The formation of a state among the Eastern Slavs was a natural result of a long process of decomposition of the tribal system and the transition to a class society.

The process of property and social stratification among the community members led to the separation of the most prosperous part from among them. The tribal nobility and the wealthy part of the community, subjugating the mass of ordinary community members, need to maintain their dominance in state structures.

The embryonic form of statehood was represented by East Slavic tribal unions, which united into super-unions, albeit fragile ones. One of these associations was, apparently, a union of tribes led by Prince Kiy (VI century). There is information about a certain Russian prince Bravlin, who fought in the Khazar-Byzantine Crimea in the 8th - 9th centuries. passing from Surozh to Korchev (from Sudak to Kerch). Eastern historians talk about the existence, on the eve of the formation of the Old Russian state, of three large associations of Slavic tribes: Cuiaba, Slavia and Artania. Kuyaba, or Kuyava, was then the name of the region around Kyiv. Slavia occupied territory in the area of ​​Lake Ilmen. Its center was Novgorod. The location of Artania - the third major association of the Slavs - has not been precisely established.

According to the Tale of Bygone Years, the Russian princely dynasty originates in Novgorod. In 859, the northern Slavic tribes, who were then paying tribute to the Varangians, or Normans (according to most historians, immigrants from Scandinavia), drove them overseas. However, soon after these events, internecine struggle began in Novgorod. To

To stop the clashes, the Novgorodians decided to invite the Varangian princes as a force standing above the warring factions. In 862, Prince Rurik and his two brothers were called to Rus' by the Novgorodians, marking the beginning of the Russian princely dynasty.

Norman theory

The legend about the calling of the Varangian princes served as the basis for the creation of the so-called Norman theory of the emergence of the Old Russian state. Its authors were invited in the 18th century. German scientists G. Bayer, G. Miller and A. Schlozer came to Russia. The authors of this theory emphasized the complete absence of prerequisites for the formation of a state among the Eastern Slavs. The scientific inconsistency of the Norman theory is obvious, since the determining factor in the process of state formation is the presence of internal prerequisites, and not the actions of individual, even outstanding, individuals.

If the Varangian legend is not fiction (most historians believe so), the story about the calling of the Varangians testifies only to the Norman origin of the princely dynasty. The version about the foreign origin of power was quite typical for the Middle Ages.

The date of formation of the Old Russian state is conventionally considered to be 882, when Prince Oleg, who seized power in Novgorod after the death of Rurik (some chroniclers call him Rurik’s governor), undertook a campaign against Kyiv. Having killed Askold and Dir, who reigned there, he for the first time united the northern and southern lands as part of a single state. Since the capital was moved from Novgorod to Kyiv, this state is often called Kievan Rus.

2. Socio-economic development

Agriculture

The basis of the economy was arable farming. In the south they plowed mainly with a plow, or rawl, with a double team of oxen. In the north there is a plow with an iron ploughshare, drawn by horses. Mainly grain crops were grown: rye, wheat, barley, spelt, and oats. Millet, peas, lentils, and turnips were also common.

Two-field and three-field crop rotations were known. The two-field system consisted in the fact that the entire mass of cultivated land was divided into two parts. One of them was used for growing bread, the second “rested” - was kept fallow. In a three-field crop rotation, in addition to fallow and winter fields, spring fields were also allocated. In the forested north, the amount of old arable land was not so significant; shifting farming remained the leading form of agriculture.

The Slavs maintained a stable set of domestic animals. They raised cows, horses, sheep, pigs, goats, and poultry. Trades played a fairly significant role in the economy: hunting, fishing, beekeeping. With the development of foreign trade, the demand for furs increased.

Craft

Trades and crafts, as they develop, are increasingly separated from agriculture. Even in a subsistence economy, home craft techniques are being improved - processing flax, hemp, wood, and iron. Handicraft production itself numbered more than a dozen types: weapons, jewelry, blacksmithing, pottery, weaving, leatherworking. Russian craftsmanship was not inferior in its technical and artistic level to the crafts of advanced European countries. Jewelry, chain mail, blades, and locks were especially famous.

Trade

Internal trade in the Old Russian state was poorly developed, since the economy was dominated by subsistence farming. The expansion of foreign trade was associated with the formation of a state that provided Russian merchants with safer trade routes and supported them with its authority in international markets. In Byzantium and the countries of the East, a significant part of the tribute collected by the Russian princes was sold. Handicraft products were exported from Rus': furs, honey, wax, products of artisans - gunsmiths and gold of blacksmiths, slaves. Mostly luxury goods were imported: grape wines, silk fabrics, aromatic resins and seasonings, and expensive weapons.

Crafts and trade were concentrated in cities, the number of which grew. The Scandinavians who often visited Rus' called our country Gardarika - the country of cities. In Russian chronicles at the beginning of the 13th century. More than 200 cities are mentioned. However, city residents still maintained a close connection with agriculture and were engaged in farming and cattle breeding.

Social system

The process of formation of the main classes of feudal society in Kievan Rus is poorly reflected in the sources. This is one of the reasons why the question of the nature and class basis of the Old Russian state is debatable. The presence of different economic structures in the economy gives grounds for a number of experts to evaluate the Old Russian state as an early class one, in which the feudal structure existed along with the slaveholding and patriarchal ones.

Most scientists support the idea of ​​Academician B.D. Grekov about the feudal nature of the Old Russian state, since the development of feudal relations began in the 9th century. the leading trend in the socio-economic development of Ancient Rus'.

Feudalism characterized by the feudal lord's full ownership of the land and incomplete ownership of the peasants, in relation to whom he applies various forms of economic and non-economic coercion. The dependent peasant cultivates not only the land of the feudal lord, but also his own plot of land, which he received from the feudal lord or the feudal state, and is the owner of tools, housing, etc.

The process that began of the transformation of the tribal nobility into land owners in the first two centuries of the existence of the state in Rus' can be traced mainly only on archaeological material. These are rich burials of boyars and warriors, the remains of fortified suburban estates (patrimonies) that belonged to senior warriors and boyars. The feudal class also arose by separating its most prosperous members from the community, who turned part of the communal arable land into property. The expansion of feudal land ownership was also facilitated by direct seizures of communal lands by the tribal nobility. The growth of the economic and political power of landowners led to the establishment of various forms of dependence of ordinary community members on landowners.

