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Content
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1. PLACE AND ROLE OF N. V. GOGOL'S POEM "DEAD SOULS" IN RUSSIAN LITERATURE.
1. 1 HISTORY OF CREATING THE POEM
1. 2 GENRE FEATURES OF THE POEM
1. 3 COMPOSITIONAL FEATURES OF THE POEM
CHAPTER 2
2. 1 MANILOV
2. 2 BOX
2. 3 NOZDRYOV
2. 4 SOBAKEVICH
2. 5 PLYUSHKIN
2. 6 CHICHIKOV
CONCLUSION
LITERATURE
APPENDIX. DOMINANT MOTIFS IN THE DESCRIPTION OF LANDSCAPE IN THE CHARACTERISTIC OF EACH LOWER

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<…>In a word, everything was somehow deserted, good, how not to invent either nature or art, but as it happens only when they unite together ... ”(p. 127)
These motives of life, movement, development are present only in the description of Plyushkin's character, which, it would seem, has sunk so that further degradation is impossible. But perhaps it is precisely this circumstance - the impossibility of a further fall - that leaves some hope that he will now move in the opposite direction, because nothing can be worse. And the description of the garden is a symbol of the fact that something living and human remains in the soul of the hero. That is, in this case, the description of the hero's house and garden is, to some extent, a description of the hero's character. Everything is in desolation, complete decline - both Plyushkin's household and his own life, but earlier the garden was beautiful, and the hero's life was filled with meaning, which leaves the slightest hope for a revival.
The abundance and splendor of Plyushkin's neglected garden contrast with the descriptions of Manilov's stunted and meager garden. Let's compare these two descriptions:
Manilov Garden Plushkin Garden - two or three flower beds
- a vast garden, overgrown and dead - five or six birch trees - A colossal white birch trunk - sparse peaks
- quivering domes
overgrown trees - a gazebo with a flat green dome - a collapsed railing, a shaky gazebo - a dull bluish color of a pine forest - green thickets illuminated by the sun - the day was either clear or gloomy ... - The sun, climbing under the leaf, illuminates it. Many details of the landscape coincide, which Gogol draws attention to in both cases, however, if the dominant motive in the description of Manilov's garden is incompleteness, incompleteness, unfinishedness, then when describing Plyushkin's garden, these are motives of obsolescence, but at the same time, abundance, luxury, gradually passing and already gone into decline.
2. 6 Chichikov
Speaking about the images of the landowners in the poem, one cannot ignore the image of its central character, Pavel Ivanovich Chichikov: although this image stands somewhat apart in the poem, it is he who is the central, connecting link. His journey is the engine of the plot. The very fact that Chichikov is constantly on the move distinguishes him from many other heroes of the poem: he moves, to some extent he develops. And the motifs of nature accompanying it are, first of all, road landscapes: “As soon as the city left back, they started to write nonsense and game, according to our custom, on both sides of the road: hummocks, spruce forest, low liquid bushes of young pines, burnt trunks of old trees, wild heather, and the like. There were villages stretched out along a cord, with a structure similar to old stacked firewood ...<…>In a word, the species are known. (p. 12)
Gogol, even in this short passage, twice emphasizes the ordinariness, the commonness of this Russian landscape, its boredom - "nonsense and game." This characteristic refers not to the image of Chichikov, but to the image of Russia, through which the hero travels, to the state of affairs in it. The landscapes are boring, the roads are bad - and all this is projected onto the events that take place in the poem: this "nonsense and game" applies not only to nature, but also to the customs that reign in the country, where you can trade in living or dead people, souls.
And, despite the fact that the first volume of "Dead Souls", according to Gogol's plan, is a description of hell, nevertheless, the author already in this first volume gives readers and heroes some hope for a revival, creating the image of Russia, similar to a trio bird:
“It seems that an unknown force has taken you on a wing to itself, and you yourself are flying, and everything is flying: miles are flying, merchants are flying towards them on the wings of their wagons, a forest is flying on both sides with dark formations of firs and pines, with a clumsy knock and a crow's cry, the whole road flies nowhere in the vanishing distance, and something terrible is contained in this quick flickering, where the vanishing object does not have time to appear, only the sky above the head, and light clouds, and the moon trudging through, alone seem to be motionless. Eh, trio! bird troika, who invented you? .. "
And this image, this symbolic landscape is correlated with the image of Chichikov, the most ambiguous and contradictory in the poem. Gogol brings to the fore not just a negative hero, but a man who turned all ideas about the real values of this world upside down and placed the "penny" in the center of the universe. On the other hand, it is the image of Chichikov that is the only one that has passed from the first volume to the second. And it is precisely with the image of Chichikov, according to most researchers, that the idea of the resurrection is connected.
But in the description of this symbolic landscape there are indications of the devilish side of the hero's nature (darkness, crow's cry, clouds, terrible flickering), and other possibilities of his personality, the possibility of his rebirth (light of the moon, continuity of movement).
Conclusion
When analyzing descriptions of nature and landscapes in Gogol's poem "Dead Souls", the following features can be identified.
1. Descriptions of nature and landscapes do not occupy a large place in Gogol's poem (the only exception is the description of Plyushkin's garden). However, whenever Gogol refers to pictures of nature, they are symbolic.
2. The main function that landscapes and pictures of nature perform in Gogol's poem is the function of revealing the characters' characters. Any picture of nature in a new way illuminates the figure of each of the landlords, once again emphasizes those features that are already becoming obvious when describing the appearance, lifestyle, and behavior of the characters.
3. It is possible to identify the main "dominants" in the character of the characters, reflected in the descriptions of the nature around them:
Manilov - disorder, laziness, unsuccessful attempts to start some kind of activity; randomness and carelessness, lack of will are projected onto the garden, which he aspires to, but cannot create around his house;
Box - vanity, troublesome economic activity, the desire to get the maximum benefit are reflected in the surrounding landscape - a poultry house, a garden in which only vegetables grow;
Nozdryov - excitement, imbalance, rudeness, a tendency to scandals are metaphorically expressed by Gogol with the help of images of hummocks, swamps, unkempt hunting grounds of his estate;
Sobakevich - pragmatism, greed are manifested in the fact that nature as such is no longer on his estate, he considers the forest exclusively as a building material;
Plyushkin is the lowest level of fall, degradation, the loss of almost all human traits, but nevertheless, the presence of the past, prehistory, and as a symbol of this, a huge, neglected, overgrown, but still beautiful garden.
Chichikov - uncertainty, variability of character (he knows how to adapt to any of his interlocutors); motifs of road landscapes, flashing, variability, movement are associated with his image. On the one hand, in the descriptions of nature surrounding his image, Gogol emphasizes the boredom, the ordinariness of those places through which the hero passes, but at the same time, the landscape becomes symbolic, prophetic: the flight of a triple bird over the earth, the stars and the moon, clouds and sky. All this gives a kind of exit to the comic space, leads away from the earth and opens up new perspectives. On the whole, both the image of Chichikov and the images of nature accompanying him are dual images, not fully understood even by the author himself.
4. It should also be noted that Gogol often uses comparisons in his descriptions, detailed comparisons, likening his heroes or natural phenomena to other processes and phenomena. So, Sobakevich looks like a medium-sized bear, and his and his wife's faces are also compared with a pumpkin and a cucumber, respectively; even the description of the light of a cloudy day is likened to the color of a soldier's uniform. Very often, these comparisons point to the fact that Gogol's heroes themselves lose their human features, become like objects or animals, degenerate, degrade.
In general, the images of nature in Gogol's poem shade and deepen the images of the characters and emphasize the dominant features in their characters.
Literature
Gogol N. V. Dead souls. T. 1. M., 1980. Ed. S. I. Mashinsky and M. B. Khrapchenko
Vinogradov I. A. Gogol is an artist and a thinker. Christian foundations of world outlook. M., 2000
Gukovsky G. A. Gogol's Realism. M., L., 1959
Dokusov A. M. Kachurin M. G. Gogol's poem "Dead Souls". M., 1982
Eremina L. I. On the language of N. V. Gogol's fiction. M., 1987
Zolotussky I.P. Gogol. M., 1984. P. 235 Mann Yu. V. Gogol's Poetics. M., 1988

