Modifications of the novel form in the prose of the West in the second half of the twentieth century. Program of an elective course of specialized training in literature “Modern Russian literature The phenomenon of “other” prose

Conventional-metaphorical prose, using several types of conventions, including fairy tales, allows “to more clearly show the essence of reality hidden behind the veil of conventional forms and techniques.”

In the story “Market” by N. Ruzankina, a fairy-tale type of convention is realized. The writer creates a fantastic situation, which is a mirror image of reality, namely: people have become game for animals. The heroine of the story, on whose behalf the story is told, finds out about this when she gets to the market where raincoats and jackets made of human skin are sold. The wolf, who acts as a guide in the world of animals, does not understand her surprise and horror at the sight of human skin products: “We kill game, guest... And we do not ask the game if it wants to be killed. After all, you do the same. We sew things from your skin, we wear these things and remember the dark times when our skins lay on your shoulders, our fur served as decoration for your females, and we remember many, many things. We are waiting, we are biding our time. We are very patient, guest, and very hungry, although your meat leaves much to be desired... But your skins suit us.”

The fantastic meeting of man and beast is a kind of warning about the possibility of the emergence and development of a conflict that currently does not exist in real life, and the writer calls the probable opponents in this confrontation - people and animals - representatives of different nations. The civilization of animals, outlined by N. Ruzankina in a few strokes, is different, but still a kind of reflection of human culture. They, like people, have not only trade and crafts, but also their own deity, which forced the Wolf to find a person who could tell about the impending danger. A representative of people, having seen the likely consequences of their consumer attitude towards animals, must prevent the impending misfortune: “...tell us that we are waiting and will be ruthless if you are ruthless. You have made a slaughterhouse out of the world, we will make a slaughterhouse out of your life... And then what, guest? This land will eventually throw off both you and us and will remain fresh, young, deserted and beastless. Terrible..."

The ending of the story destroys the fairy-tale convention: a young woman who has been throwing leather goods from market stalls is placed for examination in a psychiatric hospital. The reader again sees reality behind the allegory.

Bibliography:

1. NefaginaG. L. Russian prose of the second half of the 80s and early 90s. XX century /G. L. Nefagina. – Mn.: NPZh "Finance, accounting, audit", "Econompress", 1997. -231 p.

2. Ruzankina N. Market // Wanderer. – 1997. – No. 4. – P.94-98.

Development of conditionally metaphorical prose at the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st centuries.

In 1990, in the article “Wake of Soviet Literature,” Viktor Efreev, a representative of “new literature,” announced the beginning of a new period in modern Russian literature - postmodernist.

The term “postmodernism” (from the Latin past - “after” and the French moderne - “modern”, “newest”) appeared during the First World War. In 1947, the English historian A. Toynbee used it to characterize the modern era of world culture. This term immediately “came into circulation” in the West, and then in Russia, but already in the 80s.

Even at the beginning of the 20th century, the world seemed stable, reasonable and orderly, and cultural and moral values ​​seemed unshakable. The man clearly knew the difference between “good” and “bad”, “high” - from “low”, “beautiful” - from “ugly”. The horrors of the First World War shook these foundations. Then came World War II, concentration camps, gas chambers, Hiroshima... Human consciousness plunged into the abyss of despair and fear. The faith in higher ideals that previously inspired poets and heroes has disappeared. The world began to seem absurd, crazy and meaningless, unknowable, human life - aimless... The highest ideals collapsed. The concepts of high and low, beautiful and ugly, moral and immoral have lost their meaning. Everything has become equal, and everything is equally permitted. It is on this basis that postmodernism emerges.

Recently, postmodernism has been the main direction of modern philosophy, art and science. It is characterized by an understanding of the world as chaos, the world as a text, an awareness of the fragmentation of existence. One of the main principles of postmodernism is intertextuality (the correlation of the text with other literary sources).

The postmodern text forms a new type of relationship between literature and the reader. The reader becomes a co-author of the text. The perception of artistic values ​​becomes multi-valued. Literature is seen as an intellectual game.

Postmodernism, therefore, is something like the fragments of a broken troll mirror that fell into the eyes of the entire culture, with the only difference that these fragments did not cause any particular harm to anyone, although they confused many.

Postmodernism was the first (and last) movement of the 20th century that openly admitted that the text does not reflect reality, but creates a new reality, or rather, even many realities, often completely independent of each other. After all, any history, in accordance with the understanding of postmodernism, is the history of the creation and interpretation of a text. Where then does reality come from? There is simply no reality. If you like, there are various virtual realities - it is not for nothing that postmodernism flourished in the era of personal computers, mass video, the Internet, with the help of which they now not only correspond and hold scientific conferences, but even make virtual love. Since reality no longer exists, postmodernism has thereby destroyed the most important opposition of classical modernism - the neo-mythological opposition between text and reality, making unnecessary the search, and, as a rule, the painful search for boundaries between them. Now the search has stopped: reality has not been finally discovered, there is only text.

Postmodernism is dominated by general confusion and mockery of everything; one of its main principles has become “cultural mediation,” or, to put it briefly, a quote. “We live in an era when all the words have already been said,” S.S. Averintsev once said; therefore, every word, even every letter in postmodern culture is a quotation.

Another fundamental principle of postmodernism is the rejection of truth. Different philosophical movements understood truth in different ways, but postmodernism generally refuses to solve and recognize this problem - except as a problem of a language game, they say, truth is just a word that means what it means in the dictionary. What is more important is not the meaning of this word, but its meaning, its etymology, the way it was used before. “In other words,” writes Piatigorsky, “truth” is a word that has no other meaning than what this word means. Postmodernists see truth only as a word, as an element of the text, as, in the end, the text itself. Text instead history. History is nothing more than the history of reading a text."