However, during the Kiev period there remained a fairly significant number of free peasants, dependent only on the state. The term “peasants” itself appeared in sources only in the 14th century. Sources from the period of Kievan Rus call community members dependent on the state and the Grand Duke people or stinkers.

The main social unit of the agricultural population continued to be the neighboring community - the Verv. It could consist of one large village or several small settlements. Members of the vervi were bound by collective responsibility for paying tribute, for crimes committed on the territory of the vervi, by mutual responsibility. The community (vervi) included not only smerd-farmers, but also smerd-artisans (blacksmiths, potters, tanners), who provided the needs of the community for handicrafts and worked mainly to order. A person who broke ties with the community and did not enjoy its patronage was called an outcast.

WITH With the development of feudal land ownership, various forms of dependence of the agricultural population on the landowner appeared. A common name for a temporarily dependent peasant was purchase This was the name of a person who received a kupa from the landowner - assistance in the form of a plot of land, a cash loan, seeds, tools or draft power and was obliged to return or work off the kupa with interest. Another term referring to addicted people is Ryadovich, that is, a person who has entered into a certain agreement with the feudal lord - a series and is obliged to perform various works in accordance with this series.

In Kievan Rus, along with feudal relations, patriarchal slavery existed, which, however, did not play a significant role in the country’s economy. The slaves were called slaves or servants. Primarily, captives fell into slavery, but temporary debt servitude, which stopped after the debt was paid, became widespread. Serfs were usually used as domestic servants. In some estates there were also so-called arable serfs, planted on the ground and having their own

farming

Patrimony

The main unit of the feudal economy was the estate. It consisted of a princely or boyar estate and communities dependent on it. In the estate there was a courtyard and mansions of the owner, granaries and barns with “abundance”, i.e., supplies, servants’ dwellings and other buildings. Various sectors of the economy were in charge of special managers - tiuns And key holders, at the head of the entire patrimonial administration was fireman As a rule, artisans worked in the boyar or princely estate and served the lordly household. Craftsmen could be serfs or be in some other form of dependence on the patrimonial owner. The patrimonial economy was of a subsistence nature and was focused on the internal consumption of the feudal lord himself and his servants. Sources do not allow us to make an unambiguous judgment about the dominant form of feudal exploitation in the estate. It is possible that some of the dependent peasants worked the corvee, while the other paid the landowner a rent in kind.

The urban population also became dependent on the princely administration or the feudal elite. Near cities, large feudal lords often founded special settlements for artisans. In order to attract the population, village owners provided certain benefits, temporary tax exemptions, etc. As a result, such craft settlements were called freedoms or settlements.

The spread of economic dependence and increased exploitation caused resistance on the part of the dependent population. The most common form was the escape of dependent people. This is evidenced by the severity of the punishment provided for such an escape - transformation into a complete, “whitewashed” slave. Russkaya Pravda contains data on various manifestations of the class struggle. It talks about violations of the boundaries of land holdings, burning of side trees, murders of representatives of the patrimonial administration, and theft of property.

3. Policy of the first Kyiv princes

10th century

After Oleg (879-912), Igor reigned, who is called Igor the Old (912-945) and is considered the son of Rurik. After his death during the collection of tribute in the land of the Drevlyans in 945, his son Svyatoslav remained, who was four years old at that time. Igor's widow, Princess Olga, became his regent. Chronicles characterize Princess Olga as a wise and energetic ruler.

Around 955, Olga traveled to Constantinople, where she converted to Christianity. This visit also had great political significance. Returning from Constantinople, Olga officially transferred power to her son Svyatoslav (957-972).

Svyatoslav, first of all, was a warrior prince who sought to bring Rus' closer to the largest powers of the then world. His entire short life was spent in almost continuous campaigns and battles: he defeated the Khazar Kaganate, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Pechenegs near Kiev, and made two campaigns in the Balkans.

After the death of Svyatoslav, his son Yaropolk (972-980) became the Grand Duke. In 977, Yaropolk quarreled with his brother, the Drevlyan prince Oleg, and began military action against him. The Drevlyan squads of Prince Oleg were defeated, and he himself died in battle. The Drevlyan lands were annexed to Kyiv.

After the death of Oleg, the third son of Svyatoslav, Vladimir, who reigned in Novgorod, fled to the Varangians. Yaropolk sent his governors to Novgorod and thus became the sole ruler of the entire Old Russian state.

Returning two years later to Novgorod, Prince Vladimir expelled the Kyiv governors from the city and entered into war with Yaropolk. The main core of Vladimir's army was the hired Varangian squad that came with him.

A fierce clash between the troops of Vladimir and Yaropolk took place in 980 on the Dnieper near the city of Lyubech. Vladimir’s squad won, and Grand Duke Yaropolk was soon killed. Power throughout the state passed into the hands of Grand Duke Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980-1015).

The rise of the Old Russian state

During the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich, the Cherven cities were annexed to the Old Russian state - East Slavic lands on both sides of the Carpathians, the land of the Vyatichi. The line of fortresses created in the south of the country provided more effective protection of the country from the nomadic Pechenegs.

Vladimir sought not only the political unification of the East Slavic lands. He wanted to reinforce this unification with religious unity, unifying traditional pagan beliefs. Of the numerous pagan gods, he chose six, whom he proclaimed to be the supreme deities on the territory of his state. He ordered the figures of these gods (Dazhd-God, Khors, Stribog, Semargl and Mokosha) to be placed next to his mansion on a high Kiev hill. The pantheon was headed by Perun, the thunder god, patron of princes and warriors. The worship of other gods was severely persecuted.

However, the pagan reform, called first religious reform did not satisfy Prince Vladimir. Carried out violently and in the shortest possible time, it could not be successful. In addition, it did not in any way affect the international prestige of the Old Russian state. Christian powers perceived pagan Rus' as a barbaric state.

Long-standing and strong ties between Rus' and Byzantium ultimately led to Vladimir accepting Christianity in its Orthodox version. The penetration of Christianity into Rus' began long before its recognition as the official state religion. Princess Olga and Prince Yaropolk were Christians. The adoption of Christianity equalized Kievan Rus with neighboring states. Christianity had a huge influence on the life and customs of Ancient Rus', political and legal relations. Christianity, with its more developed theological and philosophical system compared to paganism, and its more complex and magnificent cult, gave a huge impetus to the development of Russian culture and art.