Troyes A. Nikolai Gogol. M., 2004
Shevyryov S.P. Adventures of Chichikov or Dead Souls. Poem by N. Gogol. Article two // Russian criticism of the XVIII-XIX centuries. Reader. Comp. V. I. Kuleshov. M., Education, 1978.
Appendix. Dominant motifs in the description of landscapes in the characterization of each landowner
Landowner Subjects of description Color scheme Main motif Manilov Mountain, garden, flowerbeds, river, bridge, arbor, distant forest Gray, ashy, bluish, greenish Striving for beauty and orderliness; incompleteness, randomness, wretchedness of the garden Box Bird yard, vegetable garden (vegetables) Variegation, darkness (night, thunderstorm) The desire to benefit, pragmatism combined with vanity. Nozdryov Kennel, land owned by Nozdryov (forest, bumps, swamp) Chaos, disorganization (in the absence of a desire for order), disorder. Sobakevich Village (huts), forest Gray, white, brown Pragmatism, no nature, but there is material from which you can benefit (wood for construction) Plyushkin Huge garden: gazebo, forest, birches, young growth, crowns of overgrown trees Golden green (sun and green) The decline, destruction, disappearance of the once beautiful garden. Degradation. Chichikov Road landscapes Diversity 1. Boredom, routine, melancholy, mediocrity;
2. Symbolism of the landscape, movement, development, flight.
Mashinsky S.I. "Dead Souls" by Gogol. M., 1978. S. 11
Voropaev V. A. N. V. Gogol. Life and art. M., 2002. S. 22
Dokusov A. M. Kachurin M. G. Gogol's poem "Dead Souls". M., 1982. S. 9
Zolotussky I.P. Gogol. M., 1984. S. 235
Gukovsky G. A. Gogol's Realism. M., L., 1959. S. 473
Gukovsky G. A. Gogol's Realism. S. 488
Smirnova E. A. Gogol's poem "Dead Souls". L., 1987. S. 188
Smirnova E. A. Gogol's poem "Dead Souls". S. 156
Gukovsky G. A. Gogol's Realism. S. 475
Voropaev V. A. N. V. Gogol. Life and art. M., 2002. S. 22
Mashinsky S.I. "Dead Souls" by Gogol. S. 22
Dokusov A. M. Kachurin M. G. Gogol's poem "Dead Souls". pp. 30-31
Shevyryov S.P. Adventures of Chichikov or Dead Souls. Poem by N. Gogol. Article two // Russian criticism of the XVIII-XIX centuries. Reader. Comp. V. I. Kuleshov. M., Enlightenment, 1978
Mashinsky S.I. "Dead Souls" by Gogol. pp. 22-23
Gogol N. V. Dead souls. T. 1. M., 1980. Ed. S. I. Mashinsky and M. B. Khrapchenko. P. 19. Here and below, citations are from this edition, with page numbers in the text.
Mashinsky S.I. "Dead Souls" by Gogol. S. 30
Vinogradov I. A. Gogol is an artist and a thinker. Christian foundations of world outlook. M., 2000. S. 323
Mashinsky S.I. "Dead Souls" by Gogol. S. 35
Mashinsky S.I. "Dead Souls" by Gogol. S. 40
2

Bibliography

Literature
1. Gogol N. V. Dead souls. T. 1. M., 1980. Ed. S. I. Mashinsky and M. B. Khrapchenko
2. Vinogradov I. A. Gogol? artist and thinker. Christian foundations of world outlook. M., 2000
3. Voropaev V. A. N. V. Gogol. Life and art. M., 2002. S. 22
4. Gukovsky G. A. Gogol's Realism. M., L., 1959
5. Dokusov A. M. Kachurin M. G. Gogol's poem "Dead Souls". M., 1982
6. Eremina L. I. On the language of N. V. Gogol's fiction. M., 1987
7. Zolotussky I. P. Gogol. M., 1984. P. 235 Mann Yu. V. Gogol's Poetics. M., 1988
8. Mashinsky S. I. "Dead Souls" by Gogol. M., 1978. S. 11
9. Smirnova E. A. Gogol's poem "Dead Souls". L., 1987. S. 188
10. Troyat A. Nikolai Gogol. M., 2004
11. Shevyryov S. P. Adventures of Chichikov or Dead Souls. Poem by N. Gogol. Article two // Russian criticism of the XVIII-XIX centuries. Reader. Comp. V. I. Kuleshov. M., Education, 1978.

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Getting acquainted with the officials and demonstrating "very skillfully" the ability to "flatter everyone", Chichikov "simply hinted" to the governor "that you enter his province, like in paradise, the roads are velvet everywhere" (VI, 13). Thus, for the first time in Dead Souls, a certain idea of a road landscape arises, the authenticity of which is immediately called into question: the hero’s opinion, which, as was typical of his “conversation” in certain cases, “somewhat bookish turns” (VI, 13), is dictated solely by the desire to please and even "charm" (VI, 16).

However, the picture that the narrator paints when the hero goes to Manilov is not too similar to paradise: “As soon as the city left back, they started writing nonsense and game, according to our custom, on both sides of the road: tussocks, a spruce forest, low liquid bushes of young pines , burnt trunks of old ones, wild heather and such nonsense. There were villages stretched out along a string, built like old stacked firewood, covered with gray roofs with carved wooden decorations underneath in the form of hanging embroidered towels. Several peasants yawned as usual, sitting on benches in front of the gates in their sheepskin coats. Babas with fat faces and bandaged breasts looked out of the upper windows; a calf gazed at the lower ones, or a pig stuck out its blind snout. In a word, known species” (VI, 21-22).

The colloquial vocabulary used by the narrator (“nonsense and game”, “nonsense”), enhancing the expressiveness of the description, is much more consistent with the picture seen than book turns. It may seem that the road views that appeared before his eyes are only “famous views” because they are completely ordinary and ordinary; therefore, completely ordinary and ordinary (which is emphasized by the expressions “according to our custom”, “as usual”) is precisely “nonsense and game” - and it is these “nonsense and game”, the types indicated by synonymous words, that are known species. Meanwhile, the meaning of contextual synonyms is acquired by all the details of the presented picture, thus acting as components of the gradation of “nonsense and game”. A distinct feeling of such a gradation is created, first of all, by the emphatic-enumerative intonation, but also by the growing semantic significance of the details of the description, which is opened by the “bumps” and closes by the “pig”.

The principle of plot gradation corresponds to the description of Chichikov’s final departure from the city, echoing the picture given above, but at the same time extremely expanding the idea of “known types”: , gray villages with samovars, women and a brisk bearded owner running from an inn with oats in his hand, a pedestrian in worn bast shoes trudging 800 miles, towns built alive, with wooden shops, flour barrels, bast shoes, rolls and other small things, pock-marked barriers, bridges under construction, boundless fields both on the other side and on the other, landowners' rowdvans, a soldier on horseback carrying a green box with lead peas and signed: such and such an artillery battery, green, yellow and freshly torn black stripes, flickering across the steppes, a song drawn out in the distance, pine tops in the fog, bell ringing disappearing far away, crows like flies, and a horizon without end ... "(VI , 220).