Postmodernism researcher Ilya Ilyin writes: “... postmodern thought has come to the conclusion that everything taken for reality is in fact nothing more than an idea of ​​it, which also depends on the point of view that the observer chooses and the change of which leads "to a radical change in the idea itself. Thus, human perception is declared doomed to "multiperspectivism": to a constantly and kaleidoscopically changing series of perspectives of reality, which in their flickering do not make it possible to understand its essence."

In literary criticism there are different classifications of works of postmodernism, for example, V.A. Agenosov identifies the following trends within the literature of postmodernism:

1. Dystopian prose, “warning”, “social current” (V. Aksenov “Island of Crimea”, V. Voinovich “Moscow. 2042”, A. Kabakov “Defector”, A. Kurchatkin “Notes of an Extremist”, V. Makanin “ Laz").

2. Conventional metaphorical prose (F. Iskander “Rabbits and Boas”, V. Orlov “Violist Danilov”, A. Kim “Squirrel”, V. Pelevin “Life of Insects”).

3. “Other”, “cruel” prose, “prose of forty-year-olds”. (L. Petrushevskaya “Own Circle”, T. Tolstaya “Somnabula in the Fog”, “Seraphim”, “Poet and Muse”, S. Kaledin “Building Battalion”, “Humble Cemetery”, V. Pietsukh “New Moscow Philosophy”, V Makanin “Underground or Heroes of Our Time”, etc.)

But V.V. Agenosov argues that any division is always conditional and, as a rule, one should talk about belonging to a particular movement not of a specific writer, but of a specific work.

D.N. Murin identifies the following main trends of postmodernism:

Simulacrum, i.e. “simulation of reality”, composition of the plot as a typical one.

Tightness. This is not literature for the reader, but primarily for itself. The text is interesting as such, and not because of what it reflects (reproduces) in real life.

The world as a text. Any phenomenon of life, “located outside the artist, can be the subject of his composition, including those already created in literature and art. Hence the centenity, i.e. use of “other people’s” thoughts, images, quoting without quotation marks, etc.

Lack of hierarchical ideas about spiritual and moral. Artistic values. The world is one in the mountains and the distant, high and low, spiritual and everyday.

Adhering to the classification of V.A. Agenosov, I would like to dwell separately on the conditional metaphorical prose of the late 20th century. In this sense, V. Pelevin’s work “The Life of Insects” is very interesting. But first, a little about the author himself.

Viktor Olegovich Pelevin is a Moscow prose writer. Author of several novels and collections of short stories. His writing career took place entirely in the 90s - within a few years of being an aspiring author of avant-garde prose. Known only in narrow circles, he turned into one of the most popular and read writers. His texts are often republished and actively translated abroad: England, the USA, Japan, and many European countries. In 1993, the Small Booker Prize (for the best collection of short stories) was awarded to Pelevin for his first book, The Blue Lantern. Four years later, a huge scandal surrounding the Booker jury’s refusal to include the novel Chapaev and Emptiness in the list of finalists for the award sealed its Olympic status as a “modern classic.”

The writer received two higher educations: at the Moscow Energy Institute (with a degree in electromechanics) and at the Literary Institute, and worked as an engineer and journalist. In particular, he prepared publications on Eastern mysticism in the journal Science and Religion, and was the editor of the first translations of books by Carlos Castaneda. Placing the realities of Soviet life in the context of an occult-magical worldview became a characteristic stylistic device that determined the main features of Peleven’s prose. V.A. Chalmaev in the article “Russian prose 1980-2000. At the crossroads of opinions and disputes” classifies V. Pelevin’s prose as “fantasy” and says that “Pelevin’s fantasy is not fantasy, not a way to unravel the unknown world, not the art of creating a world that can be seen by, say, a dislocated consciousness, a conditional world parallel to the existing one.Fantasy is a displacement of the real and the imagined, the probable.

Pelevin’s inclusion in the “corporation” of science fiction writers is connected primarily with historical factors: for several years he took part in the activities of the Moscow seminar of science fiction writers (the head of the seminar was V. Babenko), the first publications of his stories appeared on the pages of popular science magazines in the sections of science fiction and in SF collections. He was repeatedly awarded “fantastic” prizes: for the story “Omon Ra” (“The Bronze Snail”, “Interpression”), the stories “The Principle of the State Planning Commission”, “The Werewolves of the Middle Zone” and other works. The author does use in his prose some techniques specific to the fantasy genre, but in general his work does not fit into any genre framework and is difficult to classify.

For example, with some of Pelevin’s texts it is difficult to decide whether to classify them as fiction or essays.

The author often uses the post-modernist technique of palimpsest - creating his own texts with the active use of fragments of others. At the same time, a number of his works are openly parodic in nature. We see this in “The Life of Insects,” when the queen ant Marina reads in the newspaper “Flying over the enemy’s nest. On the fiftieth anniversary of the pupation of Arkady Gaidar...”, or creates her own poems in the spirit of Marcus Aurelius. But since it is the attitude of the audience that forms the completeness of a literary work, all genre definitions are extremely conditional. “Omon Ra”, originally announced as a story, is presented in recent publications as a novel, which is not entirely justified by the volume of the text, but can be explained by an indication of the genre-forming development of the personality of the main character, from an infantile teenage worldview moving to a cynical adult.

