Objective and subjective idealism about the principles of social development. Objective and Subjective Idealism

Objective idealism

Objective idealism- the aggregate definition of schools of thought, implying the existence of an extra-material modality, independent of the will and mind of the subject of reality.

Objective idealism denies the existence of the world in the form of the totality of the results of the cognitive activity of the senses and judgments a priori. At the same time, it recognizes their existence, but also supplements them with an objectively conditioned element of human existence. In objective idealism, the universal supra-individual spiritual principle ("idea", "world mind", etc.) is usually considered as the fundamental principle of the world in objective idealism.

As a rule, objective idealism underlies many religious teachings (Abrahamic religions, Buddhism), the philosophy of ancient philosophers (Pythagoras, Plato).

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One of the main. varieties of idealism; in contrast to subjective idealism, he considers the fundamental principle of the world to be some universal supra-individual spiritual principle (“idea”, “world mind”, etc.). see Idealism. Philosophical ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

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See Idealism. * * * OBJECTIVE IDEALISM OBJECTIVE IDEALISM, see Idealism (see IDEALISM) ... encyclopedic Dictionary

One of the main varieties of idealism; in contrast to subjective idealism (see Subjective idealism), he considers a certain universal super-individual spiritual principle (“idea”, “world mind”, etc.) to be the fundamental principle of the world. See Idealism ...

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- (from the Greek. idea image, idea) Philosophy. a system or doctrine whose fundamental interpretive principle is an idea, in particular an ideal. Usually I. is interpreted as an alternative to materialism. If materialism emphasizes spatial ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

This term has other meanings, see Idealism (meanings). Idealism (French idéalisme, through Latin idealis from other Greek ἰδέα idea) is a term for a wide range of philosophical concepts and worldviews, in ... ... Wikipedia

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• An introduction to the science of philosophy. The subject of philosophy, its basic concepts and place in the system of human knowledge, Semenov Yu.I. Total…
• An introduction to the science of philosophy. Book 1. The subject of philosophy, its basic concepts and place in the system of human knowledge, Yu. I. Semenov. In the first of six books of the cycle `Introduction to the Science of Philosophy`, the view on philosophy as a science that investigates the process of cognition of truth and equips a person in general, and above all ...

The essence of the ontological problem lies, first of all, in the answer to the question about the essence of being (reality, reality).

Since ancient times, philosophy has distinguished two types of reality: material and spiritual(intangible) Everything that is outside our consciousness, in the external material world, was referred to material reality (its other names are objective reality, matter, nature, etc.). TO spiritual reality(other names: ideal reality, consciousness, soul, etc.) included the content of our inner world (our feelings, thoughts, desires, etc.).

The question of the relationship between these two realities (“what is primary: spirit or matter?) Turned out to be so important that it was called“ the main question of philosophy ”(F. Engels). The question of the ontological "primary" or "secondary" nature of the spiritual and the material means: what is the primary principle, the cause, and what is the effect generated and conditioned by this cause?

The complexity of the ontological problem lies in the fact that the phenomena of spiritual reality are given to us directly. We are aware of our thoughts, feelings, desires without the help of the senses or any devices. And the processes and phenomena of the external world (objective reality) are known to us only thanks to our sensations and perceptions, which in themselves are part of our consciousness. The question naturally arises: do the objects around us have an independent existence or the external world is a product of our consciousness (that is, again: what is primary?).

Three fundamentally different answers are possible to this question, which gave rise to three main ontological directions in philosophy:

1) materialism: the external world, the reality around us is an objective reality that exists independently of consciousness : our Universe, nature were formed in a natural way long before the appearance of man and can exist without him;

2) subjective idealism: the external world exists only thanks to our subjective consciousness and is a product of its activity, an illusion ;

3) objective idealism: both the external world and human consciousness are not independently existing realities. They are a product of some other, "third" reality - the highest spiritual principle (world mind, world idea, God, etc.).

Subjective and objective idealists are united by the fact that they put the spiritual principle at the basis of being: subjective idealists - human mind, objective idealists - superhuman mind ... Therefore, their teachings can be viewed as two branches of the same direction - idealism.

Subjective idealism constitutes the ideological basis of the overwhelming majority of Indian religious and philosophical concepts, which believe that the outside world is "Maya" (translated from Sanskrit - an illusion). In Western European philosophy, the English thinker George Berkeley (1685 - 1753) is considered the ancestor of subjective idealism, who interprets the objects of the external world as "complexes of sensations." The consistent logic of subjective idealism can lead to solipsism(lat. solus - the only one, ipse - itself) - the paradoxical conclusion that not only the world, but also other people are a product of the consciousness of a single existing thinking subject. Therefore, philosophers of this direction usually assumed the existence of a super-individual, divine consciousness as the source of our sensations.