To strengthen his power in various parts of the vast state, Vladimir appointed his sons as governors in various cities and lands of Rus'. After Vladimir's death, a fierce struggle for power began between his sons.

One of Vladimir's sons, Svyatopolk (1015-1019), seized power in Kyiv and declared himself Grand Duke. By order of Svyatopolk, three of his brothers were killed - Boris of Rostov, Gleb of Murom and Svyatoslav of Drevlyan.

Yaroslav Vladimirovich, who occupied the throne in Novgorod, understood that danger threatened him too. He decided to oppose Svyatopolk, who called on the Pechenegs to help him. Yaroslav's army consisted of Novgorodians and Varangian mercenaries. The internecine war between the brothers ended with the flight of Svyatopolk to Poland, where he soon died. Yaroslav Vladimirovich established himself as the Grand Duke of Kyiv (1019-1054).

In 1024, his brother Mstislav of Tmutarakan spoke out against Yaroslav. As a result of this strife, the brothers divided the state into two parts: the region east of the Dnieper passed to Mstislav, and the territory west of the Dnieper remained with Yaroslav. After the death of Mstislav in 1035, Yaroslav became the sovereign prince of Kievan Rus.

The time of Yaroslav was the heyday of Kievan Rus, which became one of the strongest states in Europe. The most powerful sovereigns at this time sought an alliance with Russia.

The bearer of supreme power in

The first signs of fragmentation

The entire princely family was considered the Kyiv state, and each individual prince was considered only the temporary owner of the principality, which went to him in order of seniority. After the death of the Grand Duke, it was not his eldest son who “sat” in his place, but the eldest in the family among the princes. His vacated inheritance also went to the next most senior among the other princes. Thus, the princes moved from one region to another, from less to more rich and prestigious. As the princely family grew, calculating seniority became more and more difficult. The boyars of individual cities and lands interfered in the relations of the princes. Capable and gifted princes sought to rise above their elder relatives.

After the death of Yaroslav the Wise, Rus' entered a period of princely strife. However, it is still impossible to talk about feudal fragmentation at this time. It comes when separate principalities are finally formed - lands with their capitals, and on these lands their own princely dynasties are consolidated. The struggle between the sons and grandsons of Yaroslav the Wise was also a struggle aimed at maintaining the principle of ancestral ownership of Russia.

Before his death, Yaroslav the Wise divided the Russian land between his sons - Izyaslav (1054-1073, 1076-1078), Svyatoslav (1073-1076) and Vsevolod (1078-1093). The reign of the last of Yaroslav's sons, Vsevolod, was especially restless: the younger princes bitterly feuded over inheritances, the Polovtsians often attacked Russian lands. Svyatoslav's son, Prince Oleg, entered into allied relations with the Polovtsians and repeatedly brought them to Rus'.

Vladimir Monomakh

After the death of Prince Vsevolod, his son Vladimir Monomakh had a real chance of taking the princely throne. But the presence in Kyiv of a fairly powerful boyar group, opposed to the descendants of Vsevolod in favor of the children of Prince Izyaslav, who had more rights to the princely table, forced Vladimir Monomakh to abandon the fight for the Kiev table.

The new Grand Duke Svyatopolk II Izyaslavich (1093-1113) turned out to be a weak and indecisive commander and a bad diplomat. His speculation in bread and salt during the famine and his patronage of moneylenders caused anger among the people of Kiev. The death of this prince served as a signal for a popular uprising. The townspeople destroyed the courtyard of the Kyiv thousand, the courtyards of the moneylenders. The Boyar Duma invited Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1113-1125), popular among the people, to the Kiev table. The chronicles for the most part give an enthusiastic assessment of the reign and personality of Vladimir Monomakh, calling him an exemplary prince. Vladimir Monomakh managed to keep the entire Russian land under his rule.

After his death, the unity of Rus' was still maintained under his son Mstislav the Great (1125-1132), after which Rus' finally disintegrated into separate independent lands-principalities.

4. Early feudal monarchy

Control

The Old Russian state was an early feudal monarchy. The head of state was the Kyiv Grand Duke.

The relatives of the Grand Duke were in charge of certain lands of the country - appanage princes or him posadniks. In governing the country, the Grand Duke was helped by a special council - boyar Duma, which included younger princes, representatives of the tribal nobility - boyars, warriors.

The princely squad occupied an important place in the leadership of the country. The senior squad actually coincided in composition with the boyar duma. Of the senior warriors, princely governors were usually appointed to the largest cities. Younger warriors (youths, gridi, children) performed the duties of minor managers and servants in peacetime, and in wartime they were warriors. They usually enjoyed part of the prince's income, for example, court fees. The prince shared the collected tribute and spoils of war with the younger squad. The senior squad had other sources of income. In the early stages of the existence of the Old Russian state, senior warriors received from the prince the right to tribute from a certain territory. With the development of feudal relations, they became owners of land, owners of estates. Local princes and senior warriors had their own squads and boyar dumas.

The military forces of the Old Russian state consisted of detachments of professional warriors - princely and boyar warriors and people's militia, which gathered on especially important occasions. A major role in the army was played by cavalry, suitable for fighting southern nomads and for long campaigns. The cavalry consisted mainly of warriors-combatants. The Kyiv princes also had a significant longboat fleet and carried out long-distance military and trade expeditions.

In addition to the prince and the squad, a significant role in the life of the Old Russian state was played by veche. In some cities, for example, in Novgorod, it operated constantly, in others it met only in emergency cases.

Collecting tribute

The population of the Old Russian state was subject to tribute. The collection of tribute was called polyudye. Every year in November, the prince and his retinue began to tour the territories under his control. While collecting tribute, he exercised judicial functions. The amount of state duties under the first Kyiv princes was not fixed and was regulated by custom. The princes' attempts to increase tribute provoked resistance from the population. In 945, the Kiev prince Igor, who tried to arbitrarily increase the amount of tribute, was killed by the rebel Drevlyans.