The themes of Pelevin's stories are varied: the writer revives many mythological stories using modern Russian material. What was important for the perception of his work was that these works were imbued with, as they would say in the Soviet Union, “anti-communist pathos.” In them, ordinary phenomena of Soviet (and then post-Soviet) reality receive an original interpretation and are presented as a manifestation of powerful and evil magical rituals, or absurd rituals performed ineptly and incompetently. However, it is difficult to call such works politicized; the ritualization of reality plays a supporting role in them. As for the main content of most of Pelevin’s works, it is associated with a description of states of consciousness that perceives a discursively presented picture of the world as reality. Soviet reality turns out to be a kind of hell, where the hopeless experience of specific states of mind appears as hellish torment. Controversies constantly flare up around Pelevin’s works: some critics define them as the apotheosis of lack of spirituality and mass culture, others consider the writer to be something of a guru of postmodern literature. However, among the critical opinions there are also quite reasonable ones. D. Bavilsky’s remark about the cinematic quality of Peleven’s texts deserves attention - they are constructed as a director’s script, as a sequence of paintings, united only through the unity of the viewer’s gaze. It is impossible not to recognize as relevant the reflections of I. Zotov on the fate of “burimetic” prose, which is created according to the principle of burime and in which the semantic significance of text elements is muted, bringing to the fore the way of connecting these “lost meaning” elements. Indeed, the avant-garde tradition, which revolutionarily explodes the monotony of the literary language from within, plays an important role in the literature of the last two centuries, and each generation puts forward its own symbols of creative freedom - Lautreamont, the futurists, “Naked Lunch” and “Moscow conceptualism” - but the majority of Burime remains in desks of writers who find no meaning in a literary career, and few of them can be more than just a symbol of creative freedom. Therefore, the question naturally arises: is there this “something more” in Pelevin?

Pelevin, with equal ease and professionalism, operates with various styles of “high” and “low” culture, professional languages ​​and everyday language that eschews artifice. Rehabilitating the expressive capabilities of engineering student colloquialism is one of the author’s merits that is worthy of all praise.

The connection between such stylistic omnivorousness and elements of fantastic poetics seems to me quite remarkable. The point here, of course, is not the period of the writer’s apprenticeship in a seminar of science fiction writers, but the claim to myth-making that determines the genre features of modern science fiction. A superficial consideration of no matter how serious and deep problems is connected not with the natural vulgarity of the fantastic genre, of course, but with the need, as it were, to re-include into the speech horizon (that is, on equal, equally significant grounds) various innovations of the humanities and technical sciences, each time as if re-search for the basic formula of everyday life.

According to the remark of A. Genis, Pelevin writes in the genre of fable - the “moral” from which the reader himself must extract.

Pelevin's prose is characterized by the absence of the author's appeal to the reader through the work in any traditional form, through content or artistic form. The author does not “want to say” anything, and all the meanings that the reader finds, he reads from the text on his own. Numerous experiments with styles, contexts, and artistic forms serve Pelevin to organize such a form of authorship, reducing the relationship between the author and the reader up to its complete abolition.

“I don’t have heroes in my books. There are only characters there,” says Pelevin in an interview. Demonstration of the basic structures of consciousness through which a speech picture of the world is created gives rise to that amazing feeling of trusting closeness of the reader to the character. Which many readers of Peleven’s prose encounter. But one should not mistake simplicity for naivety: the author himself is not in the text, he always hides behind some kind of mask. Love. Friendship, divine revelation - all these are just linguistic images, the reconstruction of which Pelevin does not intend to stop anywhere. Creating a scattering of subjective realities, he does not want to self-identify with any of its elements.

Pelevin’s special metaphorical style, richness of vocabulary, understanding of the mythological background of various cultural phenomena, apt irony, free combination of various cultural contexts (from the “high” to the most marginal) played a role in the novel “The Life of Insects” (1993), a kind of paraphrase of “The Divine Comedy" by Dante. Developing the techniques of postmodern aesthetics, the writer paints a multifaceted picture of the Soviet universe, the inhabitants of which interact with each other in two equal bodily modes - people and insects. The different layers of this universe are united by a magical connection: every action in one of the layers is immediately echoed in the others, sometimes intensifying in resonance; the life of insect people turns out to be an unshakable, mutually agreed-upon simulation of acts of existence. In a similar way, according to the principle of universal coherence and mutual consistency in the absence of a hierarchical vertical (similar to the principle of “rhizome” declared by the French philosophers Deleuze and Guattari as a way of functioning of the unconscious), the structure of the novel itself is built - one of the most remarkable experiments with artistic form in the Russian literature.

Perestroika 1988 - 91(or 93, or 99 or 2001) - perestroika and destruction of the USSR. 1993 – parliament against Yeltsin, shooting of parliament. De-Sovietization of culture. Lack of stabilizing factors, rejection of literary centrism, commercialization of the literary process.

Zero, Putinism is the same as everything in the previous period in italics. There are “new twenty-year-olds”, new realists. Prilepin “Sankya” 2005. Makanin “A Successful Story about Love” 2000, Pelevin “Tambourine for the Lower World”, “Akiko”. Battle studies are developing.

The main artistic method is postmodernism, marginal, specific method, already outdated in the West. Rehabilitation of the concept of “patriotism”" Films about the Second World War are starting to be made. State Prize "Zvezda" Lebedev. Actualization of interest in history.

1990s– diversity of the literary process—literature’s search for new artistic techniques. The “collage” (“mosaic”) type of consciousness of readers, the invasion of electronic media and the Internet into everyday life is a change in the traditional connections between literature and readers in Russian culture. Type compositional organization of the text, which is based on editing technique genetically related to cinematography, as well as an appeal to poetics of imitation + author's reflective passages. The principles of traditional realism are combined with techniques characteristic of the poetics of different variants of postmodernism. The author is in free dialogue with the heroes of the work and with the consciousness of the potential reader who is given freedom of interpretation and evaluation.

By the beginning of the 21st century the criticism proposes models for the coexistence of many literatures within Russian literature, “multiliteratures”, but with a significant expansion of its aesthetic capabilities at the same time its social influence is declining. Departure from literary centrism- nothing good! Attitudes toward experimentation, overcoming critical realism, playful forms. Postmodernist literature moved from marginal during the 90s to the rank of relevant and (or) fashionable. Literature that continues classical traditions is being squeezed out the offensive, on the one hand, of mass culture, on the other - of postmodern literature, fundamentally not distinguishing between “mass” and “elite”.

