situation by 1936, when, in addition, he broke off relations with Felissa Kruut and became friends with V.B. Korendi: “Life has become completely similar to death: // All vanity, all dullness, all deception. // I go down to the boat, shivering chillily, // To sink into the fog with it...” In 1940, the poet admits that “now there are no publishers for real poems. There is no reader for them either. I write poems without writing them down, and I almost always forget.” The poet died on December 20, 1941 during the occupation. by the Germans in Tallinn and was buried there at the Alexander Nevsky cemetery. His lines are placed on the monument: “How beautiful, how fresh the roses will be, // My country threw me into my coffin!”

D. S. Merezhkovsky and Z. N. Gippius in exile. Ideological and creative evolution.

Merezhkovsky and Gippius hoped for the overthrow of great. authorities, but upon learning of the defeat of Kolchak in Siberia and Denikin in the south, they decided to flee Petrograd. On December 24, 1919, they, together with their friend D. Filosofov and secretary V. Zlobin, left the city, supposedly to give lectures to the Red Army. parts in Gomel; in January 1920 they switched to territorial, occupation. Poland, and stopped in Minsk. Gave lectures for Russians. emig., wrote political. articles in the newspaper "Minsk Courier". In February 1920 - Warsaw, act. watered activities On October 20, 1920 we left for Paris.

The collapse of fate and the TV of a writer doomed to life outside of Russia is a constant theme of the late Gippius. In emigration she remained a true esthete. and metaphysis. system of thinking that developed in her pre-revolutionary years. years. This system is based on the ideas of freedom, fidelity and love exalted to Christ. In emigration Gippius republished what was written in Russia (collection of stories “Heavenly Words”, Paris, 1921). In 1922, the collection “Poems: Diary 1911-1921” was published in Berlin, and in Munich, a book by 4 authors (Merezhkovsky, Gippius, Filosofov and Zlobin) “The Kingdom of the Antichrist” was published, where two parts “Petersburg. diaries." In 1925 in Prague, a 2-volume edition of her memoirs “Living Faces”: lit. portraits of Blok, Bryusov, A. Vyrubova, V. Rozanov, Sologub. In Paris, M. and G. et al. in “Let's modernize. Notes”, in the newspapers “Last News” and “Vozrozhdenie”. But in fact, they were not included in any emigrants. circle: their views found no response from either the right or the left. In 1926, the organization. lit. and Phil. Society "Green Lamp". Society played a prominent role in intelligence. life of the 1st emigration. It was a closed society, which was supposed to become an “incubator of ideas” and all members of which would agree on the most important issues. 1st meeting - February 5, 1927. Transcript. reports of the first 5 meetings - in the magazine “New Ship”, fundamentals. Gippius in Paris. In September 1928, M. and G. took part in the First Congress of Russian Emigre Writers in Belgrade. A publishing house was created at the Serbian Academy of Sciences. the commission that began publishing the “Russian Library”, in which the “Blue Book” was published G. The theme of freedom and the question of whether true art is possible. TV in isolation from its native soil - the main thing for Gippius throughout all the years of the existence of the “Green Lamp” (until 1939).

M. in emigration. wrote a lot. (lit. active. G. - less.) Journalism, historical novels, essays, film scripts - embodied. original religious-philosophical concepts that defined his understanding of Russia’s place in human history: the work “The Kingdom of the Antichrist” with the subtitle “Bolshevism, Europe and Russia” (1921), a number of sources. research - “The Secret of the Three: Egypt and Babylon” (1925), “The Birth of the Gods. Tutankhamun on Crete" (1925), "Messiah" (1928), "Napoleon" (1929), "Atlantis-Europe" (1930), "Pascal" (1931), "Jesus the Unknown" (1932), "Paul and Augustine" (1936), “Saint Francis of Assisi” (1938), “Joan of Arc and the Third Kingdom of the Spirit” (1938), “Dante” (1939), “Calvin” (1941), “Luther” (1941).

Prose of I. A. Bunin in exile.

Bunin consciously made a break with the new government. Moves to Moscow - Odessa - Constantinople (Jan. 1920) - France (first Paris, then Grasse, not far from Nice). Villa "Jeanette" in Grasse became his final refuge. In 1933, B was given the Nobel Prize “for having reproduced a typical Russian character in narrative prose.” In Grasse he survived the occupation and liberation of France. 1950 - writes memoirs. On November 8, 1953, B died in Paris. In Fr Bunin wrote: “Mitya’s Love” (3 parts, 36 stories. A novel in short stories), “Sunstroke”, “The Life of Arsenyev” (in the 1st edition with the subtitle “to the origin of days”), “Dark Alleys” etc. During the emigrant period, in B’s stories, love is the highest value of life. B has a bad attitude towards war - you can’t kill each other. In the 30s - 40s main. The theme becomes the mercilessness of passing time.

“The Life of Arsenyev” - Nob. Prize, 1933. Criticism - everyone praised it.

"Mitya's love". Novel in short stories: 36 small stories, combined. general plot. Student Mitya loves Katya. He seems happy. He kisses her, etc., but hasn't slept with her yet. Katya studies at the theater school. Mitya is jealous of her lifestyle, of the director. He doesn’t like the theater, he doesn’t like how Katya reads “The girl sang...” - K “howls” during the exam, Mitya doesn’t like poetry either. M's jealousy has tormented both of them, and M decides to go to the village, to his mother, for the summer. They will meet with K in Crimea in June. M. is leaving, spring is all around. He sees K. in the renewal of nature, he is filled with love and constantly writes letters to her. K replies once with a short letter that he loves him too. Village girls fall in love with M. K does not answer his letters and M begins to look at the girls. In the end, the clerk says that it is not right for the barchuk to live as a monk and wants to take him to Alenka, whose husband is in the mines. Alenka reminds M Katya. M goes to the post office every day, but there is no letter, and Mitya decides not to go there anymore. But the thought of suicide flashes through his mind. M arranges for Alenka to come to his hut in the garden and promises to pay her. He is nervous all day when he comes to the hut - he doesn’t know what’s wrong with her or what. the woman says “come on faster.” Mitya eventually leaves the hut. Everything turned out to be not as good as we would have liked. And then a letter arrives from Katya: they say, she will not leave art for Mitya, let him no longer write to her, she is leaving. Mitya is in unbearable pain. In his delirium, he imagines some corridors, rooms, unnatural intercourse. And he shoots himself. "With pleasure". If only this torment wouldn't happen again. Images: Mitya - through his eyes we see what is happening. A young man in love, loves good poetry (Tyutchev, Fet, etc.), is filled with dreams about the future and about Katya, tries to unravel it, understands that he loves the image more than the real person. Since childhood, I lived with a presentiment of love. Katya - this is where B’s attitude towards actors comes into play - takes what she does as “art”, in general, she plays in life. Alenka - an “honest woman” - doesn’t want to live without money. The clerk is a disgusting pimp. Katya's mother is a kind woman with crimson hair. Mitya's mother is lean, with black hair.

"Dark alleys" 1943. The characters in the stories included in this book are diverse in appearance, but they are all people of the same destiny. Students, writers, artists, officers are equally isolated from social media. environment. For them, they are characterized by internal tragic emptiness, the absence of the “price of life,” cat. they search in love and memories of the past. they have no future, although circumstances do not logically lead to a tragic ending. This is also symbolism: erotic moments - there is no soul, only flesh remains. The last secret of the world is the woman’s body, but an attempt to introduce this secret leads to disaster. The story itself "Dark Alleys" - 1938. An elderly gentleman arrives at an inn, the owner of which, no longer young, remembers him - her former lover from among the gentlemen. He remembers her too. She didn't marry, she loved him all her life. And he left her. He got married, but his wife left him, and his son grew up to be a scoundrel. She says that she cannot forgive him - because everything passes, but not everything is forgotten. He is leaving. And he thinks that she gave him the best moments of his life, but he could not imagine her as his wife and mistress of his St. Petersburg house. (the title - he kept reading poems to his mistress: “the scarlet rose hips were blooming all around, there were dark linden alleys”). The image of the woman is bright, the man is of an ordinary military man. "Clean Monday"- from "T.al." 1944. Everyone read and understood. "Sunstroke" 1925. A woman and a man met on a ship, disembarked, went to a hotel, and at night she left without even saying her name. The lieutenant asked her to stay, but she said that it would only ruin everything, that they had sunstroke. He wandered around the city, became sad and boarded another ship. In my opinion, everything said about “T.A.” - meaninglessness, the search for love that is not given and slips away.

I. S. Shmelev. Characteristics of a creative personality, style features.

Feb. roar Shmelev, like the entire democratic intelligentsia, accepted it with enthusiasm. Shmelev did not accept October. Shmelev guessed right during the roar. events violence over the fate of Russia. In the very first acts of the new government he sees serious sins against morality. Together with his family in 1918, Shmelev left for Crimea and bought a house in Alushta. The son, young Seryozha, ended up in the Volunteer Army. Twenty-five-year-old Sergei Shmelev served in the commandant's department in Alushta, and did not take part in the battles. After the flight of Wrangel's army in the spring of 1920, the Crimea was occupied by the Reds; many who served under Wrangel remained on the shore. They were asked to hand over their weapons. Among them was Shmelev’s son Sergei. He was arrested. Shmelev tried to rescue his son, but he was sentenced to death and executed. But the trials of the Shmelev family did not end with this tragedy. There was still a terrible famine to endure. Anger and sadness, grief and disgust sought their outlet. But it was no longer possible to write the truth, and the writer did not know how to lie. Returning from Crimea to Moscow in the spring of 1922, Shmelev began to bother about going abroad, where Bunin persistently invited him. On November 20, 1922, Shmelev and his wife left for Berlin. Bunin, probably understanding the condition of his fellow writer, tries to help the Shmelev family, invites Ivan Sergeevich to Paris, and promises to obtain visas. In January 1923, the Shmelevs moved to Paris, where the writer lived for 27 long years. At first, the Shmelevs settled with Kutyrkina, in an apartment not far from the Palace of Invalides, where Napoleon’s ashes rest. Shmelev's first work of the emigrant period was "Sun of the Dead"- a tragic epic. "The Sun of the Dead" was first published in 1923 year, in the emigrant collection "Window", and in 1924 it was published as a separate book. Immediately followed by translations into French, German, English, and a number of other languages, which was very rare for a Russian emigrant writer, and even unknown in Europe. "The Sun of the Dead" is the first deep insight into the essence of Russian tragedy in Russian literature. Until the end of the 20s, the writer’s collections were published, full of impressions about revolutionary Russia. IN "Summer of the Lord" Before us, in a series of Orthodox holidays, “appears,” as it were, the soul of the Russian people. "Pilgrimage"- this is a poetic story about going to the Trinity-Sergius Lavra. IN "Nanny from Moscow"- with sorrow and gentle irony the feelings of a simple Russian woman who found herself in Paris through the vicissitudes of fate are described. In 1936, Shmelev finished the first volume of the novel "Paths of Heaven". The writer, with a “creative groping,” tries to explore the secret paths that can lead a doubting intellectual and rationalist to “The Summer of the Lord.” Is it any wonder that in Shmelev’s work patriotic and religious motives came together. Life was preparing a new test for the writer. On July 22, 1936, the writer’s wife, Olga Alexandrovna, dies after a short illness. In order to somehow distract the writer from his dark thoughts, his friends organized a trip for him to Latvia and Estonia. He also visited the Pskov-Pechora Monastery and stood near the Soviet border. Reaching through the wire fence, he plucked several flowers. In the last year of his life, illness confined him to bed. In November 1949 he underwent surgery. She was successful. The desire to work returned, new plans appeared. He wants to start the third book of The Ways of Heaven. On June 24, 1950, Ivan Sergeevich Shmelev died of a heart attack.