And here all the details of the picture drawn by the narrator (the number of which increases sharply) are endowed with the meaning of contextual synonyms, so that the most heterogeneous, but close in meaning, phenomena again become “nonsense”. As for the emphatic-enumerative intonation, it noticeably enhances the expressiveness of the description, which reflects the changing (from the beginning to the end of the poem) attitude of the narrator, who acquires panoramic vision, to the space that attracts him, where "nothing will seduce and charm the eye" (VI , 220). The significant overlap of the two paintings is intended to emphasize that the intensification of the elements of “nonsense and game” and “nonsense of that kind” proceeds in the plot of the poem along an ascending line, however, the “horizon without end”, indicating a change in the perspective of perception (marked by the auditory aspect of the latter), opens the symbolic perspective of the narrative, which is absent in the first picture, where the place of the "horizon" is occupied by the "muzzle of a pig".

But does this change the attitude towards “known species” as “bullshit and game”? Being a fragment of the depicted space, the road landscape, for all its ordinariness, reveals signs of something unusual, so that in this case, the characteristic of the descriptions of a “certain kind” (VI, 8), with an emphasis on repetitiveness, “retreat from „ norms" , designed to destroy the inertia of perception of the known and turn it into the unknown. The paradox of such a description is that the details included in it, for all their visual authenticity, in their totality necessarily give the impression of "nonsense"; at the same time, this or that detail is not just identical to the picture expressing this “nonsense”, but represents it, as in Sobakevich’s house “every object, every chair seemed to say: I, too, Sobakevich! or: I also look a lot like Sobakevich!” (VI, 96). So, in the road landscape, both in the first and in the second, composed of such reliable details, the whole picture turns out to be anomalous: here are all “known species” - and everything is truly “nonsense and game”.

It is "nonsense and game" that is the ontological property of the world, in the organization of which an important role belongs to alogism and absurdity. Not only in the stories, where the grotesque and fantasy determine the course of events and the behavior of the characters, but also in Dead Souls, Gogol set himself the task of "depicting the incredible and improbable"; moreover, even the “little things” that look plausible turn out to be “hyperbolic and implausible” in him. It is from them that the road landscape is formed and built, when the figurative exaggeration is the accumulation of details, giving rise to the idea of the size and infinity of "nonsense and game."

It was noted that the description of the species observed by Chichikov, who went to Manilov, looks like "like a "genuine list" from reality itself", but also "somewhat fantastic". And that a picture that shows such views corresponds to the principle of "unusualness" in the sense of bringing "a certain quality" of the depicted object "to its extreme limits." Bringing to extreme limits is the manifestation of fantasticness; the picture in question is fantastic to the extent that reality is fantastic, where the hero trades and buys, i.e., does not seem to go beyond the boundaries of the generally accepted in his occupation, but “trades in nothing” and “buys nothing”.

The interests of the hero compel him "to look into those and other corners of our state, and mainly into those that have suffered more than others from accidents, crop failures, deaths, and other things, in a word - where it would be more convenient and cheaper to buy the necessary people" (VI, 240). This is how the space is being mastered by a cart, in which Chichikov moves along the road, looking at the views surrounding him. He observes these views, while the narrator describes them; it is the narrator, and not the hero, who owns the expression “famous species”, the stylistic marking of which, giving it an ironic meaning, is emphasized by inversion; the definition is inverted, which conveys the emotional reaction of the narrator to the picture he has seen and painted in this way. This picture, which captures "nonsense and game", is drawn with the look and word of the narrator; the hero moves in the britzka, but for the narrator, the britzka “does not move, but the background moves” and “the scenery, also, by the way, motionless” changes. The hero takes the position of an observer inside this picture, which allows him to consider objects that fall into his horizons "from the point of view of a moving object", that is, all the same cart. However, it would be wrong to conclude that the hero sees the same road landscape as the narrator: Chichikov sees the views, and the narrator sees "famous views"; Chichikov notices what everyone is able to notice, while the narrator discovers what only he can perceive and show.

If we recall the important for Gogol “word: extortion”, by which he “defines his attitude to the subject”, then we can say it differently: the hero observes (when he is not distracted and is really busy watching the road), and the narrator, drawing a picture, extorts she has her hidden meaning - and elicits with a look and a word; the creation of the hero moving in the cart goes simultaneously with the creation of the landscape as the background of the movement. And if these are “famous views”, and they are also created, then they are known differently for the hero, who is inside the picture and inside the chaise, and for the narrator, who creates both this picture and this chaise, with a description of which the poem actually begins. First, a cart appears (appears in the narrator's speech), and only then the master sitting in it, but the cart and the gentleman form a single whole; if without Chichikov (if “this strange plot had not occurred to him”) “this poem would not have come into being” (VI, 240), then it would not have appeared without the britzka, through which the “strange plot” is realized.

Here is Chichikov, when he is driving to Korobochka, suddenly overtaken by a downpour: “This made him draw back the leather curtains with two round windows, determined to view road views, and order Selifan to go faster” (VI, 41). So, the windows are defined for viewing road views, but the hero cannot see any views: “He looked around, but there was such darkness, even gouge out his eye” (VI, 42). Chichikov sees "darkness", that is, he sees nothing, since he cannot see anything. A sign of symbolic allegorism, as was shown, was noted in the episode that followed, when the britzka overturned, and the hero “thumped into the mud with his hands and feet” (VI, 42). But the inability to consider anything also carries an allegorical meaning. Wed with another episode, at the end of the poem, when Chichikov’s britzka, leaving the city forever, is stopped by an “endless funeral procession”, which the hero “began to examine timidly through the pieces of glass that were in leather curtains” (VI, 219). But he is concerned not so much with looking at something (after all, he sees the procession through the "glass"), but with the fact that they do not see him, for which he draws the curtains. Chichikov's task is why he “avoided talking a lot about himself; if he spoke, then in some general places ”(VI, 13), so that he would not be considered; however, he himself is not able to consider (penetrate into what is being considered and see what is hidden from the external view) neither the surrounding views, nor himself: everything is closed to him by symbolic darkness.

In the case of Chichikov, external darkness turns out to be a projection of internal darkness, i.e., the inability to see and distinguish. We are talking about the ontological blindness that struck the hero. To Manilov, his proposal seemed like a manifestation of madness, until Chichikov explained what he meant by “not really alive, but alive in relation to the legal form” (VI, 34). But the legal form actually destroys the boundary between the living and the dead, allowing you to acquire as living "those souls that have definitely already died" (VI, 35). Such is the "main subject of his taste and inclinations," which has overshadowed all other species; leaving Manilov, “he soon immersed himself in him, body and soul” (VI, 40). It is this subject that is the main road landscape for Chichikov, which he constantly keeps before his eyes.

In "Dead Souls" the road grows into a symbolic image in the course of the narrative, which gives the plot of the poem a universal meaning. The road views drawn by the narrator acquire the same universal meaning, meaning their direct and metaphorical meaning, like that of the road. S. G. Bocharov wrote about the “picture of a person”, the idea of which is “scattered in countless features and details” in the world of Gogol; this picture “cannot be read without relating to the Christian concept of the image given to each person, which a person can either cultivate to god-likeness, or spoil and distort” . This is true not only in relation to Gogol's man, but also to the world depicted by Gogol, of which "famous species" are a part; this world can also be cultivated or spoiled if the person living in it is ontologically blind and does not distinguish the living from the dead. That is why the narrator, considering his hero, seeks to look "deeper into his soul" and stir "at the bottom of it" that "that escapes and hides from the light" (VI, 242).

It is not only the views that are escaping and hiding that are Chichikov's only concern and concern him; it is not for nothing that the road in the poem also serves as a test of the hero, a test of his ability to go beyond his own horizons, seeing a phenomenon encountered “on the way to a person, unlike everything that he happened to see before, which at least once awakens in him a feeling that is not like those that he is destined to feel all his life” (VI, 92). But the “vision”, which appeared “in an unexpected way”, disappeared, causing the hero to have “thoughts” (VI, 92-93), again connected with the acquisition and directly reflecting the deformed picture of a person.