Objective idealism admits the existence of some higher spiritual reality that gives rise to all that exists. The overwhelming majority of idealist philosophers of Western European culture belonged to this type of idealism. The largest representatives of objective idealism were: the ancient Greek thinker Plato (427 -347 BC), the German philosopher G. Hegel (1770 - 1831). Various religious and philosophical schools also stand on the positions of objective idealism. One of the most influential religious objective-idealistic trends of our time is neo-Thomism - the official Catholic philosophy, the founder of which was the medieval theologian and philosopher Thomas Aquinas (1225 - 1274).

Materialism is a fairly holistic trend in philosophy, since all materialists are united by the conviction that the world around us, nature, is a set of natural material processes. As for human consciousness, from the point of view of materialists, it is a product of the work of the brain (highly organized matter), a reflection of the external material world; and in this sense consciousness is derivative, dependent on matter.

Despite the ideological integrity of materialism as an ontological doctrine, there have been several varieties of it in the history of philosophy.

Historical forms of materialism:

Ancient materialism; it is often called "naive" or "spontaneous", since in it the materialistic view of the world was taken for granted; its theoretical substantiation, due to the underdevelopment of science, was almost absent. The materialists of antiquity relied mainly on everyday observations, common sense and the everyday experience of people. Outstanding materialist philosophers of this type were the ancient Greek thinkers: Thales (c. 652 - c. 547 BC), Heraclitus of Ephesus (c. 520 - c. 460 BC), Democritus (c. .460 - c. 370 BC).

« Mechanistic "materialism New time. The name is due to the fact that materialist philosophers of this era sought to rely in their conclusions on mechanics, which occupied a leading position in the science of the 17th-18th centuries. Therefore, among the thinkers there was a conviction that the scientific explanation of the world (man, nature and society) is possible only with the help of the laws and principles of mechanics. The largest representatives of this form of materialism were: D. Diderot (1713 - 1784), P. Holbach (1723 - 1789) and other French enlighteners of the 18th century.

"Vulgar" materialism ( lat. vulgaris - simple, ordinary), whose founders, German thinkers, physiologists of the 19th century (Büchner, Focht, Moleschott) simplified the problem of the essence of consciousness, reduced all thought processes to their physiological basis. They believed that the brain secretes thought in the same way as, for example, the liver secretes bile; believed that the content of our thoughts depends on the chemical composition of food, explaining, for example, the slavery of colonial peoples by the use of mainly plant products.

Anthropological materialism- a specific kind of materialism, which was developed in the 19th century by the representative of German classical philosophy L. Feuerbach (1804 - 1872), who considered man as the central philosophical problem and at the same time the starting point of his materialistic philosophy.

Dialectical materialism- philosophy, which was developed by German thinkers K. Marx (1818 - 1883), F. Engels (1820 - 1895) and their followers. A feature of this form of materialism was, firstly, the combination of materialism with dialectics - the methodology of cognition, requiring the study of phenomena in their mutability, contradiction and interconnection, and, secondly, the spread of the ideas of dialectical materialism to the field of social phenomena and the historical process ("Historical materialism").

It should be noted that although materialism and idealism as opposite ontological doctrines arose more than two and a half millennia ago, the terms for their designation only at the beginning of the 17th century were introduced into use by the German thinker G. Leibniz (1646-1716).

The philosophical terms "materialism" and "idealism" should not be confused with the same words used in everyday discourse on moral topics. In ordinary language, an idealist is a person who is disinterested, striving for lofty goals, lofty ideals, and a materialist is a person of the opposite type. The confusion of philosophical and everyday terms was often used by idealist philosophers to discredit philosophical materialism as an ontological doctrine.

In addition to materialism and idealism as the main ontological directions in philosophy, there are other ontological concepts - pantheism, dualism, pluralism.

Pantheism(Greek pan - everything, theos - god) - a doctrine in which matter (nature) and spirit (god) are understood as two sides of a single substance. The term “pantheist” was introduced by the English philosopher J. Toland in 1705, and the term “pantheism” was its ideological opponent, the Dutch theologian J. Fay (in 1709). If God is interpreted as an impersonal spirit, dissolved in nature, merged with it, then we can talk about "materialistic pantheism" (it is no coincidence that the Catholic Church in the Renaissance called pantheism "materialistic heresy"). The largest representatives of such pantheism were G. Bruno (1548 - 1600) and B. Spinoza (1632 - 1677). One should distinguish from pantheism, which is close to it in meaning. panentheism("Everything is in God") - the doctrine according to which not God is "dissolved" in nature, but on the contrary: the world dwells in God as the basis and creator of the universe. The term "panentheism" was introduced by the German idealist philosopher K. Krause (1781-18320) to name his concept according to which the world is the creation of God and, at the same time, the way of its manifestation; the world rests in God, but does not merge with him completely, etc. It is not difficult to notice the ideological proximity of this type of ontology to objective idealism. Elements of panentheism are seen in the philosophy of Hegel and in a number of other religious-idealistic teachings.