After the murder of Igor, his widow, Princess Olga, traveled around some parts of Rus' and, according to the chronicle, “established statutes and lessons,” “rents and tributes,” that is, established a fixed amount of duties. She also determined the places for collecting taxes: “camps and graveyards.” Polyud is gradually being replaced by a new form of receiving tribute - cart- delivery of tribute by the tax-paying population to specially designated places. The peasant agricultural holding (tribute from the rala, plow) was defined as the unit of taxation. In some cases, tribute was taken from the smoke, that is, from every house with a fireplace.

Almost all the tribute collected by the princes was an export item. In early spring, along high, low water, tribute was sent for sale to Constantinople, where it was exchanged for gold coins, expensive fabrics and vegetables, wine, and luxury goods. Almost all military campaigns of Russian princes against Byzantium were associated with ensuring the most favorable security conditions on trade routes for this interstate trade.

"Russian Truth"

The first information about the system of law that existed in Rus' is contained in the agreements of the Kyiv princes with the Greeks, where the so-called “Russian law” is reported, the text of which we do not

The earliest legal monument that has reached us is “Russian Truth”. The most ancient part of this monument is called “The Most Ancient Truth”, or “The Truth of Yaroslav”. Perhaps it represents a charter issued by Yaroslav the Wise in 1016 and regulating the relations of the princely warriors among themselves and with the residents of Novgorod. In addition to the “Ancient Truth,” the “Russian Truth” includes legal regulations of the sons of Yaroslav the Wise - “The Truth of the Yaroslavichs” (adopted around 1072). “The Charter of Vladimir Monomakh” (adopted in 1113) and some other legal monuments.

“The Truth of Yaroslav” talks about such a relic of patriarchal-communal relations as blood feud. True, this custom is already dying out, since it is allowed to replace blood feud with a monetary fine (vira) in favor of the family of the murdered person. “The Most Ancient Truth” also provides for punishments for beatings, mutilation, blows with sticks, bowls, drinking horns, harboring a runaway slave, and damage to weapons and clothing.

For criminal offenses, Russkaya Pravda provides for a fine in favor of the prince and a reward in favor of the victim. The most serious criminal offenses were punishable by loss of all property and expulsion from the community or imprisonment. Robbery, arson, and horse theft were considered such serious crimes.

Church

In addition to civil law in Kievan Rus, there was also ecclesiastical law regulating the share of the church in princely incomes and the range of crimes subject to ecclesiastical court. These are the church charters of princes Vladimir and Yaroslav. Family crimes, witchcraft, blasphemy and the trial of people belonging to the church were subject to the church court.

After the adoption of Christianity in Rus', a church organization appeared. The Russian Church was considered part of the ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. Its head is metropolitan- appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople. In 1051, the Kiev Metropolitan was first elected not in Constantinople, but in Kyiv by a council of Russian bishops. This was Metropolitan Hilarion, an outstanding writer and church leader. However, subsequent Kyiv metropolitans continued to be appointed by Constantinople.

Episcopal sees were established in large cities, which were the centers of large church districts - dioceses. The dioceses were headed by bishops appointed by the Kyiv metropolitan. All churches and monasteries located on the territory of his diocese were subordinate to the bishops. The princes gave a tenth of the tributes and rents they received for the maintenance of the church - tithe.

Monasteries occupied a special place in the church organization. Monasteries were created as voluntary communities of people who abandoned family and ordinary worldly life and devoted themselves to serving God. The most famous Russian monastery of this period was founded in the middle of the 11th century. Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. Just like the highest church hierarchs - the metropolitan and bishops, the monasteries owned land and villages and were engaged in trade. The wealth accumulated in them was spent on building churches, decorating them with icons, and copying books. Monasteries played a very important role in the life of medieval society. The presence of a monastery in a city or principality, according to the ideas of the people of that time, contributed to stability and prosperity, since it was believed that “through the prayers of monks (monks) the world is saved.”

The Church was of great importance for the Russian state. It contributed to the strengthening of statehood and the unification of individual lands into a single power. It is also impossible to overestimate the influence of the church on the development of culture. Through the church, Rus' joined the Byzantine cultural tradition, continuing and developing it.

5. Foreign policy

The main tasks facing the foreign policy of the Old Russian state were the fight against steppe nomads, the protection of trade routes and ensuring the most favorable trade relations with the Byzantine Empire.

Russian-Byzantine relations

Trade between Rus' and Byzantium had a state character. A significant part of the tribute collected by the Kyiv princes was sold in the markets of Constantinople. The princes sought to secure the most favorable conditions for themselves in this trade and tried to strengthen their positions in the Crimea and the Black Sea region. Attempts by Byzantium to limit Russian influence or violate the terms of trade led to military clashes.

Under Prince Oleg, the combined forces of the Kyiv state besieged the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople (Russian name - Constantinople) and forced the Byzantine emperor to sign a trade agreement beneficial for Rus' (911). Another agreement with Byzantium has reached us, concluded after the less successful campaign against Constantinople by Prince Igor in 944.

In accordance with the agreements, Russian merchants came to Constantinople every year in the summer for the trading season and lived there for six months. A certain place on the outskirts of the city was allocated for their residence. According to Oleg's agreement, Russian merchants did not pay any duties; trade was primarily barter.

The Byzantine Empire sought to drag neighboring states into a struggle among themselves in order to weaken them and subordinate them to its influence. Thus, the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros Phocas tried to use Russian troops to weaken Danube Bulgaria, with which Byzantium waged a long and exhausting war. In 968, the Russian troops of Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich invaded the territory of Bulgaria and occupied a number of cities along the Danube, of which the most important was Pereyaslavets - a large trade and political center in the lower reaches of the Danube. Svyatoslav's successful offensive was seen as a threat to the security of the Byzantine Empire and its influence in the Balkans. Probably, under the influence of Greek diplomacy, the Pechenegs attacked militarily weakened Kyiv in 969. Svyatoslav was forced to return to Rus'. After the liberation of Kyiv, he made a second trip to Bulgaria, already acting in alliance with the Bulgarian Tsar Boris against Byzantium.

The fight against Svyatoslav was led by the new Byzantine emperor John Tzimiskes, one of the prominent commanders of the empire. In the first battle, Russian and Bulgarian squads defeated the Byzantines and put them to flight. Pursuing the retreating army, Svyatoslav's troops captured a number of large cities and reached Adrianople. At Adrianople, peace was concluded between Svyatoslav and Tzimiskes. The bulk of the Russian squads returned to Pereyaslavets. This peace was concluded in the fall, and in the spring Byzantium launched a new offensive. The Bulgarian king went over to the side of Byzantium.