Chichikov, waiting for the funeral procession to pass, examines it through the windows, and then thinks that it is “good that the funeral met; they say it means happiness if you meet a dead person” (VI, 220). But the point here is not only in popular belief; Let us recall that he “felt a slight heartbeat” when he learned from Sobakevich that Plyushkin, whose “people are dying in large numbers,” lives only “five miles” from him (VI, 99). Habitually rejoicing at the news of the dead, Chichikov does not fall into a melancholy mood and is not inclined to indulge in elegiac reflections on the frailty of life and the mystery of death; but in the plot of the poem, the picture of the funeral is connected precisely with this subject, however, neither this picture nor the subject itself can make the hero feel and survive the "run of all-destroying time".

But for the narrator, road impressions serve as a direct reason for lyrical reflection. Describing the road as a sight that left a mark on his memory, and recalling his reaction to what he saw, the narrator traces the changes that happened to him and deeply affected his personality. Wed beginning: “Before, a long time ago, in the summers of my youth, in the summers of my irretrievably flashed childhood, it was fun for me to drive up to an unfamiliar place for the first time: it doesn’t matter if it was a village, a poor county town, a village, a suburb, I discovered a lot of curious it has a childlike curious look” (VI, 110). And the conclusion: “Now I indifferently drive up to any unfamiliar village and indifferently look at its vulgar appearance; my chilled gaze is uncomfortable, it’s not funny to me, and what in previous years would have awakened a lively movement in the face, laughter and incessant speeches, now slips by, and my motionless lips keep an indifferent silence. O my youth! O my freshness! (VI, 111).

“Famous views” - this is that vulgar appearance of the world, ordinary and ordinary for a chilled look, the pictures now contemplated by the narrator; the elegiac tonality of the lyrical digression reflects his experiences, in which variations of “sustainable motifs and symbols” characteristic of elegiac poetics are distinguishable, and road melodies of Russian lyrics are heard. What does the metamorphosis that happened to the narrator mean? The fact that he, like any person, even if he was a poet, who got into the cart of life in the morning, by noon, that is, by the middle of his life, shocked him. And this is a completely different situation than the hero, who was also once young, was a “boy”, in front of whom one day “the city streets flashed with unexpected splendor, forcing him to open his mouth for several minutes” (VI, 224-225), and now that a new vision has appeared to him, he is “already middle-aged and of a prudently chilled character” (VI, 92-93) and is not inclined to indulge in lamentations about his loss of youthful freshness, preferring to them everyday calculations and calculations. While the gaze of the narrator, who is so demanding of himself, does not at all seem chilled, and it is not for nothing that he further turns to the readers to refresh them: movement, do not leave them on the road: you will not raise them later! (VI, 127).

The narrator is talking about the road of life and the symbolic path of the human soul, about the indissoluble unity of these paths and roads, which served as the theme of lyrical reflections in the poetic works of Gogol's contemporaries. Wed in Baratynsky's poem "Equipment on the road of life ..." (1825):

Equipping on the road of life

Your sons, our fools,

Dreams of golden good fortune

Gives the stock we know:

Us fast post years

They take you from the tavern to the tavern,

And those travel dreams

In Baratynsky, in his "early elegies", the word fate means "the course of time itself"; this is how the lyrical situation is described in the poem "Confession": "A person is not responsible for what happens in him besides him." Not responsible for, if we return to our example, what happens to him on the road of life. In Gogol, the fate of a person (both the fate of the hero and the fate of the narrator), who is destined to see golden dreams in childhood and youth, the supply of which is inevitably spent over the years, depends on himself, whether he retains all human movements. Speaking about “the fate of the writer who dared to bring out everything that is every minute before his eyes and that indifferent eyes do not see,” the narrator ends the lyrical digression with a significant statement, “that much depth of soul is needed in order to illuminate the picture taken from a contemptible life, and elevate it to the pearl of creation” (VI, 134).

The narrator not only sees a picture taken from a contemptible life, but illuminates it with the light of the depth of the soul, the light of inner vision, which is only capable of expressing the inexpressible. Hence the role of lyrical digressions as a special kind of "windows" in the narrative structure of the poem: they, these digressions, allow the narrator to express those feelings and experiences that are hidden in the depths of his soul.

For the narrator, being on the road is both a means of learning about a despicable life, but also an opportunity to feel like a creator again, able to illuminate the picture he has seen: “God! how good you are sometimes, distant, distant road! How many times, like a perishing and drowning man, have I clutched at you, and every time you generously endured me and saved me! And how many wonderful ideas, poetic dreams were born in you, how many wondrous impressions were felt! .. ”(VI, 222). Having seen enough of "famous sights", the narrator does not accidentally resort to a lyrical figure, an appeal that acts "like a lyrical force"; here this lyrical power is directed at the narrator himself, who, precisely on the road, seems to re-enter himself. He moves along the road with the hero, the hero observes the views, ordinary and ordinary, while the narrator sees “famous views” and illuminates the pictures he has seen; he, unlike the hero, knows that “they still have to go a long way and the road together hand in hand; two large parts in front - this is not a trifle ”(VI, 246). And what new and different road views await them, known and unknown, because the path they will follow is the path to themselves, the path on which inner vision is acquired, when both the hero and readers will have to look “inside their own souls" (VI, 245).

Mekhtiev V.G. (Khabarovsk)

The purpose of the article is to analyze the structure-forming details of the landscape in the poem "Dead Souls", hinting at semantic echoes that go beyond the world of the characters themselves and expressing their author's assessment. The landscape images of the work have traditionally (and rightly) been understood in line with Gogol's characteristic method of typification. Gogol skillfully used his talent to fit "an infinitesimal" whole content. But the discoveries made in connection with the concepts of "outlook", "environment", "point of view" make it possible to see the non-linear strategy of the Gogol landscape.

In the dialogical concept of M.M. Bakhtin, "a twofold combination of the world with a person is possible: from within him - as his horizons, and from the outside - as his environment" . The scientist thought that “verbal landscape”, “description of the situation”, “image of everyday life”, etc. cannot be considered exclusively as "moments of the horizon of the acting, incoming consciousness of man." An aesthetically significant event takes place where the subject of the image “is turned outside of itself, where it exists value only in the other and for the other, participates in the world where it does not exist from within itself” .

The theory of horizons and the environment of the hero, created by Bakhtin, in the science of literature was associated with the concept of "point of view". Allocate an internal point of view - a first-person narrative, where the depicted world fits into the horizon of the character as much as possible; and an external point of view, giving scope to the author's omniscience, endowing the narrator with a higher consciousness. The external point of view has mobility, through it the plurality of perception and emotional and semantic evaluation of the subject is achieved. N.D. Tamarchenko wrote that “the point of view in a literary work is the position of the “observer” (narrator, narrator, character) in the depicted world.” The point of view, “on the one hand, determines his horizons - both in terms of “volume”, “and in terms of assessing what is perceived; on the other hand, it expresses the author's assessment of this subject and his outlook. Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that the boundaries between different points of view in the narrative indicate some kind of mobile, threshold meanings, due to the value position of the observers.

The borderline meanings of the landscape in "Dead Souls" can be understood in the context of M. Virolainen's reflections: "describing this or that area of life, Gogol likes to break the direct connection with it", "turn to it from the outside" . As a result, "between the subject of the image and the author's view of the subject arises" "conflict interaction"; "the author's view violates all boundaries", "does not allow the described phenomenon to remain equal to itself" . This position, I think, goes back to the well-known notion of M. Bakhtin: "every moment of the work is given to us in the author's reaction to it." It "embraces both the subject and the hero's reaction to it." The author, according to the philosopher, is endowed with an "excess of vision", thanks to which he "sees and knows something" that the heroes are "fundamentally inaccessible" .