Modernism :

1) a special idea of ​​the world as discrete, having lost its value foundations;

2) the perception of the ideal as lost, left in the past;

3) the value of the past while denying the present, understood as unspiritual;

4) reasoning in a modernist text is conducted not in terms of the social relevance of the heroes, not at the level of everyday life, but at the level of the universe; we are talking about the laws of existence;

5) heroes act as signs;

6) the hero in modernist prose feels lost, lonely, can be described as “a grain of sand thrown into the whirlpool of the universe” (G. Nefagina);

7) the style of modernist prose is complicated, the techniques of stream of consciousness, “text within a text” are used, often the texts are fragmentary, which conveys the image of the world.

Modernism of the beginning and end of the twentieth century was generated by similar reasons - it was a reaction to the crisis in the field of philosophy (at the end of the century - ideology), aesthetics, strengthened by the eschatological experiences of the turn of the century.

Insidemodernism , in turn, two directions can be distinguished:

1) conditionally metaphorical prose;

2) ironic avant-garde.

Conventional metaphorical prose - these are texts V. Makanina (“Laz” ), T. Tolstoy (“Kys” ). The convention of their plots is that the story about today extends to the characteristics of the universe. It is no coincidence that there are often several parallel times in which the action takes place. The genre of conventionally metaphorical prose texts is difficult to define unambiguously: it is a parable, and, often, satire, and a hagiography, in short, a dystopia. Special problems: man and team, personality and its development. Dystopia claims that in a society that claims to be ideal, the truly human is disavowed. At the same time, the personal for dystopia turns out to be much more important than the historical and social; All these features are realized in T. Tolstoy’s novel “Kys”.

Postmodernism:

1) the idea of ​​the world as a total chaos that does not imply a norm;

2) understanding of reality as fundamentally inauthentic, simulated (hence the concept of “simulacrum”);

3) the absence of all hierarchies and value positions;

4) the idea of ​​the world as a text consisting of exhausted words;

5) a special attitude towards the activities of a writer who understands himself as an interpreter, and not an author (“the death of the author”, according to the formula of R. Barthes);

6) non-distinction between one’s own and someone else’s word, total quotation (intertextuality);

7) use of collage and montage techniques when creating text.

The work of V. Erofeev “Moscow-Petushki” is considered the ancestral text of Russian postmodernism. Here and Makanin and Pelevin , and Tolstaya.

“New Realism” and Prilepin’s prose

The epithet “new” speaks of new realities and modern challenges that authors have to face. They are truly new for Russia and unique in many ways. The collapse of the empire, wars, social injustice, terrorism and growing protest. To this we can add the romanticism and radicalism of the younger generation.

Hence another important point - sociality. The writer must be included in modernity, feel its currents in order to broadcast it into eternity.

“New realism” is not a copying of reality, but a hope for its reconstruction. The epithet “new” certainly emphasizes the method, but it equally illustrates the call for a new reality. And in this regard, “new realism” is a force of protest. This is an opposition, an alternative, indicating that the world around us can and should change. Only this is a call to new realities, not in a purely artistic virtual space, but in the real dimension.

A romantic situation of conflict with the surrounding reality is born. A hero appears - a wanderer, a wanderer, a restless soul. He does not accept the laws and structure of the world, and therefore becomes unsettled in it. There are few ways of self-realization: personal autonomy, withdrawal, or explosion, rebellion, open confrontation. This is what Sankya Tishin, the hero of the novel, does Zakhara Prilepin "Sankya".

“New Realism” combines elements of various literary genres, the sublime and the mundane, because its task is to present the world in its entirety. “New Realism” does not indicate a fixation only on the realistic method of writing.

He is in search of a language and intonation adapted to modern times. “New” literature is in a situation of searching for direct contact with the audience. It cannot exist outside the reader, without him. But this is not a simplification at all, but the entry of the text into the world.

“New realism” is the literature of the younger generation, a way of self-identification for authors who have just entered literature. For the “new realism” the concept of “Russianness” is extremely important. “New realism” is a direct belonging to Russian culture and tradition; it is one of the manifestations of a nation facing the real danger of losing its identity.

A specific feature of the writer’s artistic world is that the author always goes beyond the main problem lying on the surface, expanding the conflict to a universal scale. Thus, in the novel “Sankya” the writer addresses not only to questions of the inertia of the modern state apparatus and the emergence of revolutionary-minded youth, ready for the most desperate acts, but at the same time examines the problems of the modern world order as a whole, where chaos, nonsense and general decay reign.

He portrays the era of the 90s of the 20th century as a time of turning point, the loss of former values ​​and ideals, where there is almost no hope for revival. People in this world are doomed to suffering and death, and the tragedy is enhanced by the fact that this also applies to young people (it is young people who are the heroes of the writer’s books). In the novel “Sankya,” young “rebels” are doomed to death or long torment for their attempt to forcibly rebuild the socio-political system.

Hero– young, but initially mentally sensitive, agile, capable of reflection and deep analysis of himself and the people around him; This hero is strong, integral, bright, capable of achieving a lot in life and realizing a lot. But precisely because the disorder of the modern world is comprehensive and hopeless, according to the writer’s concept, even the best people here are forced to fight to the last for their existence and for their happiness. Thanks to the presence of temporal realities and the creation of full-bodied human characters, the author’s works seem absolutely reliable and relevant.

One of the most remarkable features of Prilepin’s work is the use in one work (be it a voluminous novel or a short story) of a variety of contrasting artistic means and techniques in order to most fully express the content and issues.

One of these author’s techniques is the peculiar construction of a plot-compositional structure. In the novel “Sankya,” the writer combines several plot lines, each of which is significant and independent in its own way, and thus expands the novel’s context. Prilepin uses the principle of multidimensionality in the depiction of heroes and characters, and does this not through voluminous descriptions and authorial intervention, but due to laconic but capacious characteristics , as well as appealing to psychological techniques for creating an image.