Svyatoslav's army from Pereyaslavets moved to the Dorostol fortress and prepared for defense. After a two-month siege, John Tzimiskes suggested that Svyatoslav make peace. According to this agreement, Russian troops left Bulgaria. Trade ties were restored. Rus' and Byzantium became allies.

The last major campaign against Byzantium was made in 1043. The reason for it was the murder of a Russian merchant in Constantinople. Having not received worthy satisfaction for the insult, Prince Yaroslav the Wise sent a fleet to the Byzantine shores, headed by his son Vladimir and the governor Vyshata. Despite the fact that the storm scattered the Russian fleet, the ships under the command of Vladimir managed to inflict significant damage on the Greek fleet. In 1046, peace was concluded between Russia and Byzantium, which, according to the tradition of that time, was secured by a dynastic union - the marriage of the son of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich to the daughter of Emperor Constantine Monomakh.

Defeat of the Khazar Khaganate

The neighbor of the Old Russian state was the Khazar Khaganate, located on the Lower Volga and in the Azov region. The Khazars were a semi-nomadic people of Turkic origin. Their capital Itil, located in the Volga delta, became a major trading center. During the heyday of the Khazar state, some Slavic tribes paid tribute to the Khazars.

The Khazar Kaganate held in its hands key points on the most important trade routes: the mouths of the Volga and Don, the Kerch Strait, the crossing between the Volga and Don. The customs points established there collected significant trade duties. High customs payments had a negative impact on the development of trade in Ancient Rus'. Sometimes the Khazar Khagans (rulers of the state) were not content with trade fees; they detained and robbed Russian merchant caravans returning from the Caspian Sea.

In the second half of the 10th century. A systematic struggle between Russian squads and the Khazar Kaganate began. In 965, the Kiev prince Svyatoslav defeated the Khazar state. After this, the Lower Don was repopulated by the Slavs, and the center of this territory became the former Khazar fortress Sarkel (Russian name Belaya Vezha). A Russian principality was formed on the shores of the Kerch Strait with its center in Tmutarakan. This city with a large seaport became an outpost of Rus' on the Black Sea. At the end of the 10th century. Russian squads made a series of campaigns on the Caspian coast and in the steppe regions of the Caucasus.

Fight against nomads

In the X and early XI centuries. On the right and left banks of the Lower Dnieper lived nomadic tribes of the Pechenegs, who made quick and decisive attacks on Russian lands and cities. To protect against the Pechenegs, the Russian princes built belts of defensive structures of fortified cities, ramparts, etc. The first information about such fortified cities around Kyiv dates back to the time of Prince Oleg.

In 969, the Pechenegs, led by Prince Kurei, besieged Kyiv. Prince Svyatoslav was in Bulgaria at that time. His mother, Princess Olga, led the defense of the city. Despite the difficult situation (lack of people, lack of water, fires), the people of Kiev managed to hold out until the arrival of the princely squad. South of Kyiv, near the city of Rodnya, Svyatoslav completely defeated the Pechenegs and even captured Prince Kurya. And three years later, during a clash with the Pechenegs in the area of ​​the Dnieper rapids, Prince Svyatoslav was killed.

A powerful defensive line on the southern borders was built under Prince Vladimir the Saint. Fortresses were built on the rivers Stugna, Sula, Desna and others. The largest were Pereyaslavl and Belgorod. These fortresses had permanent military garrisons recruited from the warriors (“best people”) of various Slavic tribes. Wanting to attract all forces to the defense of the state, Prince Vladimir recruited mainly representatives of the northern tribes into these garrisons: Slovenians, Krivichi, Vyatichi.

After 1136, the Pechenegs ceased to pose a serious threat to the Kyiv state. According to legend, in honor of the decisive victory over the Pechenegs, Prince Yaroslav the Wise built the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv.

In the middle of the 11th century. The Pechenegs were forced out of the southern Russian steppes to the Danube by Turkic-speaking Kipchak tribes who came from Asia. In Rus' they were called Polovtsians, they occupied the North Caucasus, part of the Crimea, and all the southern Russian steppes. The Polovtsians were a very strong and serious enemy; they often made campaigns against Byzantium and Rus'. The position of the Old Russian state was further complicated by the fact that the princely strife that began at that time fragmented its forces, and some princes, trying to use Polovtsian troops to seize power, themselves brought enemies to Rus'. The Polovtsian expansion was especially significant in the 90s. XI century when the Polovtsian khans even tried to take Kyiv. At the end of the 11th century. Attempts were made to organize all-Russian campaigns against the Polovtsians. At the head of these campaigns was Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh. The Russian squads managed not only to recapture the captured Russian cities, but to inflict a blow on the Polovtsians on their territory. In 1111, Russian troops captured the capital of one of the Polovtsian tribal formations - the city of Sharukan (not far from modern Kharkov). After this, part of the Polovtsians migrated to the North Caucasus. However, the Polovtsian danger was not eliminated. Throughout the XII century. There were military clashes between Russian princes and Polovtsian khans.

International significance of the Old Russian state

The Old Russian power, due to its geographical position, occupied an important place in the system of European and Asian countries and was one of the strongest in Europe.

The constant struggle with nomads protected the higher agricultural culture from ruin and helped ensure the security of trade. Trade of Western Europe with the countries of the Near and Middle East, with the Byzantine Empire largely depended on the military successes of Russian squads.

The international importance of Rus' is evidenced by the marriage ties of the Kyiv princes. Vladimir the Saint was married to the sister of the Byzantine emperors, Anna. Yaroslav the Wise, his sons and daughters became related to the kings of Norway, France, Hungary, Poland, and the Byzantine emperors. Daughter Anna was the wife of the French king Henry I. son Vsevolod married the daughter of the Byzantine emperor, and his grandson Vladimir - the son of a Byzantine princess - married the daughter of the last Anglo-Saxon king Harald.

6. Culture

Epics

The heroic pages of the history of the Old Russian state, associated with its defense from external dangers, were reflected in Russian epics. Epics are a new epic genre that emerged in the 10th century. The most extensive epic cycle is dedicated to Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, who actively defended Rus' from the Pechenegs. In epics, people called him the Red Sun. One of the main characters of this cycle was the peasant son of the hero Ilya Muromets - the defender of all the offended and unfortunate.