Indeed, an ordinary glance at the poem "Dead Souls" reveals, first of all, details of typical significance. In creating pictures of the provincial city, the life of the provincial landlords, there is a noticeable setting to show the dual unity of the external and internal. But the semantics of the landscape is not exhausted by the typifying function: Gogol presents the landscape from points of view bordering on each other. About the hotel in the county town where Chichikov stayed, it is said that it belonged to a "famous family." The landscape and the interior associated with it give rise to a sense of everydayness, typicality: that's all there is around and inside the hotel, but you can see it everywhere. The formula "here" and "everywhere" includes, in particular, "rooms with cockroaches peeking out like prunes from all corners." Typicality is expressed not only metaphorically, but sometimes through direct fixation of coincidences, canceling the boundaries between the outside and the inside: “The outer facade of the hotel corresponded to its inside<...>» .

Chichikov sees what corresponds to his adventurous plan. In the ideological assessment of the county landscape, he is passive. But the narrative initiative here belongs to the writer. It is the author who acts as the highest authority, forms the value-semantic space of the provincial city. N.V. Gogol seems to be following the character, taking a transpersonal position, coinciding "with the position of this character in terms of spatial characteristics", but diverging "with it in terms of ideology, phraseology, etc." . True, if we disassemble the fragment in isolation from the context of the work, then the belonging of the evaluative paradigm to the writer is not so obvious. From what does it follow that the subject of perception is not only Chichikov, but also the author?

The point is that Chichikov's point of view cannot perform a compositional function. She is devoid of narrative memory: she grasps what suits her situational interests. Quite another matter is the author's evaluative position. With the help of verbal details of the landscape and interior, a structural whole is created not only for individual episodes, but also for the text as a whole. Thanks to the culture of borders, the “closed form” “from the subject of the image” turns “into a way of organizing a work of art” (italics saved - M.V.) .

This can be seen in the example of the epithets “yellow”, “black”, used in the description of the hotel: the lower floor of the hotel “was chiselled and remained in dark red bricks, even more darkened from dashing weather changes”; "the upper one was painted with eternal yellow paint". The expression "was painted with eternal yellow paint" can be understood in such a way that the walls of the hotel were painted yellow long ago; can be seen in the "eternal yellow paint" and a symbol of unflappable static.

The epithet "black" is also given a special status, fulfilling not only a stylistic, but also a compositional role. The epithet is used in different episodes of the poem in thirteen cases, included in the contextual synonymous series with the words "dark" and "gray".

The dominance of the epithets "dark", "black" should be attributed to the sphere of deliberate, dictated by the author's intention. The description ends with a mention that one of the two samovars standing on the window "was black as pitch." The word-detail, as well as its contextual synonyms, create an annular composition of the landscape. The epithet "black" incorporates the integral characteristics of "internal" and "external". At the same time, the symbolic meaning of the word is not limited to a single picture, but extends to other episodes. In the description of a luxurious evening in the governor's house, the epithet "black" enters into semantic connections with "an air squadron of flies", "black tailcoats" and, finally, into unusual connections with "light", "white shining refined sugar": "Everything was flooded with light. Black tailcoats flashed and rushed apart and in heaps here and there, like flies rush on a white shining refined sugar ... ".

Thus, the same picture in "Dead Souls" is drawn from two angles - from the place where the adventurer Chichikov sees it, and from the value point from which the narrator contemplates it. On the moving border of Chichikov's practical view of things and their author's emotional, evaluative and creative perception, semantic levels of the landscape appear, acting as something other than just a means of typing. These levels of semantics appear due to the combination of "different positions" that play the role of compositional means.

The landscape in the chapter about Manilov is given at the level of conflict interaction between two points of view - Chichikov and the author. The description is preceded by a three-dimensional picture, which, the further, the more rapidly strives to master the “internal” space of Manilov: “The master’s house stood alone in the south, that is, on a hill, open to all winds ...”. This is followed by “sloping mountains”, on them “mowed sods”, two or three “scattered English-style flower beds”, “five or six birches” “in some places raised their small-leaved thin tops”. Under two of them was a pavilion with the inscription: "Temple of solitary reflection", and there, lower - "a pond covered with greenery<...>At the foot of this elevation, and partly along the very slope, gray log huts darkened along and across.<...>Between them there was no growing tree or any greenery; everywhere looked only one log. At some distance, to the side, a pine forest darkened with some dull bluish color.

The landscape is objectively compacted, semantically significant details grow in it, but the description here is directed not in depth, but in breadth - it is linear. This perspective of the landscape reveals not the depth of character, but rather its absence. But the movement in breadth still has a border, noticed by the author. It passes where the presence of another world is noted - a darkening pine forest, as if boredom contemplating the man-made landscape of Manilov from things.

A constant detail in the characterization of Manilovism, denoted by the word "dandy", involves in its orbit a synonymous series that expands the reader's perception: a house on an "elevation", "English gardens of Russian landowners", "scattered flower beds in English", etc. The space of "made beauty" can stretch to infinity, increase in volume through the accumulation of details. But in any case, its openness is illusory, doomed to horizontality and devoid of verticality. The Manilov landscape rests on the limit of the "top": "The day was not either clear, or gloomy, but some kind of light gray color, which happens only on the old uniforms of garrison soldiers" . Here even the "top" loses its substantive meaning, since it is reduced to comparison with the uniforms of garrison soldiers.

The word “dandy”, which is still only tangible in the description of Manilov’s surroundings, is used as a key word when describing the interior: “beautiful furniture covered with dandy silk fabric”, “dandy candlestick made of dark bronze with three antique graces, with a dandy shield” . The expressive word "dandy" compositionally connects the story about Manilov with the image of an urban young man "in white kanifas pantaloons, very narrow and short, in a tailcoat with attempts on fashion." Thanks to the associative connection, the “young man” and Manilov fall into the same semantic series.

Thus, Chichikov's practical point of view in the description is not self-sufficient: it is set off by the author's point of view, which reveals connections between separate fragments of the world invisible to the character. In the complex structure of "Dead Souls" M.Yu. Lotman noted an unusual hierarchy: "the characters, the reader and the author are included in different types" of "special space"; “the heroes are on the ground, their horizon is obscured by objects, they know nothing, except for practical everyday considerations.” The heroes of the “immovable, “closed” locus are opposed by the heroes of the “open” space, the “heroes of the path” and, of course, the author himself, who is a man of the path.

The petrified life of the provincial landowners, the semantic categoricalness of the "mud of trifles" unexpectedly collides with the energy of the author's word. Mobile border semantic zones are exposed. So, entering Manilov's office, Chichikov utters the words: "A pleasant little room." The writer picks up the phrase uttered by Chichikov, but subordinates it to his own point of view, which is necessary, first of all, to deepen the parodic meaning of the metaphor of "panache": "The room was, for sure, not without pleasantness: the walls were painted with some kind of blue paint<...>tobacco<...>poured was just a heap on the table. On both windows<...>there were mounds of ash knocked out of a pipe, arranged<...>very beautiful rows ... ".

The word “heap” plays a special role in the text, producing, at first glance, the impression of situational use. Gogol uses it frequently in the poem (on nineteen occasions). It is noteworthy that in the chapter on Sobakevich it is absent, but it is used with particular intensity in the episodes dedicated to Plyushkin. The noun "heap" is also found in chapters devoted to the provincial city. It is clear that Chichikov's point of view is, in principle, devoid of such creative activity.

The iconic components of the landscape and interior can be called the key ones in the author's intention; they can also be considered as hermeneutical pointers on the way to comprehending the author's intention. Being included in the writer's horizons, they carry the semantic energy of previous landscape drawings. Their function is to create invisible, barely perceptible threads between the individual parts of the work.