Another characteristic feature of the writer’s artistic world is use of a variety of language techniques and means . The author is not afraid to experiment with language and turn to its most diverse layers: in Prilepin’s works there are both slang words and vernaculars, as well as archaic expressions.

In addition to the variety of lexical content, the content of books is enriched contrast of style dominants (from naturalism to sentimentality).

UDC 821.161.1 Bulletin of St. Petersburg State University. Ser. 9. 2011. Issue. 2

T. G. Frolova

THE CONCEPT OF METAPHORICAL STYLE IN MODERN PROSE

“Metaphor has a high degree of clarity, pleasantness and the charm of novelty...” “.It is especially important to be skillful in metaphors, since this alone cannot be borrowed from others, and this ability serves as a sign of talent.”

The above fragments of Aristotle’s “Rhetoric” and “Poetics” are still relevant today, including in relation to modern Russian prose. Writing in “metaphors” has become not exactly fashionable, but sometimes the voices of writers and literary critics are heard advocating for the activation of the role of this trope in literary text, as well as its numerous new variations. For example, the definitions of essay, metabol, metametaphor, metacode are put forward. With all the beauty and colorfulness of such definitions, it is quite difficult to project them onto a specific group of texts, as a result of which we preferred a relatively simple, close to Aristotelian definition, which seems convenient for working with the selected material, to the branched chain of interpretations of metaphor. Metaphor is understood as the transfer of a name by similarity (in Aristotle - “the transfer of a word with a changed meaning from genus to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, or by analogy”).

The concept of metaphorical style is distinguished by the lack of development of general issues, the lack of a deep and comprehensive description, which does not allow referring to one or another definition that would serve as a starting point for this study. When characterizing a metaphorical style, one has to rely largely on the most general premises. The content of this concept seems intuitively obvious, but at the same time its history has not been written, the group of its constitutive features has not been identified.

By metaphorical style we mean, first of all, a focus on expression, on some floridity, eccentricity of language. This refers to the author’s magnificent ornamental abilities, the general sophistication of artistic solutions, the lexical richness of the text, and the abundance of tropes in it.

In this case, very different means of artistic representation can be used: metaphor, personification, hyperbole, litotes, epithet, periphrasis, etc. Thus, the metaphorical style is created not only by metaphor, but also by the entire flow of means of artistic representation, by the entire system of decorating speech. Metaphor in this context is understood as a metonymy of a trope in general; the metaphorical nature of a work means its saturation with tropes (not only metaphors).

Today, such authors as Alexander Ilichevsky, Alexey Ivanov, Olga Slavnikova, Lena Eltang, Pavel Krusanov can be called “skillful in metaphors.” Features of word usage and, more broadly, style, characteristic of the named authors, associated with a high concentration of metaphors and other tropes in the texts, general “ornamentation” and detail of the narrative, have been repeatedly noted by critics, readers, and the authors themselves, for example, in interviews. “In Ilichevsky’s prose there really is something

© T. G. Frolova, 2011

to admire - first of all, the thick, rich in metaphors, very figurative and absolutely light language." "Complicated. language, bizarre metaphors, shining through one another." “My prose has a peculiarity: some call it “lace,” others call it “appetizing clusters of metaphors,” and others call it poetic speech,” admits Olga Slavnikova. "A true miracle - the high poetry of Moras's notes". “The story of the ascension to the throne of a hero-dictator against the backdrop of a new reality in a vast Empire is presented in a thorough, metaphorically redundant language.”

There were also attempts, albeit fragmentary ones, often remaining at the level of simple mention, to include the texts of the above-mentioned authors in a certain tradition, to find for them correspondences and “reference points” in the history of literature, guided by their inherent increased imagery, condensed metaphoricality: “Her (Olga Slavnikova . - T.F.) visual talent, exaggerated attention to the picture, which cannot be called cinematic, since the visual image is always very detailed, branching, overloaded in a baroque way, the subtlest ability to describe movements and gestures - all this came to the fore, leaving in a deep and well-deserved ass all kinds of direct meanings. “I want to disturb Nabokov’s shadow.” . Lev Danilkin, noting the excellent metaphors of O. Slavnikova, prophesies that the epithet “Slavnikovsky”, after a couple more Bookers, will be an official synonym for the words “Nabokovsky”, “Flaubertian”. “A few words about the language of Krusanov. He is unique, intelligent and imaginative. I would even say that this is the long-forgotten pristine Russian language. But not aristocratic-alliterative, like Nabokov, or drowning in imagery, like Pasternak, but the metaphorical, precise language of Gogol."

For prose at the turn of the 20th-21st centuries, characterized by a high concentration of tropes, there is also a narrower historical and literary context - the work of T. N. Tolstoy, or more precisely, the stories of T. N. Tolstoy of the 1980s, which are also characterized by a “non-prosaic load” -femininity, one might say, overloading the text with tropes.” "T. Tolstaya writes in a rich, strong, precise language." “T. Tolstoy’s ornamental abilities are approaching perfection.” . Her stories are texts that are “smart, elegant, masterfully written, demonstrating the impeccable taste of the author,” “savory, aesthetic prose,” “elegant poetry in prose.” “Her world is distinguished by a festive excess, instilling the originality of modern verbal baroque into the realistic narrative of Soviet everyday life.”

A somewhat broader context that allows us to identify the features of the metaphorical style in the literature of the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries is the ornamental prose of the 1920s-1930s. There are two key names to mention here. This is Vladimir Nabokov, known for his amazing observation, special view of the world and his virtuoso verbal embodiment, and Yuri Olesha, who is characterized by a colorful worldview, “laser vision”. The works of V. Nabokov and Yu. Olesha are characterized by a generous use of various tropes and numerous visual details. This prose, in many ways reminiscent of painting, is an attempt at a new vision of reality.

“Ornamental prose is associative and synthetic. In it, nothing exists separately, by itself, everything strives to be reflected in another, to merge with it, to be reincarnated into it, everything is connected, intertwined, united by association, sometimes lying on the surface, sometimes very distant.”