For materialism, idealism and pantheism (pantheism), the common thing is the recognition in the world of only one substance, one fundamental principle of all the diverse phenomena of reality. This type of ontology in philosophy is called "Monism" ( Greek monos - one, only). Philosophical monism in solving the problem of the number of substances in the world opposes dualism and pluralism.

Dualism(Latin dualis - dual) claims that matter and spirit are two equal, not reducible and independent substances . The term was introduced by the German philosopher H. Wolf (1679-1754). The prominent modern thinker R. Descartes (1596-1650) took the positions of philosophical ontological dualism.

However, the concept of "dualism" is used not only in ontology, but also in other teachings that assert the equality of two opposite principles (for example, good and evil, God and the Devil in medieval dualistic heresies), as well as to denote the duality, inconsistency of the thinker in the decision any question. So, in particular, we can talk about the epistemological dualism of I. Kant, which allows the knowledge of the phenomenal world ("the world of phenomena") and at the same time denies the possibility of knowing their essence ("things-in-themselves").

Pluralism(lat. pluralis - plural) is a philosophical position, according to which the universe is based on several principles (substances) independent of each other. The term was also introduced by H. Wolf. The manifestation of the pluralistic approach in ontology can be seen already in the ancient materialistic concepts of the “four elements” (for example, the ancient Indian school of the Charvaks, the ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles). The idealistic version of pluralism in modern European philosophy was developed by the German thinker G. Leibniz (1646-1716). In his work "Monadology" (1714), he presented the real world as a set of countless spiritual substances - "monads" - indivisible units of being.

Today the term "pluralism" is widely used in socio-political knowledge, as one of the fundamental principles of the structure of a legal society (pluralism of opinions, political, economic, cultural pluralism, etc.).

It follows from the above that, despite the multiplicity of ontological theories, most of them have either a materialistic or an idealistic orientation, which allows us to consider materialism and idealism as the basic concepts of ontology.

1.5.2 Epistemological problems: agnosticism,

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Objective idealism.

The concept "objective" means "to exist independently of the consciousness of man and mankind." Objective idealism recognizes the foundation of the world, its creative and defining principle, "World mind" ("World spirit", "absolute idea"), which exists as an object, regardless of human consciousness. It is a spiritual force that stands above the world.

One of the earliest representatives of objective idealism is the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (428 / 7-348 / 7 century BC). He believed that the foundation of the world is "the world of ideas." Ideas are prototypes of existence. An idea acts as an "image" (paradigm) for things, a general concept of a class of similar things, their purposeful cause, in the sense of the desire of things to an idea.

The material world, the “world of things”, is an illusory world generated on the basis of the “world of ideas”. Plato uses three principles:

Ideas are prototypes of existence;

Matter;

Demiurge (creator) is a god who sets the world according to ideas.

In fact, Plato's ideas are general concepts that Plato divorces from human consciousness and turns them into separate beings - immaterial. This is an elementary idealistic abstraction.

The classic representative of objective idealism is the German philosopher G. Hegel (1770 - 1831). In Hegel's philosophical system, the basis of the world, its origin is the "absolute idea" - the world thinking that exists before nature. Hegel's absolute idea is immaterial, eternal, exists independently of a person outside space and time, and only in the process of self-development is the idea from “nothing” embodied in the natural material world; there is an "alienation" of the idea.

In modern Western European philosophy, the ideas of objective idealism are defended by the religious philosophy of NEOTOMISM.

The Thomists are followers of the teachings of the 13th century medieval philosopher and theologian Thomas Aquinas. In the teachings of Thomas Aquinas, the primary cause of everything is the divine mind, which contains the ideal images of all things and phenomena, in these images it creates the material world.

The concept "subjective" means dependent on the subject, on his consciousness. Subjective idealism recognizes the consciousness of the subject, his mind, and will as the defining principle in the world. The properties of the world are determined by the characteristics of human consciousness. The objects that we see, touch, smell, do not exist independently of our sensory perceptions and act as a combination of our sensations and ideas.