In the image of Prince Vladimir the Red Sun, scientists also see another prince - Vladimir Monomakh. The people created in epics a collective image of the prince - the defender of Rus'. It should be noted that events, although heroic, had less significance for the people's life - such as the campaigns of Svyatoslav - were not reflected in folk epic poetry.

Writing

Treaty of Prince Oleg with the Greeks 911. compiled in Greek and Russian, it is one of the first monuments of Russian writing. The spread of education was significantly accelerated by the adoption of Christianity by Russia. It contributed to the widespread penetration of Byzantine literature and art into Rus'. The achievements of Byzantine culture initially came to Rus' through Bulgaria, where by this time there was already a significant supply of both translated and original literature in the Slavic language that was understandable in Rus'. The Bulgarian missionary monks Cyril and Methodius, who lived in the 9th century, are considered to be the creators of the Slavic alphabet.

The emergence of the first educational institutions is associated with the adoption of Christianity. According to the chronicle, immediately after the baptism of the people of Kiev, Vladimir the Saint established a school in which the children of the “best people” were supposed to study. During the time of Yaroslav the Wise, more than 300 children studied at the school at St. Sophia Cathedral. Monasteries were also original schools. They copied church books and studied the Greek language. As a rule, there were schools for the laity at the monasteries.

Literacy was quite widespread among the urban population. This is evidenced by graffiti inscriptions on things and walls of ancient buildings, as well as birch bark letters found in Novgorod and some other cities.

Literature

In addition to translated Greek and Byzantine works, Rus' has its own literary works. In the Old Russian state, a special type of historical writing arose - the chronicle. Based on weather records of the most important events, chronicles were compiled. The most famous ancient Russian chronicle is “The Tale of Bygone Years,” which tells the history of the Russian land, starting with the settlement of the Slavs and the legendary princes Kiy, Shchek and Khoriv.

Prince Vladimir Monomakh was not only an outstanding statesman, but also a writer. He was the author of “Teachings for Children,” the first work of a memoir nature in the history of Russian literature. In “Instructions,” Vladimir Monomakh paints the image of an ideal prince: a good Christian, a wise statesman and a brave warrior.

The first Russian metropolitan Hilarion wrote “The Sermon on Law and Grace” - a historical and philosophical work showing the deep mastery and understanding of the Christian view of history by the Russian scribe. The author asserts the equal position of the Russian people among other Christian peoples. Hilarion's "Word" also contains praise for Prince Vladimir, who enlightened Rus' with baptism.

Russian people made long journeys to various countries. Some of them left travel notes and descriptions of their trips. These descriptions formed a special genre - walking. The oldest circulation was compiled at the beginning of the 11th century. Chernigov abbot Daniel. This is a description of a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and other holy places. Daniel’s information is so detailed and accurate that his “Walking” for a long time remained the most popular description of the Holy Land in Rus' and a guide for Russian pilgrims.

Architecture and fine arts

Under Prince Vladimir, the Church of the Tithes was built in Kyiv, under Yaroslav the Wise - the famous St. Sophia Cathedral, the Golden Gate and other buildings. The first stone churches in Rus' were built by Byzantine craftsmen. The best Byzantine artists decorated new Kyiv churches with mosaics and frescoes. Thanks to the concerns of the Russian princes, Kyiv was called a rival of Constantinople. Russian masters studied with visiting Byzantine architects and artists. Their works combined the highest achievements of Byzantine culture with national aesthetic ideas.

RUSSIA IN XII - EARLY XVII centuries

SOURCES

The most important sources on the history of medieval Rus' are still chronicles. From the end of the 12th century. their circle is expanding significantly. With the development of individual lands and principalities, regional chronicles spread. In the process of unifying Russian lands around Moscow in the 14th - 15th centuries. All-Russian chronicles appear. The most famous all-Russian chronicles are the Trinity (early 15th century) and Nikon (mid 16th century) chronicles.

The largest corpus of sources consists of official materials, letters, written on a variety of occasions. The letters were letters of complaint, deposits, in-line, bills of sale, spiritual, truce, charter and others, depending on the purpose. With the increasing centralization of state power and the development of the feudal-manorial system, the number of current office documentation increases (scribal, sentinel, discharge, genealogical books, formal replies, petitions, memories, court lists). Registration and office materials are the most valuable sources on the socio-economic history of Russia. Since the 14th century in Rus' they begin to use paper, but for economic and household records they continue to use parchment and even birch bark.

In historical research, scientists often use works of fiction. The most common genres in ancient Russian literature were stories, words, teachings, walks, and lives. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (end of the 12th century), “The Prayer of Daniil the Prisoner” (beginning of the 13th century), “Zadonshchina” (end of the 14th century), “The Tale of the Massacre of Mama” (the turn of the 14th - 15th centuries. ), “Walking (walking) across the three seas” (late 15th century) enriched the treasury of world literature.

The end of the XV - XVI centuries. became the heyday of journalism. The most famous authors were Joseph Sanin (“The Enlightener”), Nil Sorsky (“Tradition by a Student”), Maxim the Greek (Epistle, Words), Ivan Peresvetov (Big and Small People’s Inhabitations, “The Tale of the Fall of Tsar-Grad”, “The Legend of Magmet-Saltan").

In the middle of the 15th century. “Chronograph” was compiled - a historical work that examined not only Russian, but also world history.

Kievan Rus - one of the largest states of medieval Europe - emerged in the 9th century. as a result of the long internal development of the East Slavic tribes.

According to the chronicles, in 862 several tribes at once - the Ilmen Slovenes, Chud, Krivich - called three Varangian brothers Rurik, Truvor and Sineus to reign in Novgorod. This event was called the “calling of the Varangians.” According to historians, the calling occurred because the tribes living on the territory of future Rus' were constantly overcome by internecine wars, and they could not decide who should rule. And only with the arrival of the three brothers, civil strife ceased and the Russian lands began to gradually unite, and the tribes turned into something like a state.

Before the calling of the Varangians, numerous scattered tribes lived on Russian lands, which did not have their own state and governance system. With the arrival of the brothers, the tribes began to unite under the rule of Rurik, who brought his entire clan with him. It was Rurik who became the founder of the future princely dynasty, which was destined to rule in Rus' for many centuries.