Creativity of B. Zaitsev. Major works.

Zaitsev Boris Konstantinovich (1881-1972), Russian writer. Since 1922 in exile. Book of memoirs “Moscow” (1939), artistic biographies of Russian writers, “life portraits” (including “Reverend Sergius of Radonezh”, 1925).

Creativity of A. M. Remizov in emigration.

In August 1921, the writer emigrated. On TV R. emigrant. period, the motive of separation dominates, also correlated with the corresponding. plots from other literature (about Peter and Fevronia, about Bova Korolevich), but also having a deeply personal meaning, especially in the story "Olya" (1927) and novel "In Pink Glitter" (1952). They are inspired by the story of the writer’s family (his only daughter did not follow her parents into emigration and died in the occupied Kyiv in 1943; Remizov’s wife died the same year). The experience of reconstructing a holistic picture of the national spirit based on the legends that expressed religion. fans, often moving away from the officials. Orthodox canon, was undertaken by Remizov in many works created in foreign lands - from the book "Russia in Letters" (1922) to a collection of “dreams” and reflections on the forms of Russian spirituality, as they were reflected in classical literature (Gogol, Turgneev, Dostoevsky). This theme becomes the main one in the book. "Fire of Things" (1954). The sophistication of Remizov's style gave rise to heated debates about the fruitfulness or artificiality of his chosen art. decisions. Criticism (G. Adamovich) saw only straightforwardness in Remizov’s books. imitation of “Russian pre-Petrine antiquity”, accusing the author of a deliberate predilection for the archaic. Other authors believed that the nature of Remizov’s talent was playful; they associated this poetics with a distinctly unique style of everyday life and social behavior, which attracted the attention of visitors to his apartment, where the wallpaper was painted with kikimoras; guests were given certificates of their membership in the “Great and Free” invented by the writer. monkey chamber", and the atmosphere as a whole suggested thoughts of a "witch's nest". Still others perceived Remizov as a “holy fool within the culture” - an intelligent, imaginative, gifted artist, with his own, but special, vision. Remizov's style had a significant influence on a number of Russian writers of the 1920s. (Prishvin, L.M. Leonov, Vyach. Shishkov and others), who were adherents of “ornamental prose”. IN autobiography "With Trimmed Eyes" (1951) R., speaking about the origins and specifics. features of his TV, notes the importance of the idea of primordial memory (“sleep”), which determines the nature of the construction of many of his works: “From the age of two I began to clearly remember. It was as if I woke up and was, as it were, thrown into a world... inhabited by monsters, ghostly, with confused reality and dreams, colorful and sounding inseparably." One of the main works created by R. in emigration is an autobiography. according to material book "Whirlwind Rus'" (1927). It contains constant references to the poetics of hagiographic literature, for which the obligatory motives of rejection of the unrighteous world, ordeal, homelessness and spirit. purification in the finale, the author recreates the Russian hard times, introducing into his story those with whom he communicated most in his last Petersburg years - Blok, D. Merezhkovsky, philosopher L. Shestov, his own student, the young prose writer M. Prishvin. “Swirled Rus'” describes a time when man’s dream of a free human kingdom on earth “burned exceptionally brightly,” but “never and nowhere so cruelly” had a “pogrom” thundered before (directly affecting Remizov himself, who was arrested and briefly imprisoned during the period of the "Red Terror"). The story, as in the book “With Trimmed Eyes,” forms an autobiography with “Whirlwind Russia.” diptych, carried out in free form. compilations of events from large societies. significance (Lenin’s arrival in Petrograd in the spring of 1917) and private evidence, right down to the recording of conversations in queues or scenes of crowds mocking disarmament. policemen. R. creates a deliberately fragmentary montage, where the chronicle, saddening the course of history, is combined with a recreation of the hardships and hardships suffered by the story itself, with visions, dreams, echoes of legends, “spells,” a recording of the stream of consciousness, a mosaic of fleeting sketches of the “whirled "everyday life. The narrative, as in many other books of R., is conducted in the form of a tale. Such style and similar composition. The decision is also distinguished by R.'s novel about emigration, which remains in the manuscript "The Music Teacher" (published posthumously, 1983), and a book of memoirs "Meetings" (1981), and a partially published autobiography. story "Iveren" (1986).

Alexey Remizov died in Paris in 1957. He was buried in the Sainte-Genevieve-des-Bois cemetery.

The work of A. I. Kuprin in exile.

Feb. roar K. was met with enthusiasm. She found him in Helsingfors. He immediately. departure to Petrograd, where, together with the critic P. Pilsky, he edited the Socialist Revolutionary newspaper Free Russia for some time. Sympathy. having met Oct. rev., but coll. in bourgeois newspapers "Era", "Petrogradsky Listok", "Echo", "Evening Word", where he speaks with political. articles in which the statement is contradictory. writer's position. A confluence of events brings K. to the camp of emigration. In the summer of 1920 - in Paris. Creative the decline caused by emigration continued until the mid-20s. At first, only articles by K appeared. And only with 1927., when it comes out collection "New stories and stories", we can talk about the afterbirth. fruitful period of his TV. Following this collection - books "The Dome of St. Isaac of Dalmatia" (1928) and "Elan" (1929). Stories published in the newspaper "Vozrozhdenie" in 1929 -1933 are included in collections "Wheel of Time" (1930) and "Zhaneta" (1932 - 1933). Since 1928, K. has been publishing chapters from novel "Junker", published as a separate edition in 1933 year. The writer feels that isolation from his homeland has a detrimental effect on his TV. In this, perhaps, it will show. esp. thin warehouse K. More than even I.A. Bunin, B.K. Zaitsev or I.S. Shmelev, he is attached to the small and great sides of the Russian. way of life, the multinational way of life of the country. He makes sketches, creates a cycle of miniatures “Cape Huron” (1929), essays about Yugoslavia, “Home Paris”, “Intimate Paris” (1930), etc. But K. is able to find the very “substance of poetry” only in impressions . from native reality. The world is crushed into small grains, into drops. The writer calls the cycle of miniatures in prose included in the collection “Elan”: “Stories in Drops.” He remembers a lot of precious things. little things connected with the homeland - remembers that “Elanya” is called “a bend in a dense pine forest, where it is fresh, green, fun, where there are lilies of the valley, mushrooms, songbirds and squirrels” (“Elan”); that “vereya” is what the Kurtin peasants call the hill sticking out above the swamp. He remembers how with a meek sound “Puck!” (as if “a child opened his mouth in thought”) a swollen bud bursts on a spring night (“Night in the Forest,” 1931) and how delicious a piece of black bread sprinkled with coarse salt is (“At the Trinity - Sergius”). But these details sometimes remain a mosaic - each on its own, each separately. The old, “Kuprin” motifs are heard again in his prose. The short stories “Olga Sur” (1929), “Bad Pun” (1929), “Blondel” (1933) complete the whole line in the writer’s depiction of the circus. Following the famous "Listrigons" he writes to the emigre. the story "Svetlana" (1934), again resurrecting. the colorful figure of the fishing chieftain Kolya Kostandi. Glorifying the great “gift of love” (which was the leitmotif of many previous writers), dedicating. story "The Wheel of Time" (1930). Its hero, the Russian engineer “Mishika” (as the beautiful Frenchwoman Maria calls him), is still the same “passable” character on TV K. - kind, hot-tempered, weak. Ruder than previous characters. His thing is a more ordinary, carnal passion, which, having quickly exhausted itself, begins to weigh down the hero, who is not capable of lasting. feeling. It is not for nothing that “Mishika” himself says about himself: “The soul is empty, and only the bodily cover remains.” Like other Russians. writer, K. dedicated of his youth, the largest and that means. emigrant thing - novel "Junker" (1928 - 1932). The military theme will end with a novel about the cadet years in Alexander. school. Lear. confession of a cadet. Idyllic. intonation. Everyday life is romanticized and tinted, and with it a rosy glow falls on the entire army service. But "Junkers" is not just Alexander's "home" story. military school, story. one of her pets. This is a story about old, “specific” Moscow, all woven from fleeting memories. The best pages of the novel include poetic episodes. Alexandrov's hobbies with Zina Belysheva. Despite the abundance of light and festivities, this is a sad book. Again and again the writer mentally returned to his homeland. K.’s last major work, the story, is permeated with a feeling of unbridled nostalgia "Zhaneta" (1932 -1933). Passes by the old prof. Simonov, once a banner. in Russia, and now huddled in a poor attic, the life of a bright and noisy Paris. The old man became attached to the little poor girl Zhanete. In old man Simonov there is something from K. Lit himself. the legacy of late K. is much weaker than his pre-oct. TV-va. Until the end of his days K. rus. patriot. The writer decided to return to Russia. Everything will be prefaced. negotiations were taken over by artist I. Ya. Bilibin (who had already received permission to enter the USSR). He returned on May 31, 1937. The newspapers wrote about all the celebrations in the USSR. Already ill, K. shares his plans, joyfully experiencing his return to his homeland. He settles in the Golitsyn House of TV Writers, then moves to Leningrad and lives there, surrounded by care and attention. Serious illness. Died on August 25, 1938.

"Middle generation" of the first wave of emigration. General characteristics. Representatives.

The poets who published their first collections before the revolution and quite confidently declared themselves in Russia found themselves in an intermediate position between the “older” and “younger” ones: V. Khodasevich, G. Ivanov, M. Tsvetaeva, G. Adamovich. In emigrant poetry they stand apart. M. Tsvetaeva experienced a creative takeoff in exile and turned to the genre of the poem, “monumental” verse. In the Czech Republic, and then in France, she wrote: “The Maiden Tsar”, “Poem of the Mountain”, “Poem of the End”, “Poem of the Air”, “Pied Piper”, “Staircase”, “New Year’s”, “Attempt of the Room”. V. Khodasevich published his top collections in exile, “Heavy Lyre”, “European Night”, and became a mentor to young poets united in the “Crossroads” group. G. Ivanov, having survived the lightness of the early collections, receives the status of the first poet of emigration, publishes poetry books included in the golden fund of Russian poetry: “Poems”, “Portrait without a resemblance”, “Posthumous Diary”. A special place in the literary heritage of emigration is occupied by G. Ivanov’s quasi-memoirs “Petersburg Winters”, “Chinese Shadows”, and his infamous prose poem “The Decay of the Atom”. G. Adamovich publishes the program collection “Unity”, the famous book of essays “Comments”.