According to representatives of subjective idealism, the only thing that one can be firmly convinced of is the existence of human consciousness, the consciousness of the subject. Whatever a person does, he cannot go beyond the limits of his ideas, perceptions, ideas. Therefore, it makes no sense to talk about the existence of the external world.

The classic view of subjective idealism is the 18th century English philosopher, Bishop George Berkeley (1685-1753).

Referring to the "direct feelings" of a person, D. Berkeley believed that ideas, sensations do not reflect objective reality, but themselves constitute true reality. In "A Treatise on the Principles of Human Knowledge" D. Berkeley wrote:

“I see this cherry, I touch it, I taste it, it is real. Eliminate the sensations of softness, moisture, redness, astringency and you will destroy the cherry ... Cherry, I assert, is nothing more than a combination of sensory impressions or representations ... "Further D. Berkeley concludes:" Things ... are the essence of representations, and representations cannot exist outside the mind, their existence, therefore, is that they are perceived. "

Thus, the main thesis of Berkeley: to exist is to be perceived. That which is not perceived does not exist. Without a subject, there is no object. Outside sensory perception, outside of human sensation, nothing exists. A thing is a collection of ideas united by a single opinion. These sensations do not have any material source. Destroy these sensations, and the thing disappears.

If subjective idealism is carried out consistently, then this leads to such an extreme idealistic concept, which is called solipsism (from the Latin "solus" - the only one).

Solipsism is the recognition of the existence of only one "I".

According to D. Berkeley, to be means to be perceived; from this it follows that I exist alone, that there is nothing but my single “I”, the whole world is born and dies with me; opening and closing my eyes I create and destroy space. This is solipsism.

Those philosophers who take matter as the basis of the world, it initially, are called materialists. The primacy of matter and the secondary nature of consciousness means: that consciousness cannot exist without matter; consciousness is a property of highly organized matter; that consciousness, its elements in their content are a reflection of the material world in the human brain. Materialistic philosophy corresponds to such a materialistic solution to the fundamental question of philosophy.

Materialism has gone through a number of stages in its development:

1. Pre-Marxian materialism;

2. Materialism of the Ancient World (or the naive materialism of the ancients):

Charvak's teachings;

Taoism;

Thales, Heraclitus, Democritus, Epicurus, Lucretius Kar;

3. Materialism XV-early. XIX centuries:

D. Bruno, F. Bacon, B. Spinoza, D. Lock, P. Holbach, D. Diderot, M. Lomonosov, L. Feuerbach;

4. Materialism of revolutionary democrats:

V. Belinsky, A. Herzen, N. Chernyshevsky, N. Dobrolyubov, T. Shevchenko, M. Nalbandyan, J. Rainis, H. Botev, E. Dembovsky;

5. Marxist materialism:

K. Marx, F. Engels, G. V. Plekhanov, V. I. Lenin and others.

Philosophers (for example, Descartes, Spinoza), who take both matter and consciousness as the basis of the world, are called dualists (dua - dual).

The question of what lies at the basis of the world was designated by F. Engels as the main question of philosophy. Followers of Marxist philosophy formulated this question as a question about the relationship between matter and consciousness, which includes two sides; what is primary and whether the world is cognizable.

The second criterion for distinguishing between philosophical systems is the question of the knowability of the world.

In solving the issue of the cognizability of the world and the cognitive capabilities of the human mind in philosophy, three main directions can be distinguished:

Agnostics

Skeptics

Epistemological optimists.

Agnostics (from the Latin "agnos" - ignorance), believe that the world is fundamentally unknowable, and our knowledge of the external world is illusory.

Agnosticism comes in two main forms:

1. Humeism , the beginning was laid by David Hume, an English philosopher of the 18th century, his point of view: not only can we not confidently say that our knowledge is true, but we are not even sure that there is an objective world. That is, Hume doubts not only the truth of our knowledge, but also the reality of the objective world.

2.Kantianism Is a form of agnosticism expressed by Immanuel Kant (18th century German philosopher). Kant recognized the existence of the objective world, but believed that man knows only phenomena, that is, how things manifest themselves, but we do not know the essence of things, and cannot know.

Skeptics are those who argue that although the world is knowable, a person is limited in his knowledge not by the perfection of his senses, cognitive means and reason. Therefore, he cannot know everything.

Epistemological optimists are those who are convinced of the limitless possibilities of the human mind in cognizing the world.

The next criterion for distinguishing between philosophical systems is the method of thinking. Historically, there have been two main methods of thinking:

Dialectics

Metaphysics

Dialectics- from the Greek. "Dialego-maye" - the ability to dispute, polemics. In this understanding, dialectics entered the philosophy of Socrates (ancient Greek philosopher). In the late 18th and early 19th centuries. G. Hegel, the word "dialectics" began to denote a special method of thinking, which he himself developed.