Despite the fact that the first representative of the dynasty is Rurik himself, very often in the chronicles the Rurik family is traced back to Prince Igor, the son of Rurik, since it was Igor who was not called up, but the first truly Russian prince. Disputes about the origin of Rurik himself and the etymology of his name are still ongoing.

The Rurik dynasty ruled the Russian state for more than 700 years. The first princes from the Rurikovich family (Igor Rurikovich, Oleg Rurikovich, Princess Olga, Svyatoslav Rurikovich) began the process of forming a centralized state on Russian lands.

In 882, under Prince Oleg, the city of Kyiv became the capital of a new state - Kievan Rus.

In 944, during the reign of Prince Igor, Rus' for the first time concluded a peace treaty with Byzantium, stopped military campaigns and was given the opportunity to develop.

In 945, Princess Olga first introduced a fixed amount of quitrent - tribute, which marked the beginning of the formation of the state tax system. In 947, the Novgorod lands underwent administrative-territorial division.

In 969, Prince Svyatoslav introduced a system of governorship, which helped the development of local self-government; in 963, Kievan Rus was able to subjugate a number of significant territories of the Tmutarakan principality - the state expanded.

The formed state came to feudalism and a feudal system of government during the reign of the Yaroslavichs and Vladimir Monomakh (second half of the 11th - first half of the 12th century). Numerous internecine wars led to the weakening of the power of Kyiv and the Kyiv prince, to the strengthening of local principalities and a significant division of territories within one state. Feudalism lasted quite a long time and seriously weakened Rus'.

Starting from the second half of the 12th century and until the mid-13th century, the following representatives of the Rurikovichs ruled in Rus' - Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky, Vsevolod the Big Nest. During this period, although princely feuds continued, trade began to develop, individual principalities grew greatly economically, and Christianity developed.

From the second half of the 13th century until the end of the 14th century, Rus' found itself under the yoke of the Tatar-Mongol yoke (the beginning of the Golden Horde period). The ruling princes more than once tried to throw off the oppression of the Tatar-Mongols, but they failed, and Rus' gradually declined due to constant raids and devastation. Only in 1380 was it possible to defeat the Tatar-Mongol army during the Battle of Kulikovo, which marked the beginning of the process of liberating Rus' from the oppression of the invaders.

After the overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar oppression, the state began to recover. The capital was moved to Moscow during the reign of Ivan Kalita, under Dmitry Donskoy the Moscow Kremlin was built, and the state actively developed. Vasily 2 finally united the lands around Moscow and established the practically inviolable and sole power of the Moscow prince over all Russian lands.

The last representatives of the Rurikovich family also did a lot for the development of the state. During the reign of Ivan 3, Vasily 3 and Ivan the Terrible, the formation of a new centralized state began with a completely different way of life and a political and administrative system similar to an estate-representative monarchy. However, the Rurik dynasty was interrupted by Ivan the Terrible and soon the “Time of Troubles” began in Rus', when it was unknown who would take the post of ruler.

4. The rise and fall of the Old Russian state. The period of feudal fragmentation.

The Old Russian state, or Kievan Rus, was the first large stable association of the Eastern Slavs. Its formation became possible with the formation of feudal (land) relations. The state included 15 large regions - territories of tribal associations (Polyans, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Ilmen Slovenes, Radimichi, Vyatichi, Northerners, etc.). The most developed economically and politically were the lands of the Ilmen Slovenes (Novgorod) and Polyans (Kyiv), the unification of which by the Novgorod prince Oleg provided an economic basis for the emerging state.

800-882 gg. - the initial stage of the unification of the East Slavic tribes, the formation of two centers of statehood (Kyiv and Novgorod) and their unification by Oleg;

882-912 - strengthening of the Old Russian state by Oleg, inclusion of neighboring East Slavic tribes into its composition. Oleg's first trade agreements with Byzantium (907 and 911);

912-1054 gg. - the flourishing of the early feudal monarchy, the rise of productive forces, the development of feudal relations, the fight against nomads, a significant increase in territory due to the entry of all East Slavic tribes into the state. Establishment of close relations with Byzantium. Adoption of Christianity (988-989). Creation of the first set of laws - “The Truth of Yaroslav” (1016). The most prominent political figures of this period are Igor, Olga, Svyatoslav, Vladimir I, Yaroslav the Wise;

1054-1093 gg. - the first tangible phenomena of the collapse of the early feudal state, the appanage principalities of the heirs of Yaroslav the Wise, the intensification of inter-princely struggle; During the Kiev great reign, Izyaslav, Svyatoslav, Vsevolod succeed each other - the triumvirate of the Yaroslavichs. Further development of feudal relations. The growth of popular uprisings. The emergence of a new set of laws - “Pravda Yaroslavichi” (1072), which supplemented “Pravda Yaroslav” and became known as “Russian Truth”;

1093-1132 gg. - a new strengthening of the feudal monarchy. The onslaught of the Polovtsians forced the appanage princes to unite their efforts under the rule of the Grand Duke of Kyiv. Improving legal and political relations. The new legislative code - the “Charter of Vladimir Monomakh” (1113) - became an integral part of the “Russian Pravda”, which is now considered to be the “Long-Russian Pravda”. After the disappearance of the Polovtsian threat, the state disintegrates. The most prominent political figures are Vladimir II Monomakh and Mstislav the Great.

In the second half of the 11th century. In Rus', signs of increasing feudal fragmentation are becoming more and more clearly evident.

Prince Yaroslav the Wise gained the paternal throne in a fierce internecine struggle. With this in mind, he left a will in which he clearly defined the inheritance rights of his sons. He divided the entire Russian land into five “districts” and determined which of the brothers should reign in which. The Yaroslavich brothers (Izyaslav, Svyatoslav, Vsevolod, Igor, Vyacheslav) fought together for two decades against invasions and preserved the unity of the Russian land.

However, in 1073, Svyatoslav expelled his brother Izyaslav from Kyiv, deciding to become the sole ruler. Izyaslav, having lost his possessions, wandered for a long time and was able to return to Rus' only after the death of Svyatoslav in 1076. From that time on, a bloody struggle for power began.