V. F. Khodasevich - poet, critic, memoirist.

Emigration. In 1922, Kh., together with N. Berberova, who became his wife, left. Russia, lives in Berlin, collaborator. in berl. newspapers and magazines; happened in 1923 break with A. Bely, who in revenge gave a caustic, essentially parody, portrait of Kh. in the book. "Between two revolutions." In 1923-25 he helped A. M. Gorky as an editor. magazine "Conversation", he lives with Berberova in Sorrento (October 1924 - April 1925), later H. will devote several essays to him. In 1925 moved. to Paris, where he remains for the rest of his life. Back in 1922, “Heavy Lyre” was published. As in “The Path of the Grain,” overcoming and breakthrough are the main value imperatives of X. (“Step over, jump over, / Fly over whatever you want”), but their disruption, their return to material reality is legitimized: “God knows what to himself you mutter, / Looking for pince-nez or keys.” The eternal conflict between the poet and the world was acquired by H. physical form incompatibility; every sound of reality, the poet’s “quiet hell,” torments, deafens and wounds him. Verse occupies a special place in Kh.'s book and poetry. “Not by my mother, but by a Tula peasant woman... I was fed,” dedicated. the poet's nurse, whose gratitude develops into a manifesto of Kh.'s literary self-determination, commitment to Russian. gives language and culture the “painful right” to “love and curse” Russia. Life as an expat. resisting constant lack of money and exhausting. lit. labor, difficult relations with emigrant writers, first due to proximity to Gorky. H. publishes a lot in the magazine “Sovrem. notes”, the newspaper “Vozrozhdenie”, where since 1927 he has led the literary department. chronicles. In emigration X. has a reputation for being picky. criticism and disagreement a man, a bilious and poisonous skeptic. In 1927, “Collected Poems” was published, including the last small book “Europe. night", with will amaze. verse “In front of the mirror” (“I, I, I. What a wild word! / Is that one over there really me?”). The natural change of images - a pure child, an ardent youth and today, “billy-gray, half-gray / And all-knowing, like a snake” - for H. the consequence is tragic. fragmentation and uncompensated mental waste; the longing for wholeness sounds in this verse. like nowhere else in his poetry. In general, the poems of “European Night” are painted in gloomy tones; they are dominated not even by prose, but by the bottom and underground of life (“Underground”). He tries to penetrate into “someone else’s life,” the life of the “little man” of Europe, but a blank wall of misunderstanding symbolizes. It is not the social, but the general meaninglessness of life that rejects the poet. After 1928, Kh. wrote almost no poetry; on them, as well as on other “proud plans” (including biograph. Pushkin, which he never wrote), he gives up: “now I have nothing,” he writes in August 1932 to Berberova, who left him the same year; in 1933 he married O. B. Margolina. Kh. becomes one of the leading critics of emigration, responding to all meanings. publications abroad and in the Soviet Union. Russia, including books by G. Ivanov, M. Aldanov, I. Bunin, V. Nabokov, Z. Gippius, M. Zoshchenko, M. Bulgakov, conducts polemics with Adamovich, seeks to instill the saying. emigre poets classical lessons Mast. Last The TV period will end with the release of two prose films. books - bright thin. biogr. "Derzhavin", written. the tongue of the gun. prose, using the linguistic coloring of the era, and memoir prose “Necropolis”, compiled. from essays 1925-37, published, like the chapters of Derzhavin, in periodicals.

G. V. Ivanov - poet, critic, memoirist.

In 1911, the GI joined the ego-futurists, but already in 1912 it moved away from them and became closer to the Acmeists. At the same time, he is published in magazines that are completely different in their areas: “Shipovnik”, “Satyricon”, “Niva”, “Hyperborea”, “Apollo”, “Lukomorye”, etc.

The poet’s first collection, “Sailing to Cythera Island,” published at the end of 1911 (1912 in the imprint) and noted for reviews by Bryusov, Gumilyov, Lozinsky, was influenced by the poetry of Kuzmin, Vyach. Ivanov and Blok.

In the spring of 1914, already a full member of the “Workshop of Poets,” GI published his second book of poems, “The Upper Room.”

During the First World War, GI actively collaborated in popular weeklies, writing a lot of “jingoistic” poems (the collection “Monument of Glory”, 1915, which the poet himself did not subsequently include among his poetry books), most of which he later treated critically .

At the very end of 1915, the GI released its last pre-revolutionary collection - "Heather" (on the title page - Pg., 1916).

After the revolution, the GI participated in the activities of the second “Workshop of Poets.” To support himself, he translated Byron, Baudelaire, Gautier, and a number of other poets. Only in 1921 was the next book of Ivanov’s poems, “Gardens,” published.

In October 1922, G. GI, together with his wife Irina Odoevtseva, left Russia. During the years of emigration he lives in Berlin, Paris, and sometimes in Riga. During the Second World War, the GI was in Biarritz, from where he returned to Paris after its end.

GI publishes a lot in the emigrant press with his poems, critical articles, writes prose (the unfinished novel “The Third Rome” (1929, 1931), the “prose poem” “The Decay of the Atom” (1938, Paris).

In exile GI shared the title of “first poet” with V. Khodasevich, although many of his works, especially of a memoir and prose nature, caused a lot of unfavorable reviews both in the emigrant environment and, especially, in Soviet Russia. This applies, in particular, to the book of essays “St. Petersburg Winters” published in 1928.

The pinnacle of Ivanov’s poetic creativity was the collections “Roses” (1931, Paris) and “1943-1958. Poems” (prepared by the author himself, but published a few months after his death). At the very beginning of 1937, the only lifetime book of “The Chosen One” by G. Ivanov, “Sailing to the Island of Cythera,” was published in Berlin, practically repeating the title of the first collection, published exactly 25 years earlier. Only one of the three sections of this book contained poems that the author had not previously included in collections. The last years of his life were spent in poverty and suffering for G. Ivanov - from 1953 he, together with I. Odoevtseva, lived in a nursing home in Hyères, near Toulon, until his death on August 26, 1958. Later, the poet’s ashes were transferred to Parisian cemetery Saint Genevieve de Bois.

Creativity of G. V. Adamovich.

Adamovich Georgy Viktorovich was born in Moscow. In 1914 - 1915, Adamovich met the Acmeist poets, and in 1916 - 1917 he became one of the leaders of the second “Workshop of Poets”. In 1916, Adamovich’s first collection of poetry, “Clouds,” was published, marked by easily recognizable features of acmeistic poetics by that time. A detailed landscape, mostly winter and autumn, and the interior serve as a backdrop that highlights the mental state of the lyrical hero. Critics noted the “special vigilance for everyday life” characteristic of the poet. However, “visual images” are not an end in themselves for Adamovich; for him, the search for emotionally intense content is more important. Extreme lyricism is a natural property of Adamovich’s talent. N. S. Gumilev drew attention to this feature of his poetic talent when reviewing the poet’s first collection. “...He does not like the cold splendor of epic images,” the critic noted, “he seeks a lyrical relationship to them and for this he strives to see them enlightened by suffering... This sound of a rattling string is the best thing in Adamovich’s poems, and the most independent” . The poet's lyrics strive for classical completeness of form, but in it, elegiac in nature, there is always a moment of understatement and deliberate openness. Critics classified Adamovich as “a strictly subjective lyricist and limited by his subjectivity.” The collisions of social life do not seem to affect the poet: immersed in the circle of literary and mythological reminiscences, he seems to be detached from the worries of the world, although he lives by them. The poet knows unimaginable mental pain, and his poetry is close to the “pangs of conscience” of I. F. Annensky.

After the revolution, Adamovich participated in the activities of the third "Workshop of Poets", actively collaborated as a critic in its almanacs, in the newspaper "Life of Art", translated C. Baudelaire, J. M. Heredia. In 1922, Adamovich’s collection “Purgatory” was published, written in the form of a kind of lyrical diary. In his poems, reflection and introspection intensify, and the functional role of quotation increases. “Another word” is not simply woven into the fabric of the word, but becomes a structure-forming beginning: many of Adamovich’s poems are constructed as paraphrases of well-known folklore and literary works (“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” “Gudrun’s Lament,” “The Romance of Tristan and Isolde,” urban romances ). His nervous emotional verse is not alien to pathos, especially when the poet turns to “high genres,” as a rule, to ancient Greek and medieval Western European epic. Adamovich recognized himself as a poet of Time. He felt like a contemporary of different eras, nevertheless maintaining his own “position of being outside” - a distance separating him, a poet of the 20th century, from the conventional mythological chronotope. The poet experiences the mythological past of culture as real history; he identifies himself with the ancient Greek Orpheus, and the “longing of recollection” becomes the counterpoint of his lyrics.

In 1923, Adamovich left Russia and settled in Paris. As a critic, he appears in the magazine "Modern Notes", the newspaper "Last News", then in "Zven" and "Numbers", gradually acquiring the reputation of "the first critic of emigration." He writes little poetry, but nevertheless it is to him that emigrant poetry owes the appearance of the so-called “Parisian note” - an extremely sincere expression of his mental pain, “the truth without embellishment.” Poetry is meant to be a diary of human sorrows and experiences. It must abandon formal experiment and become “artless,” because language is not able to express the full depth of the life of the spirit and the “inexhaustible mystery of everyday life.” The search for truth becomes the pathos of Adamovich's poetry of the emigrant period. The Russian thinker G. P. Fedotov called his path “ascetic pilgrimage.” In 1939, a collection of Adamovich's poems "In the West" was published, indicating a change in the artist's creative style. His poetics are still quotable, but the development of this principle follows the line of philosophical deepening. According to reviewer P. M. Bicilli, who called Adamovich’s book a “philosophical dialogue,” the poet’s originality is manifested precisely in “the special dialogical nature of various modes: either direct, albeit fragmentary, quotes from Pushkin, Lermontov, or the use of other people’s images, sounds, speech structure , and sometimes in such a way that in one poem there is a concord of two or more voices." This emphasized polyphonism in Adamovich is associated with his declared desire for clarity and simplicity. Adamovich formulated his poetic credo as follows: "In poetry it should be as in the edge brings together all the most important things that animate a person. Poetry in its distant radiance should become a miraculous deed, just as a dream should become true." And in his poetic work of the late period, Adamovich strove for the constant "spiritualization of being."

At the beginning of the Second World War, Adamovich volunteers for the French army. After the war, he collaborated with the newspaper “New Russian Word”. His sympathetic attitude towards Soviet Russia leads him to be at odds with certain emigration circles. Adamovich's last collection, “Unity,” was published in 1967. The poet addresses the eternal themes of existence: life, love, death, loneliness, exile. The theme of death and the theme of love unite the poems in the collection and explain its title. Delving into metaphysical problems did not mean abandoning “beautiful clarity” and “simplicity.” Adamovich, in his own way, as the poet and critic Yu. P. Ivask noted, continued Acmeism. He constantly felt the form - the flesh of the verse, the poetic existence of the word. Answering the question he himself posed - what should poetry be like? - Adamovich wrote: “So that everything would be clear, and only in the cracks of meaning would a piercing transcendental breeze rush in...” The poet strove for this creative super-task: “To find words that do not exist in the world, // To be indifferent to image and paint, / / So that a white beginningless light flashes, // And not a flashlight on penny oil.”

The fate and creativity of M. I. Tsvetaeva. Prague and Parisian periods of creativity.

For almost 4 years Ts. had no news about her husband. In July 1921, she received a letter from him from abroad. Ts. instantly decides to go to her husband, who was studying at a university in Prague. In May 1922, Ts. sought permission to travel abroad. To Berlin first. There's a sign. with Yesenin, I got stuck. correspondence with Pasternak. 2 and a half months - more than 20 poems, in many ways not similar to the previous ones. Her lyrics become more complex.

In August, Ts. went to Prague to visit Efron. In search of cheap housing, they wander around the suburbs: Makropos, Ilovishchi, Vshenory - villages with primitive living conditions. With all her soul, Ts. fell in love with Prague, a city that instilled inspiration in her, in contrast to Berlin, which she did not like. In the Czech Republic, Ts. is finishing the poem “Well done,” about the powerful, all-conquering power of love. She embodied her idea that love is always an avalanche of passions that falls on a person, which inevitably ends in separation, in “Poem of the Mountain” and “Poem of the End,” inspired by a whirlwind romance with K.B. Razdevich. The “Ravine” cycle, the poems “I love, but the flour is still alive...”, “Ancient vanity flows through the veins...” and others are dedicated to him. Ts.'s lyrics of that time also reflected other feelings that worried her - contradictory, but always strong. Passionate, aching poems express her longing for her homeland (“Dawn on the Rails,” “Emigrant”). Letters to Pasternak merge with lyrical appeals to him (“Wires”, “Two”). Descriptions of the Prague outskirts (“Zavodskie”) and echoes of his own nomads from apartment to apartment are combined in melancholy from inescapable poverty. She continues to reflect on the special fate of the poet (the “Poet” cycle), on his greatness and defenselessness, power and insignificance in the world “where a runny nose is called crying”:

In 1925, Ts. had a son, George, whom she had long dreamed of; his family name would be Moore. A month later, she began to write her last work in Czechoslovakia - the poem “The Pied Piper,” called “lyric. satire." The poem was based on the legend of a flutist from Gammeln, who saved the city from an invasion of rats by luring them into the river with his music, and when he did not receive the promised payment, with the help of the same flute he lured all the young children out of the city, took them to the mountain, where they swallowed up by the abyss that opened up beneath them. On this external background, Tsvetaeva superimposes the sharpest satire, denouncing all sorts of manifestations of lack of spirituality. The rat-catcher-flutist personifies poetry, the rats (fed up bourgeois) and city residents (greedy burghers) represent a soul-corroding way of life. Poetry takes revenge on everyday life that has not kept its word; the musician takes children away to his enchanting music and drowns them in the lake, giving them eternal bliss.