The landscape of the provincial city opens through the perception of Chichikov. Thanks to the author's view, it gradually acquires a two-voiced character. Here are the dominant signs of the urban view: “yellow paint on stone houses”, “gray on wooden houses”, the houses had an “eternal mezzanine”; in some places these houses seemed “lost among the streets as wide as a field”, “in some places they were huddled together”; drawn "billiards with two players in tailcoats, in which guests dress in our theater." The city garden "consisted of thin trees, badly taken, with props below, in the form of triangles, very beautifully painted with green oil paint."

Taken separately, these details do not seem to penetrate into other descriptions. But with mental contemplation of the entire Gogol text, they acquire unity. It turns out that there are semantic relations between them, so the use of the word "heap" by the writer to the urban landscape, the description of the evening in the governor's house, Manilov's interior is not accidental. The author connects the individual parts of the poem not only in terms of plot; he conjugates, unites them thanks to repeated verbal images. The word "heap" is used in describing the world of Plyushkin and Korobochka. Moreover, it constantly coexists with the epithet "correct", that is, with the ideas of the characters themselves about symmetry and beauty.

The picture of the landowner's life and the signs of space in the chapter on Korobochka are given through the eyes of Chichikov, and twice. The first time Chichikov comes here at night in rainy weather. And the second time, when the hero contemplates the world of the Box in the early morning, the same details of space and furnishings are supplemented with new details. The case is unique, because in the description of Korobochka's courtyard, the boundaries between the perception of the character and the narrator are almost invisible.

Chichikov is presented with a “small house”, only “one half” of which is “lit up with light”. “There was also a puddle in front of the house, which was directly hit by the same light. The rain beat loudly on the wooden roof,<...>the dogs were filled with all possible voices. It is eloquent that the episode reflected the non-pragmatic activity of the character, which is evident from the convergence of his point of view with the point of view of the author (“lit up with light” is Gogol’s expression). Chichikov's view selects the details of the landscape in accordance with the logic with which the writer created the landscape, depicting the space of the county town, Manilov. Yu. Mann pointed out rare cases of closeness between Chichikov and the author, noting that in some episodes of the poem "the narrator's reasoning leads to the introspection of the character", in turn, "the introspection of the character (Chichikov) turns into the narrator's reasoning" . Under the author's introspection, the scientist meant an objective, belonging to the narrator's idea of the subject of the image.

The interior of Korobochka is also given through the eyes of Chichikov: “The room was hung with old striped wallpaper; pictures with some birds; between the windows there are small antique mirrors with dark frames in the form of curled leaves...” . And at the same time, the description is not free from the energetic words of the author-narrator. The writer is recognizable by his passion for diminutive suffixes, the word "dark", for light painting ("illumined by light"). The author is also guessed in the fact that he willingly gives objects a figurative embodiment (frames in the form of “curled leaves”). And yet, the point of view of Chichikov prevails in the picture. For the first time, the character finds himself not inside the depicted world, but outside of it. And this is no coincidence. In the morning, Chichikov “began to examine the views before him: the window looked almost into the chicken coop.<...>a narrow courtyard filled with birds and all sorts of domestic creatures<...>Apple trees and other fruit trees were scattered around the garden.<...>The garden was followed by peasant huts, which, although they were scattered and not enclosed in regular streets ... ".

Despite the fact that Korobochki's estate gives the impression of a fortress, it does not correspond to the ideal: its dilapidation is felt. The epithet “wrong” appears, which, in the course of the plot, falls into new verbal and semantic contexts. It is in the chapter on Korobochka that he is directly correlated with the image of Chichikov, which makes it possible to see between the characters unconscious connections between them.

Here it is appropriate to mention the story "Old World Landowners", where the landscape, in contrast to the Korobochki estate, creates a feeling of abundance. The world of old-world landowners is associated with a piece of paradise: God has not offended the humble inhabitants of the Russian land in any way. In this regard, the story of fruit trees, leaning low to the ground from the weight and many fruits on them, is illustrative.

The motif of "animal" abundance is intensively introduced into the description of Korobochka's space. The main characteristics of her world are "animal" metaphors and the epithet "narrow". The phrase: "a narrow courtyard filled with birds and all kinds of domestic creatures" - absorbs the characteristics of the hostess. She also hints at Chichikov: a not entirely linear description of the character is outlined, the prospect of his “internal” display.

Korobochka's world correlates with the world of Chichikov himself - the image of her "narrow courtyard" is correlated with the "internal arrangement" of the Chichikov box, a detailed description of which appears in the chapter on the landowner. There is a soap dish in the very middle, behind the soap dish there are six or seven narrow partitions for razors. The following expression "all sorts of partitions with lids and without lids" is associated with the story of peasant huts, which "were built scattered and not enclosed in regular streets." Order and "correctness" in Chichikov's box, thanks to the indicated convergences, become synonymous with Korobochka's "wrong" way of life. And the "animal" motif, in turn, semantically and emotionally prepares the reader for the perception of "nozdrevshchina".

Nozdryov's yard was no different from a kennel, just like Korobochka's yard was from a chicken coop. The associative series continues the allusion to the scarcity of "land abundance": the field along which Nozdryov led the guests "consisted of tussocks." The author insistently emphasizes the idea that the land belonging to these landowners is barren, as if it had lost God's grace. The motif of the barrenness of the land originates in the description of the provincial "garden" (consisting of "thin trees" "not taller than a reed"); it expands spatially and semantically deepens in the story of Manilov's estate ("sloping mountains", "small-leaved thin peaks" of birch trees); about Korobochka's yard ("apple trees and other fruit trees were scattered here and there in the garden"). But in the description of Nozdryov's estate, the motif reaches its semantic peak.

At the same time, the opposition between “right” and “wrong” deepens. Depth is achieved by combining (up to a certain limit) the position of the character and the position of the narrator in the description. In the chapter on Sobakevich, Chichikov's perception paradoxically combines details that meet his pragmatic interests and elements that bring his point of view closer to the author's. The epithet "wrong", related to the world of the Box, becomes a metaphorical expression of a whole way of life. Chichikov could not get rid of the sensation of some glaring asymmetry in the whole landowner way of life and Sobakevich's appearance. Here, apparently, Chichikov's travel impressions were not without. The road, as noted by a modern researcher, "in the poem also serves as a test of the hero, a test of his ability to go beyond his own horizons." The motive of the path is probably no less important for deepening the semantics of the opposition "right" - "wrong" - it reaches a concrete, substantive embodiment in the chapter on Plyushkin. In the description of Plyushkin's estate, the author develops the landscape motifs outlined in the previous chapters. Here they receive semantic completion and unity.

The first part of the landscape is entirely given in the horizon of Chichikov; but the author, in turn, seems to penetrate the horizons of the character, comments, evaluates what might not correspond to Chichikov's character. Obviously, Gogol, by his presence in the description, on the one hand, attaches what he saw to the perception of the reader, and on the other hand, to the consciousness of Chichikov himself. Thus, the technique of “double illumination” used by the writer imperceptibly prepares a shift in the moral sense of the hero. In the landscape, given, at first glance, through the perception of Chichikov, a style stands out that refers to the position of the author-narrator: “the balconies squinted and turned black, not even picturesquely”; "all sorts of rubbish grew"; “two village churches: an empty wooden one and a stone one, with yellowish walls, stained. This strange castle looked like some kind of decrepit invalid<...>» .

The author is also recognizable by his passion for painting. But there is something in the text that can in no way be correlated with Chichikov's point of view - bewilderment about the fact that the balconies "blackened" so ugly that there was nothing "picturesque" in them. This is the view of the artist, of course. Adjacent to it is the ballad image used by Gogol (“strange castle”) and correlated with the physically tangible image of the “decrepit invalid”. There is nothing even slightly "picturesque", and consequently, there is nothing to "elevate to the pearl of creation." Colloquial "all sorts of rubbish grew", meaning that the earth "dried up", "degenerated" , could mentally pronounce both Chichikov and the author.