A variety of realities that fall into the focus of the author’s vision are given figurative interpretation in the text; time and space are described metaphorically. The very need to correlate different objects, which makes possible the existence of a trope as a three-part structure (what is compared, what is compared with, on the basis of what feature the comparison is possible), sets the idea of ​​the world as a huge system of interdependent elements, each of which can be characterized through its own attitude towards others. “The subordination of the trope to the nature of the depicted environment and situation, which is becoming more and more noticeable in the literature of the twentieth century, especially in the literature of the 20s, leads to the fact that the same objects of the image acquire more and more new figurative correspondences, in each specific case with different motivations." The ability to express one thing through many also contributes to the formation of an idea of ​​the diversity and dynamism of life - as opposed to a given, static state.

“One of the pronounced trends in the art of the twentieth century is the desire not just to present the result of knowledge and perception of the world, but to figuratively represent thought, feeling and perception as a process.” . As A. Belinkov notes, many of Yuri Olesha’s metaphors give an idea of ​​how long the path is to the subject depicted by the writer. “Fat. offers a process instead of an end result, it offers attention and interest in everything in the world, interest and attention indiscriminately.”

“The function of the trope as a mechanism of semantic uncertainty (by uncertainty is meant the impossibility of constructing the content, the construction of which is provided by the trope, within one language - natural or the language of any isolated art. - T.F.) determined that in explicit form, on the surface of culture, it manifests itself in systems focused on the complexity, ambiguity or ineffability of truth." "Trope-oriented eras include the mythopoetic period, the Middle Ages, the Baroque, Romanticism, Symbolism, and the Avant-Garde."

Next in this series is postmodernism. Without going into an analysis of changes in the picture of the world in recent decades, we note that the activation of tropes is fully consistent with such features of postmodern aesthetics as adogmatism, rejection of a hierarchical worldview, the presence of different points of view on the same phenomenon, rejection of traditional oppositions “part - whole” , “subject - object”, “external - internal”, “superficial - deep”, etc. “The main lesson of Slavnikova: the parts turn out to be greater than the whole. Parade of metaphors." “It’s transmitted here. the appearance of significance and depth that is characteristic of life, its ability to fool a person who does not fully know what is serious, what is deep, and what is banal. This relativity is the most serious and absolute thing in T. Tolstoy’s prose. But to create it, a critical mass of “expressive substance” is needed, at which the banal loses its uniqueness.

A thorough development of the tropical level of the text can be traced back to postmodernist ideas about reality as a fiction, depending only on certain subjective attitudes. The pseudo-reality created in the text with the help of tropes is a refuge from a cruel or boring world. As Tatyana Tolstaya once noted, “for me, the only way to cope with the despondency of any reality is to poeticize it.” “Interpreted as a series of events, everyone’s life

boringly the same, like certificates in the personnel department: born - studied - got married. Tolstaya contrasts this terrible monotony with a wonderful metaphorical Universe.” “This is what Olga (Slavnikova - T.F.) seems to be trying to achieve: to replace one being with another, unnatural, artificial. Skillful, and therefore reconciling with the abominations of the described life."

However, the above observations cannot be reduced to the statement that tropes color the image of reality created in the text, masking the tragedy or emptiness of everyday life. The author, who, in accordance with postmodern principles, is characterized by “the absence of morally marked evaluation and the transition from the traditional role of “teacher” and “mentor” to the role of an “indifferent chronicler” and a chronicler who does not interfere with the course of events,” with the help of tropes creates an image of a bright, patterned reality , with many transitions, halftones, reflections. Thus, instead of any didactic guidelines, the reader is offered the world as such in all its complexity and diversity. “Slavnikova focuses on the transfer of the substance of life itself. This is why we need a folded semolina of detailed writing with lumps of metaphors and blood clots of comparisons. Precise as a set of Polaroids." In relation to the metaphorical style, it is more appropriate to talk not only (and not so much) about the tragedy and absurdity of reality in the spirit of postmodernism, but also, first of all, about its many faces, the inability to freeze in one perspective and, as a consequence of this, about the value of the phenomenon of life itself.

Various signs of the external world that sometimes come into the author’s field of vision seem to be chaotic, mixed up: big and small, important and unimportant, fairy-tale and everyday, etc. are depicted in the same stylistic key, using tropes, and create an idea of ​​a mosaic life , life-celebration. The most general and simplified artistic meaning, which carries metaphor as a stylistic dominant, can be expressed in two words: “Life is beautiful.”

“Visual details, long since doomed to a subordinate position, were persistently returned to their independent value. Olesha constructs descriptions. pleasing with their obviousness alone, with the dazzling clarity of the appearance of the object.” “How all these things are seen, how they are drawn! “Diamond sand glued to cardboard spatulas” is a nail file, “scalloped orchid” is a gramophone trumpet. the narrative expands unheard of. drawing in objects from different areas, giving an idea of ​​almost the entire diversity of life.”

The endless movement of the iridescent metaphorical flow fascinates the reader. Both specific characters and plot events may well “drown” in its funnel. This does not necessarily indicate their insignificance, secondary importance, but they cannot overshadow the entire metaphorical alloy, shimmering in many shades. Metaphoricality extends to everything depicted. The finest complex ornamentation of tropes on the “surface” of the text is created by the most powerful deep force - the style that organizes the construction of the work as an artistic whole. The metaphorical style itself becomes the full-fledged, and often the main, hero of the text.

Thus, the starting point for the study of metaphorical style is the position of high concentration within the text (group of texts) of all kinds of tropes, which determine its (their) general tone, the idea of ​​​​the depicted reality and subordinate the various levels of the work. For an in-depth and comprehensive description of the use of metaphorical style, this

the statement needs to be substantiated and also extended taking into account a number of methodologically significant aspects. What is the history of metaphorical style, in relation to which tradition can it be described? How to present the empirical basis of the metaphorical style, the specifics of the methods of its linguistic implementation? What is the motivation for introducing so many tropes into the text, to express what artistic meaning is this particular style of writing needed? How to identify and describe the features that determine the essence of metaphor as a stylistic dominant? The search for answers to these and other questions will serve as general guidelines when trying to present a holistic characteristic of the metaphorical style.