At present, dialectics is understood as such a method of thinking in which all things and phenomena are considered in their general interconnection and development, taking into account contradictions, mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes, denial of the old state by the new, with a successive connection. This is a scientific method of thinking.

The opposite of dialectics (i.e., alternative) is the metaphysical method.

Metaphysics- (means after physics). Hegel used the term “metaphysical” to designate the method of thinking opposite to the dialectical one. The essence of this method is that all things, phenomena are considered as separate without taking into account the general interconnection of phenomena and as fundamentally unchanging. This is not a scientific method of thinking.

Thus, the specificity of philosophical knowledge is that it is knowledge of universal properties, connections, relationships, laws that manifest themselves in all spheres of reality. (living, inanimate nature, society and in the processes of thinking); the subject of philosophy is the world as a whole, man, his relationship to the world, considered from the point of view of universal connection, properties and relations; philosophy performs various functions, the main ones being ideological, methodological, cognitive, educational and the function of familiarizing with spiritual culture; philosophy is not a single teaching, it consists of various philosophical trends, schools, philosophical systems.

The criteria for philosophical systems are:

What is the foundation of the world? (spirit or matter)

Are we cognizant of the world?

What method of thinking is used in philosophical reasoning - dialectics or metaphysics.

In accordance with these criteria, a philosophy is distinguished:

Materialistic and idealistic;

Metaphysical or dialectical;

Agnostic or non-diagnostic.

Self-test questions

1) What is the specificity of philosophical knowledge?

2) What is the subject of philosophy?

3) What is the difference between myth and philosophy as a means of explaining the world?

4) Describe the structure of philosophical knowledge.

5) What are the ideological and methodological functions of philosophy?

6) Describe the main philosophical trends.

7) Give the concepts of classical, non-classical and post-non-classical

philosophy.

8) What is the essence of the philosophy of modernism and postmodernism

philosophy?

Literature

1. Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. Philosophy. Textbook. M., 2001.

2. Radugin A.A. Philosophy: a course of lectures. M., 2000.

3. Gorshkov V.A., Medvedev N.P., Agamov A.A. Fundamentals of Philosophy.

Stavropol. 1996. Topic 1, pp. 6-12.

4.Spirkin A.G. Philosophy. Textbook. M., 2000.

5. Kanke V.A. Philosophy. Textbook. M., 2002.

6. Kokhanovsky V.P. Philosophy. Textbook. Rostov-on-Don, 2000.

7. Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 2002.

8. The world of philosophy. Book to read. In 2 parts. M .: Politizdat, 1991,

Part 1. S.10-129.

Topic: Philosophical doctrine of dialectics.

1. Dialectics as a method of thinking and as a doctrine of development and universal connection. Basic principles of dialectics and its alternatives.

2. The concept of law. The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes.

3. The law of unity and struggle of opposites.

4. The law of negation of negation.

5. Regularities expressed in the correlative categories of dialectics.

1. Dialectics as a method of thinking and as a doctrine of development and universal connection. Basic principles of dialectics and its alternatives.

Dialectics from the ancient Greek word "dialegomaye", which means to dispute, polemics. This word in philosophy began to be used by the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. Another ancient Greek philosopher Plato gave this word a slightly different meaning. For him, dialectics came to be understood as a special ability to conduct polemics. Dialectics takes on the meaning of a special method of achieving truth - the dichotomy of a dual opposite statement regarding the same subject. For example: "the world is finite" and "the world is infinite" or "atom is an indivisible particle", "atom is a divisible particle". Plato believed that considering such opposing judgments leads to truth. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Georg Hegel finally gives dialectics the meaning of a special method of thinking, he lays the foundations of dialectical teaching in the system of object idealism. K. Marx and F. Engels developed the materialist doctrine of dialectics. What is meant by the dialectical method of thinking?

Dialectics- this is a method of thinking in which things, phenomena are considered in general interconnection and development, taking into account contradictions, mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes, denial of the old state with a new one with a successive connection.

This method of thinking is scientific, it has been tested by experiments, experiments, and the life historical practice of people. That is why it deserves attention, both in natural science research and in philosophical teaching.

The structure of the philosophical doctrine of dialectics includes three components: the initial principles of dialectics, the basic laws of dialectics and the laws of dialectics, expressed in correlative categories.

Question 1. Features and structure of philosophical knowledge. Worldview and philosophy.

Philosophy is a form of spiritual activity aimed at posing, analyzing and solving the main worldview issues related to the development of a holistic view of the world and the person in it.