In the fall of 1925, Ts. moved with his children to Paris. Ts is destined to live in Paris and its suburbs for almost fourteen years. Life in France hasn't gotten any easier. Emigration the environment did not accept Ts., and she herself often went into open conflict with the lit. abroad. In the spring of 1926, through Pasternak, Ts. met Rainer Maria Rilke in absentia. This is how the epistol was born. “A Romance of Three” – “Letters of the Summer of 1926.” Experiencing creative enthusiasm, Ts. writes a dedication. The poem “From the Sea” was written to Pasternak, and she dedicated “The Attempt of a Room” to him and Rilke. At the same time, she created the poem “The Staircase”, in which her hatred of the “fullness of the well-fed” and the “hunger of the hungry” was expressed. The death at the end of 1926 of Rilke, who had never been seen, deeply shocked Ts. She creates a requiem poem, a lament for the poet “New Year’s”, then “Poem of Air”, in which she reflects on death and eternity.

The poet changes. Tsvetaeva’s tongue, a kind of high tongue-tiedness. Everything in a poem is subject to rhythm. The bold, impetuous fragmentation of a phrase into separate semantic pieces, for the sake of almost telegraphic conciseness, in which only the most necessary accents of thought remain, becomes a characteristic feature of her style. She is conscious. destroys musically traditional poem forms: “I don’t believe the poems that flow. They are torn - yes! Prose was published more readily, so by the will of fate in the 30s. The main place in TV Ts. is occupied by prose. production Like many Russians. writers in exile, she turns her gaze to the past, to a world that has sunk into oblivion, trying to resurrect that ideal atmosphere from the heights of her past years in which she grew up, which shaped her as a person and a poet. Essays “The Groom”, “The House of Old Pimen”, the already mentioned “Mother and Music”, “Father and His Museum” and others. The passing away of her contemporaries, people whom she loved and revered, serves as an occasion for the creation of requiem memoirs: “Living about Living” (Voloshin), “Captive Spirit” (Andrei Bely), “An Unearthly Evening” (Mikhail Kuzmin), “ The Tale of Sonechka” (S.Ya. Golliday). Tsvetaeva also writes articles devoted to the problems of creativity (“Poet and Time”, “Art in the Light of Conscience”, “Poets with History and Poets without History” and others). A special place is occupied by Tsvetaev’s “Pushkiniana” - the essays “My Pushkin” (1936), “Pushkin and Pugachev” (1937), the poetic cycle “Poems to Pushkin” (1931). She admired the genius of this poet from her infancy, and her works about him are also autobiographical. character. In the spring of 1937, Ts.’s daughter, Ariadna, went to Moscow, having adopted owls at the age of 16. citizenship. And in the fall, Sergei Efron, who continued his activities in the Homecoming Union and cooperation with Soviet intelligence, became involved in a not very clean story that received wide publicity. He had to leave Paris in a hurry and secretly cross into the USSR. Tsvetaeva's departure was a foregone conclusion. She is in a difficult mental state and has not written anything for more than six months. Preparing your archive for shipping. The events of September 1938 brought her out of creative silence. Germany’s attack on Czechoslovakia caused its violent indignation, which resulted in the cycle “poems to the Czech Republic”: “Oh mania! O mummy // Greatness! // You'll burn, // Germany! // Madness, // Madness // You create! On June 12, 1939, Tsvetaeva and her son left for Moscow.

Poetry of the younger generation of the first wave of emigration. Main trends: “Parisian note”, “formists”, “Crossroads” poets, “provincial” poets.

“The unnoticed generation” (the term of the writer, literary critic V. Varshavsky, refusal to reconstruct what was hopelessly lost. The “unnoticed generation” included young writers who did not manage to create a strong literary reputation for themselves in Russia: V. Nabokov, G. Gazdanov, M. Aldanov , M. Ageev, B. Poplavsky, N. Berberova, A. Steiger, D. Knuth, I. Knorring, L. Chervinskaya, V. Smolensky, I. Odoevtseva, N. Otsup, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Yu. Mandelstam , Y. Terapiano, etc. Their fates were different. V. Nabokov and G. Gazdanov won pan-European, in Nabokov’s case, even world fame. M. Aldanov, who began actively publishing historical novels in the most famous emigrant magazine “Modern Notes”, joined to the “elders". The most dramatic fate is the fate of B. Poplavsky, who died under mysterious circumstances, A. Shteiger, I. Knorring, who died early. Almost none of the younger generation of writers could earn money from literary work: G. Gazdanov became a taxi driver, D. Knut delivered goods, Y. Terapiano worked in a pharmaceutical company, many earned a penny extra. Characterizing the situation of the “unnoticed generation” that lived in the small cheap cafes of Montparnasse, V. Khodasevich wrote: “The despair that owns the souls of Montparnasse... is fed and supported by insults and poverty... People are sitting at the tables of Montparnasse, many of whom have not had dinner during the day, and in the evening find it difficult to ask get yourself a cup of coffee. In Montparnasse they sometimes sit until the morning because there is nowhere to sleep. Poverty also deforms creativity itself.” The most acute and dramatic hardships that befell the “unnoticed generation” were reflected in the colorless poetry of the “Parisian note” created by G. Adamovich. An extremely confessional, metaphysical and hopeless “Parisian note” sounds in the collections of B. Poplavsky ( Flags), N. Otsupa ( In the smoke), A. Steiger ( This life,Two by two is four), L. Chervinskaya ( Approximation), V. Smolensky ( Alone), D. Knut ( Parisian nights), A. Prismanova ( Shadow and body), I. Knorring ( Poems about yourself).

Parisian note, a movement in Russian emigrant poetry of the late 1920s, the leader of which was considered G. Adamovich, and the most prominent representatives were B. Poplavsky, L. Chervinskaya (1906–1988), A. Steiger (1907–1944); The prose writer Yu. Felsen (1894–1943) was also close to him. Adamovich was the first to speak about a special, Parisian current in the poetry of the Russian Abroad in 1927, although the name “Parisian note” apparently belongs to Poplavsky, who wrote in 1930: “There is only one Parisian school, one metaphysical note, ever growing - solemn, bright and hopeless."

The movement, which recognized this “note” as dominant, considered G. Ivanov the poet who most fully expressed the experience of exile, and contrasted its program (the movement did not publish special manifestos) with the principles of the poetic group “Crossroads,” which followed the aesthetic principles of V. Khodasevich. In his responses to the speeches of the “Paris Note,” Khodasevich emphasized the inadmissibility of turning poetry into a “human document,” pointing out that real creative achievements are possible only as a result of mastering the artistic tradition, which ultimately leads to Pushkin. This program, which inspired the poets of the Crossroads, was opposed by the adherents of the Parisian Note, following Adamovich, by viewing poetry as direct evidence of experience, reducing “literariness” to a minimum, since it prevents the expression of the genuineness of feelings inspired by metaphysical melancholy. Poetry, according to the program outlined by Adamovich, was to be “made from elementary material, from “yes” and “no” ... without any decoration.”

The “Parisian Note” countered the demands to get used to the Russian tradition with its principle of broad creative dialogue with European poetry, from the French “damned poets” to surrealism, and its attitude towards experimentation, which caused skeptical comments from opponents of this poetry from Z. Gippius to the critic A. Boehm.

Without publishing a single almanac that would indicate a general ideological and creative position, and without holding a single collective evening, the poets of the “Parisian Note” nevertheless quite clearly expressed the range of moods and aesthetic orientation, which made it possible to talk about a holistic phenomenon. The early deaths of Poplavsky and Steiger, the death of Felsen, a victim of Nazi genocide, did not allow the “Paris Note” to realize its potential and even forced Adamovich, two decades later, to declare that “the note was a failure,” making the reservation that it “did not sound entirely in vain.” " However, Chervinskaya or the poet V. Mamchenko (1901–1982), who shared its basic principles, remained committed to this program until the end of their creative career.

Crossroads. V. Khodasevich believed that the main task of Russian literature in exile was the preservation of the Russian language and culture. He stood up for mastery, insisted that emigrant literature should inherit the greatest achievements of its predecessors, “graft a classic rose” onto the emigrant wild. The young poets of the “Perekrestok” group united around Khodasevich: G. Raevsky, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Yu. Mandelstam, V. Smolensky.

The creative path of G. I. Gazdanov.

Gazdanov Gaito (Georgy Ivanovich) (1903, St. Petersburg - 1971, Munich; buried near Paris in the cemetery of Saint-Genevieve-des-Bois).

Born in consist. a family of Ossetian origin, Russian in culture, image and language. Gazdanov is a Russian writer. About the language of our ancestors: “I don’t know the Ossetian language, although my parents knew it very well. I studied at the University of Paris, but Russian remained my native language.” My father’s profession is a forester => the family traveled a lot around the country, so only his childhood was in St. Petersburg, then in different cities of Russia (in Siberia, Tver province, etc.). I often visited relatives. in the Caucasus, in Kislovodsk. Shk. years - Poltava, a year in the Cadet Corps, and Kharkov, a gymnasium since 1912. Douch. up to 7th grade. In 1919, at the age of 16, he joined Dobrovolch. Wrangel's army is fighting in the Crimea. Serves on an armored train. Then, together with the army, to Gallipoli, and later to Constantinople. Here is the case. meetings. his cousin sister, ballerina (she left before the revolution, lived with her husband and worked in Const.). Very good helped Gazdanov. In K-le continued. studying at the gymnasium in 1922. 1st story – “Hotel of the Future”, published. in 1926 in Prague. magazine "In our own ways". The gymnasium was transferred. to the city of Shumen in Bulgaria, where G. graduated from high school in 1923. In 1923 he came to Paris, lived there for 13 years. Salary for a living, working as a loader, a locomotive cleaner, a worker at the Citroen automobile plant, etc. Then 12 years of work. taxi driver In current During these 12 years, 4 out of 9 novels, 28 out of 37 stories were written, and everything else was written in the next 30 years. years.

In the late 20s - early. 30's 4 years of study. at the Sorbonne on historical-philological. f-te, busy. history of literature, sociology, economics. sciences. In the spring of 1932, under the influence of M. Osorgin, he joined the Russian Federation. Masonic lodge "Northern Star". In 1961 he became its Master. He corresponded with Maxim Gorky, sent him some of his works, incl. and my first novel.

In 1929 - Gazdanov’s first novel (“Evening at Claire’s”). All emigration praises the novel. G. begins public. stories, novels along with Bunin, Merezhkovsky, Aldanov, Nabokov in “Let's Sovrem. Notes" (the most authoritative and respectable emigration journal). Actively participates in literature. ed. "Nomad"

In 1936 he went to the Riviera, where he met his future. wife Gavrisheva, nee Lamzaki (from an Odessa family of Greek origin). From 1937 to 1939 he came to Srediz every summer. the sea is the happiest. lifetime.