In the definition of metaphorical style, the word metaphorical in the most general sense means “abundant, rich in metaphors” (taking into account the interpretation of metaphoricality within the framework of this study - “abundant, rich in tropes”). This corresponds to the meaning of the concept of style, presented in most explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language: “a system of linguistic means and ideas characteristic of a particular literary work, genre, author or literary movement”; “a set of techniques for using linguistic means to express certain ideas, thoughts in various conditions of speech practice” (style as a set of techniques - metaphorical style as a set of tropes).

Definitions of this kind that mechanize the concept of “style” are certainly not enough. Behind a set of techniques, behind a certain organization of verbal material, there is hidden a certain internal system, the discovery of which, according to V.V. Vinogradov, leads to the foregrounding of the concept of individual style “primarily as a system of aesthetic and creative selection, comprehension and arrangement symbols” (by this, V.V. Vinogradov understands a symbol not as an arbitrarily chosen sign to convey any reality or idea that exists in reality, but as a linguistic condition necessary for the expression of a particular thought).

“The essence of style. can most accurately be defined by the concept. internal aesthetic unity of all stylistic elements, subject to a certain artistic law." “To understand a style means, first of all, to understand the artistic pattern manifested in it or, in other words, its artistic meaning.”

In accordance with the idea of ​​style as the integrity of form in its content-based conditioning, when characterizing a metaphorical style, it is necessary to take into account what is characteristic of it in linguistic terms, its empirical basis and supra-linguistic properties: the functional expediency of tropes, the artistic meaning of condensed metaphoricality.

When questions arise about how to describe all the wealth of tropes, how to process such extensive material, the decision to consider tropes as elements of certain aggregates that have a certain content: semantic fields, figurative parallels, paradigms, etc. can come to the rescue. We are talking about identifying the mechanisms for constructing tropes, about their grouping according to certain characteristics, when the resulting typology of figurative word usage is based on formal (linguistic) data. All this primarily relates to the sphere of scientific interests of linguists, but lexicographic descriptions can also provide very valuable facts at the disposal of literary scholars. In our case, the objects of description are

It is not the figurative units expressed by certain lexemes that step, but the general tendency of the metaphorical style, the entire set of tropes. The task of the work is not to recreate the nomenclature of tropes, but to analyze the material under study, aimed at identifying and justifying the metaphorical style as the main organizing principle of the text.

A special kind of diffuseness, the lack of differentiation of the entire set of tropes makes it inappropriate to resort to mathematical methods of analysis. The activation of tropes is expressed in the noticeable frequency of their use; the fact of their quantitative predominance is obvious and does not need to be confirmed using statistics. It is inappropriate to try to “disassemble” the metaphorical canvas into “pieces” of individual tropes and to consider exclusively fractional, atomic word usage: a metaphorical style is something more than the sum of metaphors, comparisons, epithets, etc. The aesthetic function of tropes is fully revealed only in the perspective of everything works. Quantitative analysis can be successfully used as an auxiliary tool, but in general, “stylistic phenomena require weights that are more sensitive than statistical calculations.”

Each individual trope, as a rule, has a pictorial, “pictorial” function, contributes to the “coloring” of the text, detailing the narrative and “decorating” it in its own way, but only in combination with other trope is it able to draw all the diversity of life and work to create a colorful, festive image of the world, especially visual, visible and tangible. Each trope is interesting and significant in its own way, but is partially devalued if presented out of context and deprived of the opportunity to interact with other trope. The artistic meaning of a metaphorical style can only be understood based on its interpretation as a single whole, and not as a simple set of private figurative word usages.

In addition, sometimes the very process of identifying a trope as a unit that cannot be further divided is sometimes difficult: the metaphorical style is characterized by the activation of not only tropes, but also various ways of combining them. Complicated paths do not make it possible to confidently “localize” isolated cases of the use of artistic means.

If we consider time and space, characters, composition as levels of the text, then metaphor appears as something super-level and almost all-encompassing. “The word, to a certain extent, becomes the goal. This also determines the relationship of the verbal form with other components of a work of art, primarily with the plot and characters. As the researchers noted, in ornamental prose there are “compositional and stylistic arabesques. “replace elements of the plot, from a word independent,” speech in the work “spreads” over “characters and plot.”

The description and characteristics of characters, the creation of an idea of ​​a certain time and space, the development of a plot, and the construction of a composition can also be carried out with the help of tropes, although at the same time there are also “spot” paths that do not carry any of the above-mentioned functions. They are not strictly connected with any of the levels of the text, they are not conceptual for the work as a whole, but, appearing “just like that”, in the role of another ornamental detail, an exquisitely bright touch, along with other tropes they participate in the creation of a general metaphorical background and, accordingly, a certain picture of the world, often passing from one work to another by the same author. Having no reason to

reduce metaphoricality to any one level of the text, and feeling it as a stylistic dominant, the immutable law operating in the text (group of texts) - to express any reality through a figurative meaning - sooner or later we inevitably come to the conclusion that metaphorical style is the author’s way of seeing the world, a unique manifestation of the author’s idea of ​​reality. Behind the quantitative diversity of tropes, the most important qualitative characteristic is revealed: metaphoricality serves to implement the author’s attitude, in each new text it conveys to the reader a certain author’s invariant, in the most general terms embodied in the idea of ​​​​the complexity, beauty of the world, the non-tragicity and intrinsic value of life.