Way philosophical knowledge is the path of intelligent thinking. And this knowledge is formed along with the formation of a Homo sapiens.

Philosophy structure:

1. Ontology (the doctrine of being). At this level, the problems of the most general relationship between the world and man are solved. That is, questions about the essence of the world and its origin, about the basis of the world, about its development are considered.

2. Epistemology (the doctrine of knowledge). Being a part of the world, a person opposes it. This leads to the possibility of considering the world as an object of knowledge. Moreover, the object can be not only the world as a whole, but also society or an individual person. At this level, the question is raised about the cognizability of the world and the validity of our knowledge about it.

3. Axiology (general theory of values). Here, the universal value foundations of human existence, the relationship of a person to being, are revealed.

4. Praxeology analyzes the practical activities of a person.

Other philosophical disciplines also adjoin the classical toehsystem: logic, philosophical anthropology, ethics, aesthetics, social philosophy, philosophy of language, philosophy of religion, philosophy of law, political philosophy.

Philosophy constitutes the theoretical basis of the worldview, or its theoretical core, around which a kind of spiritual cloud of generalized everyday views of worldly wisdom has formed, which constitutes a vital level of the worldview. Generally worldview could be defined as follows: it is a generalized system of views of a person (and society) on the world as a whole, on his own place in it, understanding and assessment by a person of the meaning of his life and work, the fate of mankind; a set of generalized scientific, philosophical, socio-political, legal, moral, religious, aesthetic value orientations, beliefs, convictions and ideals of people.

The relationship between philosophy and worldview can be characterized as follows: the concept of "worldview" is broader than the concept of "philosophy". Philosophy is a system of fundamental ideas as part of the worldview of a person and society. The types of worldview in general can be divided into socio-historical and existential-personal.

Question 2. The main question of philosophy. Materialism and idealism. Objective and subjective idealism.

The main question of philosophy:

What can I know? What should I do? What can I hope for? What is a person and what is the meaning and purpose of his being? (Kant). + The ultimate foundations of universal being, the foundation within which cognition is carried out, the vital activity of a person as a whole.

The main question of philosophy is the question of the relationship of consciousness to being, thinking to matter, nature, considered from two sides: firstly, what is primary - spirit or nature, matter or consciousness - and, secondly, how does knowledge about the world relate to the world itself, or, in other words, whether consciousness corresponds to being, whether it is capable of correctly reflecting the world. Sequential registration of O. century. f. possible only if both sides are taken into account. Philosophers, who are supporters of materialism, recognize matter, being as primary, and consciousness as secondary, and consider consciousness to be the result of the impact on the subject of the objectively existing external world. Philosophers-idealists take for the primary idea, consciousness, considering them as the only reliable reality. Therefore, from their so-called sp., Cognition is not a reflection of material being, but is only the comprehension of consciousness itself in the form of self-knowledge, analysis of sensations, concepts, cognition of the absolute idea, world will, etc. An intermediate, inconsistent position in the decision of O. v. f. occupied by dualism, agnosticism. Former philosophy was characterized by a metaphysical approach to the solution of O.-V. ph., manifested either in underestimating the activity of consciousness, in reducing knowledge to passive contemplation (metaphysical materialism), in identifying consciousness and matter (Vulgar materialism), or in exaggerating the activity of thought, in raising it to an absolute, divorced from matter (Idealism), or in the assertion of their fundamental incompatibility (dualism, agnosticism). Only Marxist philosophy has provided a comprehensive, materialistic, scientifically substantiated solution to the question of education. f.

Idealism -

a category of philosophical discourse that characterizes a worldview that either identifies the world as a whole with the content of the consciousness of a cognizing subject (subjective idealism), or asserts the existence of an ideal, spiritual principle outside and independently of human consciousness (objective idealism), and considers the external world to be a manifestation of spiritual being, universal consciousness, the absolute. Consistent objective idealism sees this beginning as primary in relation to the world and things. The term "Idealism" was introduced by G.V. Leibniz (Works in 4 volumes, vol. 1. Moscow, 1982, p. 332).

Objective idealism coincides with spiritualism and is presented in such forms of philosophy as Platonism, panlogism, monadology, voluntarism. Subjective idealism is associated with the development of the theory of knowledge and is presented in such forms as empiricism by D. Berkeley, critical idealism of I. Kant, for whom experience is conditioned by the forms of pure consciousness, positivist idealism.