The story of the picturesque garden is the second part of the landscape, but it is included exclusively in the horizons of the author. The path to the artistic, symbolic meaning of the landscape is closed to Chichikov. Reminiscences referring to Dante, Shakespeare, Karamzin, folklore, confirm what has been said. The landscape has a "summative" meaning. He appears as a "familiar stranger". In addition, when describing a garden, Gogol casually uses heterogeneous semantic and stylistic figures: a garden “overgrown and decayed” — the garden “was alone picturesque in its pictorial devastation”; "green and irregular quivering domes" - birch "like a regular marble sparkling column" - "nature has destroyed the grossly sensible regularity", etc. Gogol creates a landscape in exact accordance with the ideal that he told his contemporary about: “If I were an artist, I would invent a special kind of landscape<...>I would link tree to tree, mix up the branches, throw out the light where no one expects it, these are the landscapes you need to paint! .

It is striking with what consistency and intensity Gogol uses the same words and verbal forms to express the artistic idea of the landscape. Almost all the details of the picture are familiar from previous descriptions. The symbolic image of the garden crowns the verbal series, which was associated with the point of view, the value position of the author. The spatial density of the outlined garden is also striking, especially conspicuous when compared with the “empty” land of the landowners.

The motif of barren land in Manilov's world was emphasized by pointing to "sloping mountains". At the same time, the forest was also mentioned, but the fact of the matter is that the "darkening forest" did not seem to enter Manilov's world, since it was located on the other side of Manilov's world ("aside"). The analogy with the garden in the provincial town is also natural: it "consisted of thin trees, badly accepted, with props below, in the form of triangles." Only in the chapter on Plyushkin, describing the garden, Gogol introduces the motif of the revived earth. But the fertile land, the sun, the sky are also on the other side, they seem to be not involved in the world of Plyushkin: "the garden that went beyond the village and then disappeared into the field."

In Gogol's description, the contrasting meanings of "dark" are smoothed out. As for the opposition "correct" - "wrong", then it is completely removed ("green and incorrect ...", "birch as correct"); here even the “narrow path” is poetic. Both that, and another, created by the joint efforts of nature and art, are in perfect agreement with the laws of beauty and symmetry, with the idea of "fertile land". It is interesting that here even the color detail reaches the final: props in the form of “triangles”, “painted with green oil paint”. In the depiction of Plyushkin's court, the green color becomes a symbol of death: "Green mold has already covered the decrepit wood on the fence and gate." The motif of death is intensified in the depiction of Plyushkin's inner space: "the wide vestibule, from which the wind blew like from a cellar"; "The room is dark, slightly illuminated by light."

In the poem "Dead Souls" the landscape is endowed with a multi-level semantic and narrative plan. The first level includes an imaginary, ideal landscape, functioning in the context of the lyrical theme of the work. It is included exclusively in the horizon of the author, it serves as a boundary between the world of Chichikov, the landlords and the ideal world of Gogol. Landscape belongs to the second plan, implying "famous views", correlated with the theme of "dead souls" and performing here the function of typification. But the second plan of the landscape strategy is not linear: it is endowed with semantic polyphony, a change of subjects of perception, a combination of points of view. The mobility of the semantics of the landscape serves to "expose" the linear life path of the characters. The repetitive details included in the scope of the author's perception, thanks to their repetition, acquire the ambiguity of the symbol, smooth out the satirical, typifying orientation of the landscape, and reveal implicit connections with lyrical digressions in the poem. The character is described, on the one hand, from the point of view of his passive contemplation of his own existence, in unity with the vulgar environment (the outlook and environment of the character is thought of as something closed); and from the creatively active position of the author-narrator, who breaks this isolation and illuminates it with the thought of the spiritual principles of human life.

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It is quite difficult for an inexperienced reader to feel the beauty of the works of N.V. Gogol. Reading “Dead Souls” for the first time, I simply followed the development of the plot, the author’s and speech characteristics of the characters and could not understand what was the secret of Gogol’s prose, why for two centuries it continues to excite and attract readers. But later, reading the lines of the poem, I saw that the world created by the writer on the pages of Dead Souls is full of amazing artistic details that Gogol saw through the eye of an artist. And Gogol's world came to life, sparkled with all the colors, awakening in the soul either joy, or bitterness, or compassion, or hatred.
Here is Manilov's office in front of us, in which lies a book that has been opened for two years at the fourteenth page, as faceless as its owner. The symbols of the boring and slovenly dreamer Manilov are the fat green duckweed on the pond, and the gazebo with blue columns and the pretentious inscription “Temple of Solitary Reflection”, and the details of the furnishings of the house, in which something was always missing. Beautiful furniture, upholstered in beautiful silk fabric, side by side with two armchairs covered with simple matting, and smart candlesticks made of dark bronze with three antique graces - with a lame copper invalid, curled up on the side. All these details confirm Gogol's words about Manilov in the best possible way: this is a man “so-so, neither this nor that, neither in the city of Bogdan, nor in the village of Selifan.” His designs for upholstering armchairs and furnishing empty rooms are like empty dreams of a stone bridge with shops selling goods to peasants. But, perhaps, the most expressive symbol of Manilov's lack of spirituality and worthlessness is the mounds of ashes, which he arranges in neat rows on the windowsill. This is the only art available to him.
The image of Sobakevich is also woven from a multitude of speaking details. His belongings have a "strange resemblance to the owner of the house himself." The pot-bellied walnut bureau, like Sobakevich himself, looks like a bear. “The table, the armchair, the chairs—everything was of the heaviest and most restless nature,” and each object seemed to say: “And I, too, Sobakevich!” Some kind of primitive animal power is felt in the landowner, which is visible even during lunch, when the owner absorbs an incredible amount of different dishes. He gnaws huge pieces to the last bone, and everything on the table is gigantic in size: a cheesecake the size of a large plate, a turkey the size of a calf. It is not surprising that one gets the impression that there is no soul in this body, and if there is, it is “closed with such a thick shell that everything that tossed and turned at the bottom of it did not produce any shock on the surface.”
But, perhaps, the most striking character, bred by Gogol in Dead Souls, is the landowner Plyushkin. A master of artistic detail, the writer notices completely incompatible objects in the decor of his house, giving an idea of the hero's former and current life. So, unlike Manilov, Plyushkin once read: he has “some old leather-bound book”, perhaps bought by the owner in the old days, when he was a thrifty owner and neighbors went to him to learn “wise stinginess” . The former luxury is reminiscent of the “wardrobe with antique silver”, the bureau, “lined with mother-of-pearl mosaics”. Signs of the current life of the landowner are a chandelier in a canvas bag, “due to the dust, it has become like a silk cocoon in which a worm sits”, an inkwell with some kind of moldy liquid and a lot of flies at the bottom, a pile of unnecessary junk from which a broken piece of a wooden shovel sticks out and old shoe sole. Everything testifies to what “insignificance, pettiness, vileness” a person can reach.

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Mastery of artistic detail in the poem "Dead Souls"

"Dead Souls": threshold semantics of the landscape

Mekhtiev V.G. (Khabarovsk)

The theory of horizons and the environment of the hero, created by Bakhtin, in the science of literature was associated with the concept of "point of view". Allocate an internal point of view - a first-person narrative, where the depicted world fits into the horizon of the character as much as possible; and an external point of view, giving scope to the author's omniscience, endowing the narrator with a higher consciousness. The external point of view has mobility, through it the plurality of perception and emotional and semantic evaluation of the subject is achieved. N.D. Tamarchenko wrote that “the point of view in a literary work is the position of an “observer” (narrator, narrator, character) in the depicted world.” The point of view, “on the one hand, determines his horizons - both in terms of “volume”, “and in terms of assessing what is perceived; on the other hand, it expresses the author's assessment of this subject and his outlook. Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that the boundaries between different points of view in the narrative indicate some kind of mobile, threshold meanings, due to the value position of the observers.