In 1939 - war. G. remains in Paris. Experiences fascism. occupation, helps those who are in danger. Participates in the movement. Resistance. He writes a lot: novels, stories. Among the works written at this time, the novel “The Ghost of Alexander Wolf” (1945 – 48) received recognition. After the war, publ. book "Return" Buddha." Great success, fame and money. Since 1946, only Lithuanian has lived. labor, sometimes working as a night taxi driver.

In 1952, he was offered to become an employee of the new radio station - “Svoboda”. Accept. This is a proposal from January 1953 until the death of work. Here. After 3 years he became editor-in-chief of news (in Munich), returning in 1959. to Paris as a correspondent for the Paris Bureau of Radio Liberty. In 1967 he was again transferred to Munich as senior and then editor-in-chief of the Russian service. I visited Italy and fell in love forever. to this country, especially to Venice. I came here every year.

In 1952 - the novel “Night Roads”, then “Pilgrims” (1952 - 54). The latest novels to be published are “The Awakening” and “Evelina and Her Friends,” begun in the 1950s but completed in the late 60s.

Died of lung cancer.

Poetry and prose of B. Yu. Poplavsky.

Boris Yulianovich Poplavsky was born in Moscow on May 24, 1903, died in Paris on October 9, 1935. Overdose He began writing poetry very early in his student days. notebooks, decorating them with fiction. patterns. In 1918, Poplavsky’s father, who considered it dangerous for himself to remain in Moscow, left with his son to the south of Russia. In the winter of 1919 in Yalta, Boris made his first public appearance in the Chekhov Lit. mug. In November 1920, Wrangel’s army finally left Crimea, and in the stream of Russian refugees, father and son ended up in Istanbul, where they stayed until May 1921, that is, before moving to Paris. In Paris, Poplavsky visits a private art school. Academy "Grand Chaumière" and is already beginning to spend his evenings in Montparnasse. His dream in 1921-1924 was to become an artist. Boris leaves for Berlin for two years to try his luck in his favorite field. Among the writers, Poplavsky's favorite was Andrei Bely. Having returned to Paris forever, Boris now divides his main activities between writing, sports, and assiduous studies in the library of Saint Genevieve, which he prefers to lectures on philosophy and the history of religions at the Sorbonne. After several fleeting attempts to become a taxi driver, Boris will finally give up on any practical work and, despite some support from his father, will eke out a miserable existence for the rest of his life, barely making it on “sham money”, that is, on benefits for the unemployed. In 1928, eight poems by Boris Poplavsky were published in the magazine “Volya Rossii”. Almost only Adamovich responded sympathetically to this. There were special reasons for this. The old generation, which held in its tenacious hands all the publishing houses not only in Paris, but also in Berlin, was very reluctant to allow the younger generation to publish. This circumstance explains the caustic remark of Georgy Ivanov: “The Will of Russia recently discovered the amazingly gifted Poplavsky, but among all the charming poems published there, not a single one could appear in Sovremennye Zapiski, since the poems are too good and extremely original for such a magazine.” . However, Sovremennye Zapiski soon came to its senses and, from 1929 to 1935, nevertheless published fifteen of his poems, albeit in homeopathic doses - in eleven issues of the magazine. During his lifetime, Poplavsky managed to release only one collection of poems, “Flags,” in 1931. Among the critics who then reproached Poplavsky for the “shortcomings” of his Russian language was Vladimir Nabokov, who nevertheless admitted that some of the poems in the collection “were soaring with their pure musicality.” In a narrow circle of experts, Poplavsky was nevertheless recognized during his lifetime. At least he did not leave his audience indifferent. "Flags" was reviewed more thoroughly than other books already in the year of its publication. The reviews not only differed sharply from each other, but also preceded those two predominant lines of characteristics that are developing in assessments of Poplavsky’s work in our days. After Boris’s death, three more of his collections were published: “Snow Hour” (1936), “In a Wreath of Wax” (1938), “Airship of an Unknown Direction” (1965). Since 1921, he began keeping his diary. Most of the recordings have remained unsorted and unreleased to this day. Nikolai Berdyaev drew attention to the essay “On Substantial Personality” published from the diaries, who devoted a detailed review to this work in “Modern Notes” in 1939. Along with these diaries, and “rather” in their vein, in the form of a creative projection, Boris Poplavsky started in 1926 a confessional novel in the form of a trilogy: “Apollo Bezobrazov”, “Home from Heaven”, “Teresa’s Apocalypse”. “And the wind falls into the fireplace, // Like a diver into a sunken ship // Seeing in it that the drowned man is alone // Looking recklessly into the empty water.”

The “second wave” of emigration and its literature. Peculiarities. Periodicals.

The greatest contribution to Russian literature among the representatives of the second wave was made by the poets: I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, V. Yurasov, V. Morshen, V. Sinkevich, V. Chinnov, Yu. Ivask, V. Markov. In emigrant poetry of the 40s and 50s, political themes predominate: Iv. Elagin writes Political feuilletons in verse, anti-totalitarian poems are published by V. Morshen (Tyulen, In the Evening of November 7), V. Yurasov describes the horrors of Soviet concentration camps in variations on the theme of “Vasily Terkin” Tvardovsky. Criticism most often names I. Elagin as the first poet of the second wave, who published the collections in exile On the way from there, You, my century, Night reflections, Oblique flight, Dragon on the roof, Under the constellation of the ax, In the hall of the Universe. I. Elagin called the main “nodes” of his work: citizenship, refugee and camp themes, horror of machine civilization, urban fantasy. In terms of social emphasis, political and civic pathos, Elagin’s poems turned out to be closer to Soviet wartime poetry than to the “Parisian note.”

Having overcome the horror of the experience, Yu. Ivask, D. Klenovsky, V. Sinkevich turned to philosophical, meditative lyrics. Religious motives are heard in the poems of Yu. Ivask (collections Tsar's Autumn, Praise, Cinderella, I Am a Tradesman, The Conquest of Mexico). Acceptance of the world - in the collections of V. Sinkevich The coming of the day, The flowering of grass, Here I live. Optimism and harmonious clarity are marked by the lyrics of D. Klenovsky (books Palette, Trace of Life, Towards the Sky, Touch, Outgoing Sails, Singing Burden, Warm Evening, The Last). I. Chinnova, T. Fesenko, V. Zavalishin, I. Burkina also made a significant contribution to emigrant poetry.

Heroes who did not come to terms with Soviet reality are depicted in the books of prose writers of the second wave. The fate of Fyodor Panin, fleeing from the “Great Fear” in V. Yurasov’s novel Parallax, is tragic. S. Markov polemicizes with Sholokhov’s Virgin Soil Upturned in the novel Denis Bushuev. The camp theme is addressed by B. Filippov (stories Happiness, People, In the Taiga, Love, Motif from La Bayadère), L. Rzhevsky (story Girl from the Bunker (Between Two Stars)). Scenes from the life of besieged Leningrad are depicted by A. Darov in the book Siege; B. Shiryaev (The Unquenchable Lamp) writes about the history of Solovki from Peter the Great to the Soviet concentration camps. Against the background of “camp literature,” the books by L. Rzhevsky Dean and Two Lines of Time stand out, which tell the story of the love of an elderly man and a girl, about overcoming misunderstandings, life’s tragedy, and barriers to communication. According to critics, in Rzhevsky’s books “the radiation of love turned out to be stronger than the radiation of hatred.”

Most of the writers of the second wave of emigration were published in the New Journal published in America and in the “magazine of literature, art and social thought” Grani (Munich, since 1946).

The third wave of emigration. General characteristics. Representatives. Periodicals.

3rd wave – 1970s From the USSR mainly. departure artists, artists intelligent In 1971, 15 thousand owls. citizens leaving country, in 1972 - 35 thousand. Writer-emigrants of the 3rd wave, as a rule, belonged to. to generation “sixties”, whose creativity flourished during the “thaw”, “the decade of Soviet quixoticism” (V. Aksenov). This is the generation of formations. in war and post-war times. "Children of War", grown up. in atmosphere spirit. rise, they pinned their hopes on Khrushchev’s “thaw”. But it soon became obvious that there would be fundamental changes in the lives of the owls. the community does not promise a “thaw”. Following the romantic dreams were followed by 20 years of stagnation. The curtailment of freedom began in 1963, with N.S. Khrushchev’s visit to the exhibition of avant-garde artists in the Manege. Ser. 60s - a period of new persecution of creativity. intellectuals and, first of all, writers. Solzhenitsyn's works are banned. for publication. Excited corner. case against Y. Daniel and A. Sinyavsky, A. Sinyavsky was arrested. I. Brodsky condemned. for parasitism and exiled to the village of Norenskaya. S. Sokolov is deprived of the opportunity to publish. The poet and journalist N. Gorbanevskaya (for participating in a protest against the invasion of Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia) was placed. in the psyche hospital. 1st writer, deported. to the west, - V. Tarsis (1966). Persecution and prohibitions => a new flow of emigrants, creatures. different from the previous 2: at the beginning. 70s USSR leaving. intellectual, active. k-ry and science. Many are deprived of owls. citizenship (A. Solzhenitsyn, V. Aksenov, V. Maksimov, V. Voinovich, etc.). With the 3rd wave of emigrants. traveling abroad: V. Aksenov, Yu. Aleshkovsky, I. Brodsky, G. Vladimov, V. Voinovich, F. Gorenshtein, I. Guberman, S. Dovlatov, A. Galich, L. Kopelev, N. Korzhavin, Yu Kublanovsky, E. Limonov, V. Maksimov, Y. Mamleev, V. Nekrasov, S. Sokolov, A. Sinyavsky, A. Solzhenitsyn, D. Rubina and others. Mostly Russian. pissing emigrant in the USA, where a powerful Russian diaspora (I. Brodsky, N. Korzhavin, V. Aksenov, S. Dovlatov, Yu. Aleshkovsky, etc.), to France (A. Sinyavsky, M. Rozanova, V. Nekrasov, E. Limonov, V. Maksimov, N . Gorbanevskaya), to Germany (V. Voinovich, F. Gorenshtein).

Writers of the 3rd wave turned out to be in emigration in perfect new conditions, they were largely not accepted by their predecessors, alien to the “old emigration”. Excellent from emigrants 1st and 2nd waves, they did not set themselves the task of “preserving the country” or capturing the hardships experienced in their homeland. Committed different experiences, worldviews, even different languages (as A. Solzhenitsyn published the “Dictionary of Language Expansion”, which included dialects, lag. jargon) prevented the emergence of connections between generations. Rus. language for 50 years owls. endured power means. change, TV will present. The 3rd wave took shape not so much under the Russian air. classics, as much as influenced by pop. in the 60s in the USSR, American and Latin American literature, as well as the poetry of M. Tsvetaeva, B. Pasternak, and the prose of A. Platonov. 1 of the main damn russian emigrant Literature of the 3rd wave - a tendency towards the avant-garde, p-modernism. But the 3rd wave is heterogeneous: emigration. it turns out writers are realistic. for example (A. Solzhenitsyn, G. Vladimov), p-modernists (S. Sokolov, Y. Mamleev, E. Limonov), no. laureate I. Brodsky, anti-formalist N. Korzhavin. Rus. The literature of the 3rd wave is a tangle of conflicts: “We left in order to have the opportunity to fight each other” (Naum Korzhavin).