Materialism -

a monistic philosophical trend that recognizes the existence of the world outside and independently of the consciousness of the cognizing subject and explains this world from itself, without resorting to the hypothesis of the world spirit that precedes it and generates it (God, an absolute idea, etc.). In this case, human consciousness is understood as a natural product of the evolution of the material world. Distinguish between vulgar and consistent materialism. The first one treats consciousness as a kind of matter (“the brain also allocates thought, like the liver - bile”), the second - as its property that arises at a certain stage of development of the material world from the property inherent in all matter - reflection. The proposition of the primacy of matter and the secondary nature of consciousness is the basis for answering the question whether the world is cognizable: being a natural product of the development of matter, human consciousness is able not only to cognize the world, but also to create it through practice.

IDEALISM(from the Greek ιδέα - idea) is a category of philosophical discourse that characterizes a worldview that either identifies the world as a whole with the content of the consciousness of a cognizing subject (subjective idealism), or asserts the existence of an ideal, spiritual principle outside and independently of human consciousness (objective idealism), and the outside world considers it a manifestation of spiritual being, universal consciousness, the absolute. Consistent objective idealism sees this beginning as primary in relation to the world and things. The term "Idealism" was introduced by G.V. Leibniz (Works in 4 volumes, vol. 1. Moscow, 1982, p. 332).

Objective idealism coincides with spiritualism and is presented in such forms of philosophy as Platonism, panlogism, monadology, voluntarism. Subjective idealism is associated with the development of the theory of knowledge and is presented in such forms as empiricism by D. Berkeley, critical idealism of I. Kant, for whom experience is conditioned by the forms of pure consciousness, positivist idealism.

Objective idealism originated in myths and religion, but received a reflective form in philosophy. At the first stages, matter was understood not as a product of spirit, but as a formless and spiritless substance co-eternal with it, from which spirit (nus, logos) creates real objects. Thus, the spirit was viewed not as the creator of the world, but only as its shaper, the demiurge. This is precisely the idealism of Plato. His character is associated with the task he was trying to solve: to understand the nature of human knowledge and practice on the basis of monistic principles that are still recognized today. According to the first of them, "not a single thing arises from non-being, but everything - from being" ( Aristotle. Metaphysics. M. - L., 1934, 1062b). From it inevitably followed another: from what “being” do such “things” arise as, on the one hand, images of real objects, and, on the other, the forms of objects created by human practice? The answer to it was: every thing does not arise from any being, but only from such, which is "the same" as the thing itself (ibid.). Guided by these principles, Empedocles, for example, asserted that the image of the earth itself is earth, the image of water is water, etc. This concept was later called vulgar materialism. Aristotle objected to Empedocles: “The soul must be either these objects, or their forms; but the objects themselves disappear - after all, the stone is not in the soul ”. ( Aristotle. About the soul. M., 1937, p. 102). Consequently, it is not the object that passes from reality to the soul, but only the “form of the object” (ibid., P. 7). But the image of the subject is perfect. Consequently, the "similar" form of the object is also ideal. Reflections on human practice also led to the conclusion about the ideality of the form of things: the form that a person gives to a thing is his idea, transferred into a thing and transformed in it. Initial objective idealism is the projection of the characteristics of human practice onto the entire cosmos. This form of idealism must be distinguished from the developed forms of objective idealism that arose after the task of removing matter from consciousness was explicitly formulated.

Having explained from a single monistic principle two opposite processes - cognition and practice, objective idealism created the basis for answering the question of whether human consciousness is capable of adequately cognizing the world? For objective idealism, an affirmative answer is almost tautological: of course, consciousness is capable of comprehending itself. And in this tautology is his fatal weakness.

The internal logic of self-development led objective idealism to a new question: if no thing arises from non-being, then from what kind of being do such “things” as matter and consciousness arise? Are they of independent origin, or does one of them give rise to the other? In the latter case, which of them is primary and which is secondary? In an explicit form, it was formulated and resolved by Neoplatonism in the 3rd century. AD He understood the real world as the result of the emanation of a spiritual, divine primordial union, and matter as a product of the complete extinction of this emanation. Only after this a consistent objective idealism arose, and the spirit-demiurge turned into the spirit-God, which does not form the world, but creates it as a whole.

Objective idealism used the theory of emanation until the 17th century. Even Leibniz interpreted the world as a product of radiation (fulgurations) of the Divine, understood as the primary Unity ( Leibniz G.V. Op. in 4 volumes, v. 1, p. 421). Hegel made a major step in the development of objective idealism. He interpreted the real world as the result not of emanation, but of the self-development of the absolute spirit. He considered the contradiction inherent in him to be the source of this self-development. But if the world is a product of the self-development of an idea, then where does the idea itself arise? Schelling and Hegel faced the threat of evil infinity, who tried to avoid it by removing the idea from pure being - identical nothing. For the latter, the question is "from what?" is already meaningless. An alternative to both concepts is a theory that interprets the world as initially having a spiritual nature and thus removes the question of deriving it from something else.