The landscape in the chapter on Manilov is given at the level of conflict interaction between two points of view - Chichikov and the author. The description is preceded by a three-dimensional picture, which, the further, the more rapidly strives to master the “internal” space of Manilov: “The master’s house stood alone in the south, that is, on a hill, open to all winds ...”. This is followed by “sloping mountains”, on them “mowed sods”, two or three “scattered English-style flower beds”, “five or six birches” “in some places raised their small-leaved thin tops”. Under two of them there was a gazebo with the inscription: "Temple of solitary reflection", and there, lower - "a pond covered with greenery<...>At the foot of this elevation, and partly along the very slope, gray log huts darkened along and across.<...>Between them there was no growing tree or any greenery; everywhere looked only one log. At some distance, to the side, a pine forest darkened with some dull bluish color.

The landscape is subject to compaction, semantically significant details grow in it, but the description here is directed not in depth, but in breadth - it is linear. This perspective of the landscape reveals not the depth of character, but rather its absence. But the movement in breadth still has a border, noticed by the author. It passes where the presence of another world is noted - a darkening pine forest, as if from things bored contemplating the man-made landscape of Manilov.

Chichikov is presented with a “small house”, only “one half” of which is “lit up with light”. “There was also a puddle in front of the house, which was directly hit by the same light. The rain beat loudly on the wooden roof,<...>the dogs were filled with all possible voices. It is eloquent that the episode reflected the non-pragmatic activity of the character, which is evident from the convergence of his point of view with the point of view of the author ("lit up with light" - this is Gogol's expression). Chichikov's view selects the details of the landscape in accordance with the logic with which the writer created the landscape, depicting the space of the county town, Manilov. Yu. Mann pointed out rare cases of closeness between Chichikov and the author, noting that in some episodes of the poem "the narrator's reasoning leads to the introspection of the character", in turn, "the introspection of the character (Chichikov) turns into the narrator's reasoning" . Under the author's introspection, the scientist meant an objective, belonging to the narrator's idea of the subject of the image.

The motif of "animal" abundance is intensively introduced into the description of Korobochka's space. The main characteristics of her world are "animal" metaphors and the epithet "narrow". The phrase: "a narrow courtyard filled with birds and all sorts of domestic creatures" - absorbs the characteristics of the hostess. She also hints at Chichikov: a not entirely linear description of the character is outlined, the prospect of his “internal” display.

Nozdryov's yard did not differ from a kennel, just like Korobochka's yard did not differ from a chicken coop. The associative series continues the allusion to the scarcity of "land abundance": the field along which Nozdryov led the guests "consisted of tussocks." The author insistently emphasizes the idea that the land belonging to these landowners is barren, as if it had lost God's grace. The motif of the barrenness of the land originates in the description of the provincial "garden" (consisting of "thin trees" "not taller than a reed"); it expands spatially and semantically deepens in the story of Manilov's estate ("sloping mountains", "small-leaved thin peaks" of birch trees); about Korobochka's yard ("apple trees and other fruit trees were scattered here and there in the garden"). But in the description of Nozdryov's estate, the motif reaches its semantic peak.

At the same time, the opposition "right" - "wrong" deepens. Depth is achieved by combining (up to a certain limit) the position of the character and the position of the narrator in the description. In the chapter on Sobakevich, Chichikov's perception paradoxically combines details that meet his pragmatic interests and elements that bring his point of view closer to the author's. The epithet "wrong", related to the world of the Box, becomes a metaphorical expression of a whole way of life. Chichikov could not get rid of the sensation of some glaring asymmetry in the whole landowner way of life and Sobakevich's appearance. Here, apparently, Chichikov's travel impressions were not without. The road, as noted by a modern researcher, "in the poem also serves as a test of the hero, a test of his ability to go beyond his own horizons." The motive of the path is probably no less important for deepening the semantics of the opposition "right" - "wrong", - it reaches a concrete, substantive embodiment in the chapter on Plyushkin. In the description of Plyushkin's estate, the author develops the landscape motifs outlined in the previous chapters. Here they receive semantic completion and unity.

The author is also recognizable by his passion for painting. But there is something in the text that can by no means be correlated with Chichikov's point of view - bewilderment about the fact that the balconies "blackened" so ugly that there was nothing "picturesque" in them. This is the view of the artist, of course. Adjacent to it is the ballad image used by Gogol (“strange castle”) and correlated with the physically tangible image of the “decrepit invalid”. There is nothing even slightly "picturesque", and consequently, there is nothing to "elevate to the pearl of creation." The colloquial “all sorts of rubbish grew”, meaning that the earth “dried up”, “degenerated”, could be mentally pronounced by both Chichikov and the author.

The story of the picturesque garden is the second part of the landscape, but it is included exclusively in the horizons of the author. The path to the artistic, symbolic meaning of the landscape is closed to Chichikov. Reminiscences referring to Dante, Shakespeare, Karamzin, folklore, confirm what has been said. The landscape has a "summative" meaning. He appears as a "familiar stranger". In addition, when describing a garden, Gogol casually uses heterogeneous semantic and stylistic figures: a garden “overgrown and decayed” - the garden “was alone picturesque in its pictorial devastation”; “green and irregular quivering domes” - birch “like a regular marble sparkling column” - “nature has destroyed the grossly sensible correctness”, etc. Gogol creates a landscape in exact accordance with the ideal that he told his contemporary about: “If I were an artist, I would invent a special kind of landscape<...>I would link tree to tree, mix up the branches, throw out the light where no one expects it, these are the landscapes you need to paint! .

In Gogol's description, the contrasting meanings of "dark" are smoothed out. As for the opposition “correct” - “wrong”, then it is completely removed (“green and incorrect ...”, “birch as correct”); here even the “narrow path” is poetic. Both that, and another, created by the joint efforts of nature and art, are in perfect agreement with the laws of beauty and symmetry, with the idea of "fertile land". It is interesting that here even the color detail reaches the final: props in the form of “triangles”, “painted with green oil paint”. In the depiction of Plyushkin's court, the green color becomes a symbol of death: "Green mold has already covered the decrepit wood on the fence and gate." The motif of death is intensified in the depiction of Plyushkin's inner space: "the wide vestibule, from which the wind blew like from a cellar"; "The room is dark, slightly illuminated by light."

Bibliography

Annenkov P.V. Gogol in Rome in the summer of 1841 // Annenkov P.V. Literary Memories. - M.: Pravda, 1989. - 688 p.

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Smirnova E.A. Gogol's poem Dead Souls. - L.: Nauka (Leningrad branch), 1987. - 201 p.

Tamarchenko N.D. Point of view // Introduction to literary criticism. Literary work: basic concepts and terms. - M.: Higher school, 2004. - S. 379-389.

Uspensky B.A. Poetics of composition. - St. Petersburg: Azbuka, 2000. - 352 p.

Eliade M. Selected works. Essays on Comparative Religion. Transl. from English. - M.: Ladomir, 1999. (Electronic version). Access mode: http://wwwgumer.info/bogoslov_Buks/comporative_bogoslov/eliade/09.php. (accessed 03.01.2013).

It seems that the motif of the "barrenness" of the land, as well as the image of the garden in Gogol's poem, can be correlated with the ancient cult of "plowing the land"; in honor of this event, wheat was symbolically fertilized by the opening of the Nile dams; the "gardens of Osiris" were broken; in early November, ritual plowing of the land and ritual sowing were arranged.

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Essay on literature on the topic: Mastery of artistic detail in the poem “Dead Souls”

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"Dead Souls": threshold semantics of the landscape