Periodicals. 1 of the most famous magazines of the 3rd wave is “Continent”. Created by V. Maximov and published in Paris 4 times a year. The magazine was conceived as a tool of resistance to the owls. totalit. system and communist ideology. The name was suggested by A.I. Solzhenitsyn: the authors of the magazine seemed to speak on behalf of the entire continent of Eastern countries. Europe, where totalitarianism reigned. => Not only dissidents and emigrants from the USSR (A. Solzhenitsyn, A. Sakharov, I. Brodsky, A. Sinyavsky, V. Bukovsky, N. Korzhavin) collaborated with the magazine, but also representatives. other countries, so-called “socialist camp”: E. Ionesco, M. Djilas, M. Mikhailov, K. Gustav-Strem. But it will take a long time to unite authors with different people. it was not possible to convince people under the auspices of the magazine. Quite quickly they stopped collaborating with Continent. A.I. Solzhenitsyn (magazine taking an insufficient Russian and Orthodox position), A. Sinyavsky with his wife M. Rozanova (magazine accusing him of excessive nationalism). Journal authors: Y. Aleshkovsky, V. Betaki, V. Voinovich, A. Galich, A. Gladilin, N. Gorbanevskaya, S. Dovlatov, N. Korzhavin, V. Nekrasov, S. Sokolov. "Continent" has traditionally had a large reading. audience in the USSR. Among the Russian magazines. emigrant he was considered centrist, accused by the right of cosmopolitanism, and by liberal dissidents of inadmissibility. patriotism. Despite this, he had a great influence on the development of the fatherland. literature and literature. + in Paris the magazine “Syntax” (M. Rozanova, A. Sinyavsky). The most famous Amer. publishing houses: the newspapers “New American” and “Panorama”, the magazine “Kaleidoscope”. The magazine “Time and We” was founded in Israel, and “Forum” was founded in Munich. In 1972 beginning. founded the Ardis publishing house by I. Efimov. publishing house "Hermitage". At the same time, such publications as “New Russian Word” (New York), “New Journal” (New York), “Russian Thought” (Paris), “Grani” (Frankfurt am Main) retain their positions. .

Poets of the third wave of emigration. General characteristics.

Among the poets who in exile - N. Korzhavin, Y. Kublanovsky, A. Tsvetkov, A. Galich, I. Brodsky. A prominent place in Russian history. poetry belongs to I. Brodsky, who received. in 1987 Nob. Prize for “development and modernization.” classic forms." In emigration Brodsky publ. poem collections and poems: “Stop in the Desert”, “Part of Speech”, “The End of a Beautiful Era”, “Roman Elegies”, “New Stanzas for Augusta”, “Autumn Cry of a Hawk”.

Prose writers of the “third wave” of emigration. General characteristics.

2 largest. pissing realistic. for example - A. Solzhenitsyn and G. Vladimov. AS, having been forced to go abroad, creates in exile the epic novel “The Red Wheel”, in which he addresses. to the key. sob-yam rus. history of the twentieth century, interpreting them in an original way. Emigrant back. before perestroika (in 1983), G. Vladimov publ. the novel “The General and His Army,” which also deals with history. themes: in the center of the novel is the Second World War, which abolished the ideological and class. opposition within the owls. society, muzzled by the repressions of the 30s. The fate of the peasant. kind of dedicated his novel “Seven Days of Creation” V. Maksimov. V. Nekrasov, received. Became. Prize for the novel “In the Trenches of Stalingrad”, after the audience went out. “Notes of an Onlooker”, “A Little Sad Tale”.

A special place in the literature of the 3rd wave is occupied by. TV by V. Aksenov and S. Dovlatov. Aksenov's TV, deprived of owls. gr-va in 1980, addressed to the owls. valid from the 50s to the 70s, the evolution of his generation. The novel “Burn” is enchanting. post-war panorama Moscow life, brings to the forefront the “cult” heroes of the 60s - a surgeon, writer, saxophonist, sculptor and physicist. Aksenov also acts as a chronicler of the generation in The Moscow Saga. In Dovlatov's TV - rare, not a character. d/rus. words combine a grotesque worldview with a rejection of moral invective and conclusions. In Russian 20th century literature The writer's stories and tales continue the tradition of depicting small children. person." In his short stories, Dovlatov accurately conveys the lifestyle and attitude of the 60s generation, the atmosphere of bohemian meetings in Leningrad and Moscow. kitchens, the absurdity of owls. reality, Russian ordeal. emigrants to the USA. Written in emigration. "Foreigner" Dovlatov depicted. emigrant creatures in ironic key. 108th Street in Queens, depicted in Foreigner, is a gallery of non-produced works. cartoons in Russian emigrants.

V. Voinovich abroad tries his hand at the dystopian genre - in the novel “Moscow-2042”, in which a parody of Solzhenitsyn is given and the agony of owls is depicted. society

A. Sinyavsky publ. in emigration “Walking with Pushkin”, “In the Shadow of Gogol” - prose in which Litved combines. with brilliant writing, and writes ironically. biography "Good night".

S. Sokolov, Y. Mamleev, and E. Limonov include their TV channels in the p-modernist tradition. S. Sokolov’s novels “School for Fools”, “Between a Dog and a Wolf”, “Rosewood” are sophisticated. verbal. structures, masterpieces of style, they reflected the modernist attitude towards playing with reading, shifting time plans. S. Sokolov’s first novel, “School for Fools,” was highly appreciated by V. Nabokov, his idol. The marginality of the text is in the prose of Yu. Mamleev, who has now regained his Russian citizenship. Mamleev’s most famous works are “Wings of Terror”, “Drown My Head”, “Eternal Home”, “Voice from Nothing”, “Connecting Rods”. E. Limonov imitates socialist realism in the story “We Had a Wonderful Era”, denies the establishment in the books “It’s Me – Eddie”, “Diary of a Loser”, “Teenager Savenko”, “Young Scoundrel”.

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Original document?

Purpose and objectives of the research work 3

Introduction. Russian literature of the 20th century 4

Chapter I. Literature of the Russian Abroad 7

I .I First wave of emigration (1918–1940).

I .II Second wave of emigration (1940 – 1950).

I .III Third wave of emigration (1960–1980).

Chapter II. Directions of Russian literature abroad 11

Chapter III. The contribution of Russian literature abroad to the general context of Russian literature of the 20th century 14

Conclusion 15

Bibliography 16

PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH WORK:

GOAL: To get acquainted with the literature of Russian abroad.

1. Get acquainted with Russian literature of the 20th century.

2. Get acquainted with the literature of Russian abroad.

3. Identify trends in Russian literature abroad.

4. Identify the contribution of Russian literature abroad to the general concept of Russian literature of the 20th century.

INTRODUCTION

RUSSIAN LITERATURE IN THE XX CENTURY.

The first turbulent years after 1917, when numerous opposing literary groups emerged in accordance with the new social forces unleashed by the overthrow of the autocracy, were the only revolutionary period in the development of art in the Soviet Union. The struggle mainly unfolded between those who adhered to the great literary tradition of realism of the 19th century, and the heralds of the new proletarian culture. Innovation was especially welcomed in poetry, the original herald of revolution. The futuristic poetry of V.V. Mayakovsky (1893–1930) and his followers, inspired by the “social order”, i.e. everyday class struggle, represented a complete break with tradition. Some writers adapted old means of expression to new themes. For example, the peasant poet S.A. Yesenin (1895–1925), in a traditional lyrical style, sang of the new life that was expected in the village under Soviet rule.

Some works of post-revolutionary prose were created in the spirit of 19th century realism. Most described the bloody Civil War of 1918–1920 - exemplified by the murderous pictures of social decline during the general strife in B. A. Pilnyak’s novel “The Naked Year” (1922).

The predominant theme in the early prose of the “fellow travelers of the revolution,” as L. Trotsky put it, was the tragic struggle between the craving for the new and adherence to the old, an ever-present consequence of the civil war.

In the absence of political censorship in the first years of Soviet power, much was allowed to satirical writers who ridiculed the new regime in every possible way, such as Y.K. Olesha in the sophisticated political satire “Envy” (1927) or V.P. Kataev in the story “ Embezzlers" (1926).

The Communist Party began to formally regulate literature with the beginning of the first Five-Year Plan (1928–1932); it was actively promoted by the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP). The result was an incredible amount of industrial prose, poetry and drama, which almost never rose above the level of monotonous propaganda or reportage.

In 1932, the Central Committee ordered the dissolution of all literary associations and the founding of a single national Union of Soviet Writers, which was established two years later at the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers.

However, given the needs of the international agitation of the 1930s in the spirit of the Popular Front, some tolerance was shown towards the most talented writers.

During this period, Sholokhov completed the great novel Quiet Don (1928–1940), which was recognized as a classic work of Soviet literature and awarded the 1965 Nobel Prize. It is a sweeping epic panorama of the events of war, revolution and fratricidal strife, culminating in the subjugation of the Cossacks by the Red Army.

Of all the genres, poetry is the most difficult to regulate, and among the mass of poetic production of the 1930s, published by such leading Soviet poets as N.S. Tikhonov, A.A. Prokofiev, A.A. Surkov, N.N. Aseev and A.T. Tvardovsky, the only significant work that seems to have retained artistic value is “The Country of Ant” (1936) by Tvardovsky.

During the repressions in the second half of the 1930s, many writers were arrested - some were shot, others spent many years in camps. After Stalin's death, some were posthumously rehabilitated, like Pilnyak; and those who were excommunicated from literature, like A.A. Akhmatova, were again allowed to publish.

Many writers of the Stalin era, trying to avoid the dangers of modern themes, began writing historical novels and plays. Appeal to history suddenly became popular with the rise of nationalism, which the party encouraged in the face of the growing threat of war.

Immediately after the German invasion in 1941, literature was mobilized to support the warring country, and until 1945 almost every printed word contributed in one way or another to the defense of the fatherland.

Soviet writers hoped that the party would expand the limits of the relative creative freedom granted to them during the war, but the decree of the Central Committee for Literature on August 14, 1946 ended these hopes.

After Stalin's death in 1953, growing dissatisfaction with strict regulation was reflected in I. G. Ehrenburg's story “The Thaw” (1954), about the plight of artists forced to create under the control of their superiors. And although the party bodies severely condemned the rebellious authors at the Second Congress of Writers (1954), the speech of the First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee N.S. Khrushchev at the 20th Party Congress gave rise to a wave of protest against interference in the creative process.

The 1960s were notable not only for new works, but also for the first publication of old ones. Thus, readers had the opportunity to get acquainted with the work of M.I. Tsvetaeva (1891–1941), who committed suicide shortly after returning from emigration. The name of Boris Pasternak appeared in print again, although only his poems were published; Doctor Zhivago was published in the Soviet Union thirty years later than in the West. The most important literary discovery of the decade was the work of M.A. Bulgakov (1891–1940).

The most significant literary events of the 1960s was the publication in 1962 of A.I. Solzhenitsyn’s story “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich.” Solzhenitsyn's subsequent work reflects the development of Soviet literature during the Brezhnev era.

Following the publication of “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich,” which brought him worldwide fame, Solzhenitsyn managed to publish only a few stories, the best of which was “Matrenin’s Dvor” (1963); after that, the doors of Soviet publishing houses closed in front of him. His main novels, “In the First Circle” and “Cancer Ward,” were published abroad in 1968, and in 1969 he was expelled from the Union of Soviet Writers. In 1970 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.