Initially, objective idealism (like materialism) proceeded from the existence of the world outside and independently of human consciousness as something self-evident. Only by the 17th century. the culture of philosophical thinking has grown so much that this postulate has been questioned. It was then that subjective idealism arose - a philosophical trend, the embryo of which can be found already in antiquity (Protagoras' thesis about man as the measure of all things), but which received a classical formulation only in modern times - in the philosophy of D. Berkeley. The consistent subjective idealist-solipsist recognizes only his own consciousness as existing. Despite the fact that such a point of view is theoretically irrefutable, it does not occur in the history of philosophy. Even D. Berkeley does not carry it out consistently, admitting, in addition to his own consciousness, the consciousness of other subjects, as well as of God, which actually makes him an objective idealist. Here is the argument on which his concept is based: "There is sufficient reason for me not to believe in the existence of something if I see no reason to believe in it" ( Berkeley D. Op. M., 1978, p. 309). Here, of course, a mistake: the absence of grounds to recognize the reality of matter is not a reason to deny its reality. D. Hume's position is more consistent, leaving the question theoretically open: are there material objects that cause impressions in us? It was in the disputes of the philosophers of the modern era that the characteristic of the view began to be widely used, according to which we are given only representations as an object, as idealism. T. Read described the views of D. Locke and D. Berkeley in this way. H. Wolff called those who ascribed only ideal existence to bodies as idealists (Psychol, rat., § 36). I. Kant noted: "Idealism consists in the assertion that there are only thinking beings, and the rest of the things that we think to perceive in contemplation are only representations in thinking beings, representations that in fact do not correspond to any object outside them" ( Kant I. Prolegomena. - Works, vol. 4, part I. M., 1964, p. 105). Kant distinguishes between dogmatic and critical idealism, which he calls transcendental idealism. Fichte initiated the revival of objective idealism in Germany, combining epistemological, ethical and metaphysical idealism. Representatives of absolute idealism Schelling and Hegel tried to present nature as the potency and expression of the world spirit. A. Schopenhauer saw absolute reality in the will, E. Hartmann - in the unconscious, R.-Aiken - in the spirit, B. Croce - in the eternal, infinite mind, which is also realized in the personality. New variants of idealism developed in connection with the doctrine of values, which were opposed to the empirical world as ideal being, embodying the absolute spirit (A. Münsterberg, G. Rickert). For positivism, values ​​and ideals are fictions that have theoretical and practical significance (D.S. Mill, D.Bain, T.Tain, E.Mach, F.Adler). In phenomenology, idealism is interpreted as a form of the theory of knowledge, which sees in the ideal a condition for the possibility of objective cognition, and all reality is interpreted as meaning-making ( Husserl Ε. Logische Untersuchungen, Bd. 2. Halle, 1901, S. 107 et seq.). Phenomenology itself, having emerged as a variant of transcendental idealism, was gradually transformed, together with the principles of constitution, egology, into objective idealism.

Criticism of idealism in its various forms is developed (of course, from different positions) in the works of L. Feuerbach, K. Marx, F. Engels, F. Jodl, V. Kraft, M. Schlick, P. A. Florensky and others.

However, the question of how to substantiate the existence of the world outside us remains open in modern philosophy. There are many ways to both solve and work around it. The most curious is the assertion that one and the same object, depending on the point of view, can be presented as existing both outside consciousness and inside it, the most common is the assertion that the choice between subjective idealism and realism materialism), is like a choice between religion and atheism, i.e. determined by personal faith, not scientific evidence.

Literature:

1. Marx K.,Engels F. German ideology. - They are. Works, v. 3;

2. Engels F. Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of German Classical Philosophy. - Ibid, v. 21;

3. Florensky P.A. The meaning of idealism. Sergiev Posad, 1914;

4. Willmann O. Geschichte des Idealismus, 3 Bde. Braunschweig, 1894;

5. Jodl F. Vom wahren und falschen Idealismus. Münch., 1914;

6. Kraft V. Wfeltbegriff und Erkenntnisbegriff. W., 1912;

7. Schlick M. Allgemeine Erkenntnislehre. W., 1918;

8. Kronenberg M. Geschichte des deutschen Idealismus. Bd. 1-2. Münch. 1909;

9. Liebert A. Die Krise des Idealismus. Z.-Lpz., 1936;

10. Ewing A.S. Idealist tradition from Berkeley to Blanshard. Chi., 1957.