“In the choice and arrangement of words one can hear, so to speak, the lyrical voice of the author. The stylistic layer in prose is a lyrical layer. The more complex and diverse the system of connections between verbal “significances,” the more lyrical the prose. For example, “ornamental prose,” saturated with tropes, “figures,” and words with bright (protruding) and varied stylistic colors, is thoroughly lyrical. On the contrary, the prose of Hemingway’s stories, in the style of which one feels the desire to use the word only as an exact indication of an object or sensation, as a reminder, the desire to limit the number of possible verbal and stylistic comparisons, is “objective.”

The opposition between ornamental prose and “objective” prose, outlined here only in dotted lines, is one of the particular realizations of the opposition metalogy - autology, which is key to understanding the nature of the metaphorical style.

Let us turn to several such oppositions, built on the principle A - not A, where the metaphorical style is correlated with the first component, which acts as a marked member of the opposition.

The structure of these oppositions, in which one part denies the other and the object’s belonging to the first part excludes its correlation with the second, once again confirms the inappropriateness of a quantitative analysis of the material. There is no specific “critical number” of means of artistic representation, beyond which it would be considered that the style is defined as metaphorical. There are either obviously a lot of tropes in the text - and here it is not quantitative indicators that are used, but traditional characteristics like “often found”, “widely used”, etc. - or there are practically none, or among them there is a significant part of general linguistic comparisons and metaphors etc. with faded imagery, general artistic cliches. Thus, if the phenomenon under consideration cannot be included in the left side of the opposition, this automatically means that it corresponds to the right side, and vice versa.

The metaphorical style can be contrasted with the autological one on the basis of the tendency to use words in a figurative or literal meaning, respectively. A distinctive feature of the metaphorical style is the abundance of tropes, while the autological style is characterized by their absence or an insignificant number.

A unique embodiment of this opposition is offered by the hero of Yuri Olesha’s story “Envy”:

“...Yes, first I’ll tell you in my own way: she was lighter than a shadow, she could be envied by the lightest of shadows - the shadow of falling snow; yes, at first in her own way: she didn’t listen to me with her ear, but with her temple, slightly tilting her head; yes, her face looks like a nut: in color - from the

gara, and in shape - cheekbones, rounded, tapering towards the chin. Is this clear to you? No? So here's another one. From running, her dress became a mess, opened, and I saw: she was not all covered in a tan yet, I saw a blue slingshot of veins on her chest...

Now do it your way. Description of the one you want to have fun with. In front of me stood a girl of about sixteen, almost a girl, broad in the shoulders, gray-eyed, with cropped and tousled hair - a charming teenager, slender, like a chess piece (this is already in my opinion), short in stature."

One of the variations of the metalogy-autology opposition is the opposition of two typological classes of idiostyles, forming two artistic systems: a system of verbal-associative and verbal-denotative type. “A word (in the general understanding of this term) can be addressed directly to the denotative level (any figurative uses, outside of their inclusion in special techniques, will also be considered directly related to the denotation, since in this case the name of the denotation is replaced, but not the connection itself). And the word can correlate with the denotation through the word o, as a link that complicates the path to the immediate object of the real world. In this case, we will talk about verbal associativity, stipulating the conventions of such a designation.” In texts of the verbal-associative type, tropes play the role of specific linguistic devices that create and support verbal associativity.

The property of the metaphorical style to subjugate various levels of the text allows us to talk about it as the dominant of the work. The ideas of dominant and attitude in the embodiment they receive in the works of Yu. N. Tynyanov serve as the most convenient and most adequate methodological basis for the material being described.

When a work is presented in the form of a system of factors correlated with each other, the factor (or group of factors) whose dominance is obvious is called dominant. The identification of this factor is associated with its organizing role: it functionally subordinates and colors all others. “This subordination, this transformation of all factors on the part of the main one, affects the action of the main factor, the dominant.” The importance of the tendency of the metaphorical style itself, and not the characteristics of individual tropes, its dominant position in the analyzed texts in relation to the development of action give grounds to consider metaphoricity as dominant.

The implementation of one or another factor as the dominant feature of a work is possible due to a certain author’s attitude. When studying the metaphorical style, the attitude can be defined primarily as figurative, figurative, as an attitude towards expression. For the term “installation” we reserve its most general meaning - “the creative intention of the author.” The setting of a work (group of works) undoubtedly does not mean at all the abstract contours of the author’s plans that have become known to the general public thanks to documentary evidence, comments by the author himself, etc., not the banal anecdotal “what the author wanted to say.” All characteristics of the attitude are given taking into account the embodiment that it receives in a specific text. This means that, although this concept should be recognized as primary in relation to the concept of dominance, there are no strict cause-and-effect relationships between them; they are rather interdependent. The definition of metaphor as the dominant feature of a work is the result of its general orientation towards expression, but also its character-

We can describe the installation as figurative precisely because the text is highly metaphorical and the deliberate use of tropes in it is obvious.

The interdependence of the attitude towards expression and metaphor indirectly confirms the understanding of metaphorical style as a set of tropes organized into a system and realizing a single aesthetic meaning. Starting from the idea of ​​a certain general attitude, when the author strives for a figurative understanding of most objects, signs, actions and to create an accurate, complete, visible idea of ​​​​the reality being described, we begin working with a specific text, where each subsequent trope supports and substantiates the previous (or previous ones), and also contributes to the creation of an objective idea of ​​​​the installation of this work as a pictorial one. “The property of systematicity is thus born at the intersection of deduction and induction. The deduction is that we can assume the existence of obligatory meanings presented in. text, and induction is manifested in the fact that with each new choice the range of possibilities for choosing other elements that must be connected into a single whole within one system is reduced." The phenomenon of metaphorical style is formed by a combination of metaphoricality being in an implicate relationship with each other as the dominant of the work and its general attitude towards expression.

Based on all of the above, it seems possible to define the metaphorical style as an integral system of interdependent tropes aimed at the formation of a special positive picture of the world, endowing the text with the property of enhanced figurativeness and capable of participating in its organization at the character, temporal, spatial and compositional levels.

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