During Brezhnev's time, official control over Soviet literature continued unabated, and many talented authors were forced to emigrate from the Soviet Union. Among the most prominent emigrants were the poet I.A. Brodsky, the satirist V.N. Voinovich and the writer-philosopher A.A. Zinoviev. Brodsky was tried in 1964 for “parasitism” and sent into exile for forced labor. He was released in 1965 when the publication of the first book of his poems in the West drew attention to his plight, but was forced to emigrate in 1972. In 1987 he became the fifth Russian writer to win the Nobel Prize, and in 1991 he was awarded the title of US Poet Laureate. Voinovich emigrated to West Germany in 1981. His most famous book, “The Life and Extraordinary Adventures of the Soldier Ivan Chonkin” (1975), was published in the West, followed by “Ivankiada” (1976) and Chonkin’s sequel, “The Contender to the Throne” (1979 ). In exile, he published the caustic satire “Moscow 2042” (1987) and the cartoon story about the Union of Soviet Writers “Shapka” (1988). Like Voinovich, Zinoviev published his most famous work, a bizarre mixture of fiction, philosophy and social satire called Yawning Heights (1976), before emigrating in 1978, but continued to write and publish widely abroad.

Some of the prominent writers who remained in the Soviet Union tried to resist the official omnipotence over the publication and distribution of literature. Literature not awarded official approval began to appear in “samizdat” in the early 1960s, and the circulation of “uncensored” reprints increased significantly after the trial of Sinyavsky and Daniel. Other writers, as was said, were published in “tamizdat” (i.e. abroad).

Although the “period of stagnation” emasculated literature, noteworthy works continued to be published in the Soviet Union during Brezhnev’s times. Since the 1950s, the group of “villagers” has gained increasing weight in Soviet literature. Their works depicted the sad life of the Russian village; they were filled with nostalgia for the past and were distinguished by their penchant for mythologizing the Russian peasantry. The leading representatives of this group were F.A. Abramov, V.G. Rasputin, V.I. Belov and V.P. Astafiev. Some writers focused on the lives of the urban intelligentsia. Yu.V. Trifonov attracted attention with novels exploring the “bourgeoisification” of the intelligentsia and a complex of moral problems associated with Stalinist repressions and their consequences (the novel “The House on the Embankment”, 1976). Like Trifonov, A.G. Bitov chose the intelligentsia as his collective character. He continued to be published in his homeland in the 1970s, but his main work at that time, the polysyllabic novel Pushkin's House, could not be fully published in the Soviet Union until the era of perestroika. It appeared in the West in 1978. The most consistent propagator of modernism in Russian literature of the 1960s–1970s was Kataev, who began publishing his, as he put it, “movist” books of memoirs “The Holy Well” (1966) and “The Grass of Oblivion” (1967). works that he wrote and published until his death.

By the early 1980s, Russian literature was divided into two communities - emigrants and Soviet writers. The panorama of legitimate literature within the Soviet Union dimmed as many prominent writers such as Trifonov, Kataev and Abramov died in the early years of the decade, and there was literally no evidence of new talent emerging in print.

CHAPTER I.

LITERATURE OF RUSSIAN ABROAD.

Literature of Russian abroad is a branch of Russian literature that arose after 1917 and was published outside the USSR and Russia. There are three periods or three waves of Russian emigrant literature. The first wave - from 1918 to the beginning of the Second World War, the occupation of Paris - was massive. The second wave occurred at the end of World War II.

The third wave began after Khrushchev’s “thaw” and carried the greatest writers A. Solzhenitsyn, I. Brodsky, S. Dovlatov outside Russia. The works of writers of the first wave of Russian emigration have the greatest cultural and literary significance.

I .I FIRST WAVE OF EMIGRATION (1918–1940)

The concept of “Russian abroad” arose and took shape after the October Revolution of 1917, when refugees began to leave Russia en masse. After 1917, about 2 million people left Russia. In the centers of dispersion - Berlin, Paris, Harbin - “Russia in miniature” was formed, preserving all the features of Russian society. Russian newspapers and magazines were published abroad, schools and universities were opened, and the Russian Orthodox Church operated. But despite the preservation of all the features of Russian pre-revolutionary society by the first wave of emigration, the situation of the refugees was tragic. In the past they had the loss of family, homeland, social status, a way of life that had collapsed into oblivion, in the present - a cruel need to get used to an alien reality. The hope for a quick return did not materialize; by the mid-1920s it became obvious that Russia could not be returned and that Russia could not return. The pain of nostalgia was accompanied by the need for hard physical labor and everyday instability; most emigrants were forced to enlist in Renault factories or, what was considered more privileged, to master the profession of a taxi driver.

The flower of the Russian intelligentsia left Russia. More than half of the philosophers, writers, and artists were expelled from the country or emigrated. Religious philosophers S. Bulgakov and L. Karsavin found themselves outside their homeland. The emigrants were F. Chaliapin, I. Repin, famous actors M. Chekhov and I. Mozzhukhin, ballet stars Anna Pavlova, Vaslav Nijinsky, composers S. Rachmaninov and I. Stravinsky. Among the famous writers who emigrated: Iv. Bunin, Iv. Shmelev, K. Balmont, A. Kuprin, I. Severyanin, A. Tolstoy, Sasha Cherny. Young writers also went abroad: M. Tsvetaeva, G. Ivanov. Russian literature, which responded to the events of the revolution and civil war, depicting the pre-revolutionary way of life that had collapsed into oblivion, turned out to be one of the spiritual strongholds of the nation in emigration. The national holiday of Russian emigration was Pushkin's birthday.

In new unusual conditions, writers retained not only political, but also internal freedom, creative wealth in confrontation with the bitter realities of emigrant existence.

One of the central events in the life of the Russian emigration will be the controversy between Khodasevich and Adamovich, which lasted from 1927 to 1937. Basically, the controversy unfolded on the pages of the Parisian newspapers “Last News” (published by Adamovich) and “Vozrozhdenie” (published by Khodasevich). Khodasevich believed that the main task of Russian literature in exile was the preservation of the Russian language and culture. He stood up for mastery, insisted that emigrant literature should inherit the greatest achievements of its predecessors, “graft a classic rose” onto the emigrant wild. The young poets of the Perekrestok group united around Khodasevich. Adamovich demanded from young poets not so much skill as simplicity and truthfulness of “human documents,” and raised his voice in defense of “drafts, notebooks.” Unlike Khodasevich, who contrasted the harmony of Pushkin’s language with the dramatic realities of emigration, Adamovich did not reject the decadent, mournful worldview, but reflected it. Adamovich is the inspirer of a literary school that has gone down in the history of Russian foreign literature under the name of the “Parisian note.” The emigrant press, the most prominent critics of emigration A. Bem, P. Bicilli, M. Slonim, as well as V. Nabokov, V. Varshavsky, joined the literary disputes between Adamovich and Khodasevich.

The absence of modern interests, the spell of the past turns emigration into a “living hieroglyph.” Emigrant literature faces the inevitability of mastering a new reality. "How to live? – asked Poplavsky in the article “On the mystical atmosphere of young literature in emigration.” - To die. Smile, cry, make tragic gestures, walk smiling at great depths, in terrible poverty. Emigration is an ideal environment for this.” The suffering of Russian emigrants, which should feed literature, is identical to revelation; they merge with the mystical symphony of the world. Exiled Paris, according to Poplavsky, will become “the seed of future mystical life”, the cradle of the revival of Russia.

The atmosphere of Russian literature in exile will be significantly influenced by the polemics between Smenovekhists and Eurasians. In 1921, the collection “Change of Milestones” was published in Prague (authors N. Ustryalov, S. Lukyanov, A. Bobrishchev-Pushkin - former White Guards). Smenovekhites called for accepting the Bolshevik regime and for the sake of the homeland to compromise with the Bolsheviks. Among the Smenovekhites, the idea of national Bolshevism and the use of Bolshevism for national purposes arose. Change of leadership will play a tragic role in the fate of Tsvetaeva, whose husband S. Efron worked for the Soviet secret services. Also in 1921, the collection “Exodus to the East” was published in Sofia. Premonitions and accomplishments. Eurasian statements. The authors of the collection (P. Savitsky, P. Suvchinsky, Prince N. Trubetskoy, G. Florovsky) insisted on a special intermediate position for Russia - between Europe and Asia, and saw Russia as a country with a messianic destiny. The magazine “Versty” was published on the Eurasian platform, in which Tsvetaeva, Remizov, and Bely were published.

I .II SECOND WAVE OF EMIGRATION (1940 – 1950).

In emigrant poetry of the 1940–1950s, political themes predominate: Elagin writes Political feuilletons in verse, Morshen publishes anti-totalitarian poems (“Seal”, “On the Evening of November 7”). Criticism most often names Elagin as the most prominent poet of the second wave. He called citizenship, refugee and camp themes, horror of machine civilization, and urban fantasy the main “nodes” of his work. In terms of social emphasis, political and civic pathos, Elagin’s poems turned out to be closer to Soviet wartime poetry than to the “Parisian note.”

Ivask, Klenovsky, and Sinkevich turned to philosophical, meditative lyrics. Religious motives are heard in Ivask’s poems. Acceptance of the world - in Sinkevich’s collections “The Coming of the Day”, “The Flowering of Herbs”, “Here I Live”. Optimism and harmonious clarity are marked by the lyrics of D. Klenovsky (books “Palette”, “Trace of Life”, “Towards the Sky”, etc.). Chinnova, T. Fesenko, V. Zavalishin, I. Burkina also made significant contributions to emigrant poetry.

Heroes who did not come to terms with Soviet reality are depicted in the books of prose writers of the second wave. The fate of Fyodor Panin in the novel “Yurasova Parallax” is tragic. S. Markov polemicizes with Sholokhov’s “Virgin Soil Upturned” in the novel by Denis Bushuev. B. Filippov (stories “Happiness”, “Humans”, “In the Taiga”, etc.) and L. Rzhevsky (story “The Girl from the Bunker” (“Between Two Stars”)) address the camp theme. Scenes from the life of besieged Leningrad are depicted by A. Darov in the book “Blockade”; Shiryaev writes about the history of Solovki (“The Unquenchable Lamp”). Rzhevsky’s books “Dina” and “Two Lines of Time” stand out.

Most of the writers of the second wave of emigration were published in the New Journal published in America and in the magazine Grani.

I .III THIRD WAVE OF EMIGRATION (1960–1980).

The “children of war,” who grew up in an atmosphere of spiritual uplift, pinned their hopes on Khrushchev’s “thaw,” but it soon became obvious that the “thaw” did not promise fundamental changes in the life of Soviet society.

The beginning of the curtailment of freedom in the country is considered to be 1963, when N.S. Khrushchev visited an exhibition of avant-garde artists in the Manege. The mid-1960s was a period of new persecution of the creative intelligentsia and, first of all, writers. The first writer exiled abroad was V. Tarsis in 1966.

One of the main features of Russian emigrant literature of the third wave will be its attraction to the avant-garde and postmodernism. At the same time, the third wave was quite heterogeneous: writers of a realistic direction (Solzhenitsyn, Vladimov), postmodernists (Sokolov, Mamleev, Limonov), and anti-formalist Korzhavin ended up in emigration. Russian literature of the third wave in emigration, according to Korzhavin, is a “tangle of conflicts”: “We left in order to be able to fight with each other.”

Two major writers of the realistic movement who worked in exile are Solzhenitsyn and Vladimov. In exile, Solzhenitsyn creates the epic novel “The Red Wheel,” in which he addresses key events in Russian history of the 20th century. Vladimov publishes the novel “The General and His Army,” which also touches on a historical theme: in the center of the novel are the events of the Great Patriotic War, which abolished the ideological and class confrontation within Soviet society. V. Maksimov dedicates his novel “Seven Days” to the fate of the peasant family. V. Nekrasov, who received the Stalin Prize for his novel “In the Trenches of Stalingrad,” after leaving the country publishes “Notes of an Onlooker” and “A Little Sad Tale.”

The work of Aksenov, deprived of Soviet citizenship in 1980, reflects the Soviet reality of the 1950–1970s, the evolution of his generation. The novel “The Burn” gives a panorama of post-war Moscow life, bringing to the fore the heroes of the 1960s - a surgeon, writer, saxophonist, sculptor and physicist. Aksenov also acts as a chronicler of the generation in The Moscow Saga.

In Dovlatov’s work there is a rare, not typical for Russian literature, combination of a grotesque worldview with a rejection of moral invective and conclusions. His stories and tales continue the tradition of depicting the “little man.”

In his short stories, he conveys the lifestyle and attitude of the generation of the 1960s, the atmosphere of bohemian gatherings in Leningrad and Moscow kitchens, Soviet reality, and the ordeals of Russian emigrants in America. In “Foreigner,” written in exile, Dovlatov ironically depicts emigrant existence. 108th Street in Queens, depicted in Inostranka, is a gallery of cartoons of Russian emigrants.

Voinovich abroad tries his hand at the dystopian genre - in the novel “Moscow 2042,” which parodies Solzhenitsyn and depicts the agony of Soviet society.

Sinyavsky publishes “Walks with Pushkin” and “In the Shadow of Gogol” in exile.

Sokolov, Mamleev, and Limonov include their work in the postmodernist tradition. Sokolov’s novels “School for Fools”, “Between a Dog and a Wolf”, “Rosewood” are sophisticated verbal structures, they reflect a postmodernist attitude towards playing with the reader, shifting time plans. The marginality of the text is in the prose of Mamleev, who has now regained his Russian citizenship. Mamleev’s most famous works are “Wings of Terror”, “Drown My Head”, “Eternal Home”, “Voice from Nothing”. Limonov imitates socialist realism in the story “We Had a Wonderful Era,” and denies the establishment in the books “It’s Me, Eddie,” “Diary of a Loser,” “Teenager Savenko,” and “Young Scoundrel.”

Finding themselves isolated from the “old emigration,” representatives of the third wave opened their own publishing houses and created almanacs and magazines.

CHAPTER II.

DIRECTIONS OF RUSSIAN LITERATURE ABROAD.

The development of Russian literature in exile went in different directions: writers of the older generation professed the position of “preserving covenants”, the intrinsic value of the tragic experience of emigration was recognized by the younger generation (the poetry of G. Ivanov, the “Parisian note”), writers oriented towards the Western tradition appeared (V. Nabokov , G. Gazdanov). “We are not in exile, we are in exile,” D. Merezhkovsky formulated the “messianic” position of the “elders.” “Be aware that in Russia or in exile, in Berlin or Montparnasse, human life continues, life with a capital letter, in a Western way, with sincere respect for it, as the focus of all content, all the depth of life in general...” , - this was the task of a writer for the writer of the younger generation B. Poplavsky. “Should we remind you once again that culture and art are dynamic concepts,” G. Gazdanov questioned the nostalgic tradition.

II .I OLDER GENERATION OF EMIGRANTS WRITERS.

The desire to “keep that truly valuable thing that inspired the past” is at the heart of the work of writers of the older generation, who managed to enter literature and make a name for themselves back in pre-revolutionary Russia. The older generation of writers includes: Bunin, Shmelev, Remizov, Kuprin, Gippius, Merezhkovsky, M. Osorgin. The literature of the “elders” is represented mainly by prose. In exile, prose writers of the older generation created great books: “The Life of Arsenyev” (Nobel Prize 1933), “Dark Alleys” by Bunin; “Sun of the Dead”, “Summer of the Lord”, “Shmelev’s Pilgrim”; “Sivtsev Vrazhek” by Osorgin; “The Journey of Gleb”, “Reverend Sergius of Radonezh” by Zaitsev; “Jesus the Unknown” by Merezhkovsky. Kuprin publishes two novels, “The Dome of St. Isaac of Dalmatia and Juncker,” and the story “The Wheel of Time.” A significant literary event was the appearance of the book of memoirs “Living Faces” by Gippius.

Among the poets whose work developed in Russia, I. Severyanin, S. Cherny, D. Burlyuk, K. Balmont, Gippius, Vyach. Ivanov went abroad. They made a minor contribution to the history of Russian poetry in exile, losing the palm to young poets - G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich, V. Khodasevich, M. Tsvetaeva, B. Poplavsky, A. Steiger and others. The main motive of the literature of the older generation was the theme nostalgic memory of a lost homeland. The tragedy of exile was opposed by the enormous heritage of Russian culture, the mythologized and poeticized past. The topics most often addressed by prose writers of the older generation are retrospective: longing for “eternal Russia,” the events of the revolution and civil war, Russian history, memories of childhood and youth.

The meaning of the appeal to “eternal Russia” was given to biographies of writers, composers, and biographies of saints: Iv. Bunin writes about Tolstoy (“The Liberation of Tolstoy”), M. Tsvetaeva writes about Pushkin (“My Pushkin”), V. Khodasevich writes about Derzhavin (“ Derzhavin"), B. Zaitsev - about Zhukovsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Sergius of Radonezh. Autobiographical books are created in which the world of childhood and youth, not yet affected by the great catastrophe, is seen “from the other shore” as idyllic and enlightened: Iv. Shmelev poetizes the past (“Pilgrim”, “Summer of the Lord”), Kuprin reconstructs the events of his youth (“Junkers” "), the last autobiographical book of the Russian writer-nobleman is written by Bunin ("The Life of Arsenyev"), the journey to the "origins of days" is captured by B. Zaitsev ("The Journey of Gleb") and Tolstoy ("Nikita's Childhood"). A special layer of Russian emigrant literature consists of works that evaluate the tragic events of the revolution and civil war. These events are interspersed with dreams and visions that lead into the depths of the people's consciousness and the Russian spirit in Remizov's books “Whirlwind Rus'”, “Music Teacher”, “Through the Fire of Sorrows”. Bunin’s diaries “Cursed Days” are filled with mournful accusatoryness. Osorgin's novel “Sivtsev Vrazhek” reflects the life of Moscow in the war and pre-war years, during the revolution. Shmelev creates a tragic narrative about the Red Terror in Crimea - the epic “Sun of the Dead,” which T. Mann called “a nightmarish document of the era, shrouded in poetic splendor.” The “Ice March” by R. Gul, “The Beast from the Abyss” by E. Chirikov, the historical novels of Aldanov, who joined the writers of the older generation, (“The Key,” “Escape,” “The Cave”), and the three-volume Rasputin by V. Nazhivin are devoted to understanding the causes of the revolution. Contrasting “yesterday’s” and “today’s”, the older generation made a choice in favor of the lost cultural world of old Russia, not recognizing the need to get used to the new reality of emigration. This also determined the aesthetic conservatism of the “elders”: “Is it time to stop following in Tolstoy’s footsteps? - Bunin was perplexed. “Whose footsteps should we follow?”

II .II THE YOUNGER GENERATION OF WRITERS IN EMIGRATION.

A different position was held by the younger “unnoticed generation” of writers in exile, who refused to reconstruct what was hopelessly lost. The “unnoticed generation” included young writers who did not have time to create a strong literary reputation for themselves in Russia: V. Nabokov, G. Gazdanov, M. Aldanov, M. Ageev, B. Poplavsky, N. Berberova, A. Steiger, D. Knut , I. Knorring, L. Chervinskaya, V. Smolensky, I. Odoevtseva, N. Otsup, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Y. Mandelstam, Y. Terapiano and others. Their fates were different. Nabokov and Gazdanov won pan-European, and in Nabokov’s case, even world fame. Aldanov, who began actively publishing historical novels in the most famous emigrant magazine “Modern Notes”, joined the “elders”. Almost none of the younger generation of writers could make a living from literary work: Gazdanov became a taxi driver, Knut delivered goods, Terapiano worked in a pharmaceutical company, many earned a penny extra. Characterizing the situation of the “unnoticed generation” that lived in small cheap cafes in Montparnasse, V. Khodasevich. The most acute and dramatic hardships that befell the “unnoticed generation” were reflected in the colorless poetry of the “Parisian note” created by G. Adamovich. If the older generation was inspired by nostalgic motives, the younger generation left documents of the Russian soul in exile, depicting the reality of emigration. The life of the “Russian Montparneau” is captured in Poplavsky’s novels “Apollo Bezobrazov” and “Home from Heaven”. Ageev’s “Romance with Cocaine” was also quite popular. Everyday prose also became widespread: Odoevtseva’s “Angel of Death”, “Isolde”, “Mirror”.

In his first, largely autobiographical novel, “An Evening at Claire’s,” Gazdanov gave a peculiar twist to the traditional theme of nostalgia in emigrant literature, replacing longing for what was lost with the real embodiment of a “beautiful dream.” In the novels “Night Roads”, “The Ghost of Alexander Wolf”, “The Return of the Buddha”, Gazdanov contrasted the calm despair of the “unnoticed generation” with heroic stoicism, faith in the spiritual powers of the individual, in his ability to transform. The experience of the Russian emigrant was refracted in a unique way in V. Nabokov’s first novel “Mashenka”, in which a journey to the depths of memory, to “deliciously precise Russia” freed the hero from the captivity of a dull existence. Nabokov portrays brilliant characters, victorious heroes who achieved victory in difficult and sometimes dramatic life situations in his novels “Invitation to Execution” and “Feat.”

The triumph of consciousness over the dramatic and wretched circumstances of life - such is the pathos of Nabokov’s work, hidden behind the play doctrine and declarative aestheticism. In exile, Nabokov also created: the collection of short stories “Spring in Fialta”, the world bestseller “Lolita”, the novels “Despair”, “Camera Obscura”, “King, Queen, Jack”, etc.

Ivanov, having survived the lightness of the early collections, received the status of the first poet of emigration, published poetry books included in the golden fund of Russian poetry: “Poems”, “Portrait without Resemblance”, “Posthumous Diary”. A special place in the literary heritage of the emigration is occupied by Ivanov’s memoirs “Petersburg Winters”, “Chinese Shadows”, and his famous prose poem “The Decay of the Atom”. Adamovich publishes the program collection “Unity”, the famous book of essays “Comments”.

CHAPTER III.

THE CONTRIBUTION OF RUSSIAN LITERATURE ABROAD TO THE GENERAL CONTEXT OF RUSSIAN LITERATURE OF THE XX CENTURY.

CONCLUSION:

We got acquainted with the literature of Russian abroad and Russian literature of the 20th century:

1. We studied in detail the periods of wave emigration. Three waves of emigration have been identified:

A. The first wave of emigration (1918-1940)

B. Second wave of emigration (1940-1950)

B. Third wave of emigration (1960-1980)

2. We got acquainted with the trends of Russian literature abroad (Symbolism, Acmeism, Futurism, etc.)

3. We identified the contribution of Russian literature abroad to the general concept of Russian literature of the 20th century:

Poetry continues, but more and more often it talks about how difficult it is for her. It continues, but with increasing effort it recognizes and recognizes its continuation, and stops before the break of tradition.

Nowadays poetry is defined not by groups and movements, but by a small circle of poetic names belonging to different generations and representing different poetic inclinations. Some names seemed to have returned again after some silence and oblivion, returning with new poems and final books.

Untidy rhymes. A verse that follows the vernacular word and easily raises vernacular to prayer, everyday life to eternity, imparting the classical dignity of poetry itself.

The literature of Russian diaspora was not subject to censorship, which gave it fresh air for creation. But, despite this, emigrant writers, whose field of ideas was wide, chose the main idea of creativity: the Motherland and thoughts about it.

And although those to whom these lines were addressed did not notice them, later we were able to see a view of the Motherland from the outside.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1. Encyclopedia Around the World. Literature of Russian abroad.

2. Wikipedia. Literature of Russian abroad.

3. Struve G.P. Russian literature in exile.

4. Agenosov V.V. Literature of Russian abroad.

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