The bloody unrest was based on the imperfection of the appanage system created by Yaroslav, which could not satisfy the expanded Rurik family. There was no clear order in the distribution of inheritance and inheritance. According to ancient custom, the eldest in the family was supposed to inherit the reign. But Byzantine law, which came with the adoption of Christianity, recognized inheritance only by direct descendants. The inconsistency of inheritance rights and the uncertainty of the boundaries of inheritance gave rise to more and more civil strife.

Bloody feuds were aggravated by the continuous raids of the Polovtsians, who skillfully exploited the disunity of the Russian princes. Other princes took the Polovtsians as allies and brought them to Rus'.

In 1097, on the initiative of Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, the son of Vsevolod Yaroslavovich, a congress of princes took place in Lyubech. At this meeting, in order to stop civil strife, it was decided to establish a new order of organizing power in Rus'. In accordance with the new principle, each principality became the hereditary property of the local princely family.

The adopted law became the main cause of feudal fragmentation and destroyed the integrity of the ancient Russian state. It became a turning point, as there was a turning point in the distribution of land ownership in Rus'.

The disastrous mistake in lawmaking did not immediately make itself felt. The need for a joint struggle against the Polovtsians, the strong power and patriotism of Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) postponed the inevitable for a while. His work was continued by his son Mstislav the Great (1125-1132). However, from 1132, the former counties, having become hereditary “fatherlands,” gradually turned into independent principalities.

In the middle of the 12th century. civil strife reached unprecedented severity, the number of participants increased as a result of the fragmentation of the princely possessions. At that time there were 15 principalities in Rus', in the next century - 50, and during the reign of Ivan Kalita - 250. Many historians consider one of the reasons underlying these events to be the large number of children of princely families (by distributing lands by inheritance, they multiplied the number of principalities ).

The largest state entities were:

TO the Principality of Ievsk (despite the loss of all-Russian status, the struggle for its possession continued until the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars);

IN Ladimir-Suzdal Principality (in the 12th-13th centuries, economic growth began, the cities of Vladimir, Dmitrov Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Gorodets, Kostroma, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod arose);

H Ernigov and Smolensk principalities (the most important trade routes to the upper reaches of the Volga and Dnieper);

G Alitsky-Volyn principality (located in the area between the Bug and Dniester rivers, a center of arable land-owning culture);

P Olotsk-Minsk land (had an advantageous location at the crossroads of trade routes).

Feudal fragmentation was characteristic of the history of many states of the Middle Ages. The uniqueness and grave consequences for the Old Russian state lay in its duration - about 3.5 centuries.

The history of the emergence of the state uniting the tribes of the Eastern Slavs still causes a lot of controversy. There are two theories of the formation of the Old Russian state: Norman and anti-Roman. We will talk about them, as well as the reasons for the emergence and development of the state in Rus' today.

Two theories

The date of formation of the Old Russian state is considered to be 862, when the Slavs, due to strife between tribes, invited a “third” party - the Scandinavian princes Rurik to restore order. However, in historical science there are discrepancies regarding the origin of the first state in Rus'. There are two main theories:

• Norman theory(G. Miller, G. Bayer, M. M. Shcherbatov, N. M. Karamzin): referring to the chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years,” the creation of which belongs to the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor, scientists came to the conclusion that statehood in Rus' - the work of the Normans Rurik and his brothers;
• Anti-Norman theory(M.V. Lomonosov, M.S. Grushevsky, I.E. Zabelin): followers of this concept do not deny the participation of the invited Varangian princes in the formation of the state, but believe that the Ruriks did not come to an “empty” place and this form of government has already existed among the ancient Slavs long before the events described in the chronicle.

Once, at a meeting of the Academy of Sciences, Mikhailo Vasilyevich Lomonosov beat Miller for a “false” interpretation of the history of Rus'. After the death of the great Russian scientist, his research in the field of the history of the Old Russian state mysteriously disappeared. After some time, they were discovered and were published under the editorship of the same Miller. It is interesting to note that modern research has shown that the published works do not belong to the hand of Lomonosov.

Rice. 1. Collection of tribute from Slavic tribes

Reasons for the formation of the Old Russian state

Nothing in this world happens for nothing. For this or that event to happen, reasons are needed. There were prerequisites for the formation of a state among the Slavs:

• Uniting Slavic tribes to confront more powerful neighbors: At the beginning of the 9th century, the Slavic tribes were surrounded by stronger states. In the south there was a large medieval state - the Khazar Khaganate, to which the northerners, Polans and Vyatichi were forced to pay tribute. In the north, the hardy and warlike Normans demanded ransom from the Krivichi, Ilmen Slovenes, Chud and Merya. Only the unification of the tribes could change the existing injustice.
• Destruction of the clan system and clan ties: Military campaigns, the development of new lands and trade led to the fact that in clan communities based on property equality and joint farming, stronger and richer families appeared - clan nobility;
• Social stratification: The destruction of the tribal and communal system among the Slavs led to the emergence of new layers of the population. This is how a layer of tribal nobility and warriors was formed. The first included the descendants of the elders who managed to accumulate more wealth. The second, the warriors, were young warriors who, after military campaigns, did not return to agriculture, but became professional warriors who defended rulers and the community. A layer of ordinary community members, as a sign of gratitude for the protection of the soldiers and princes, presented gifts, which later turned into obligatory tribute. In addition, a layer of artisans emerged who moved away from agriculture and exchanged their “fruits” of labor for products. There were also people who lived exclusively through trade - a layer of merchants.
• Urban development: In the 9th century, trade routes (land and river) played a major role in the development of society. All new layers of population - nobility, warriors, artisans, merchants and farmers sought to settle in villages located on trade routes. Thus, the number of residents increased, the social system changed, new orders emerged: the power of princes turned into state power, tribute into a mandatory state tax, small cities into large centers.

Rice. 2. Gifts to vigilantes for protection from enemies

Two centers

All of the above main stages in the development of statehood in Rus' naturally led in the first half of the 9th century to the formation of two centers on the map of modern Russia - two early ancient Russian states:

• in the north- Novgorod Union of Tribes;
• on South- merger with the center in Kyiv.

By the middle of the 9th century, the princes of the Kyiv Union - Askold and Dir achieved the liberation of their tribes from the “offerings” of tribute to the Khazar Kaganate. Events in Novgorod developed differently: in 862, due to strife, the residents of the city invited the Norman prince Rurik to reign and own the lands. He accepted the offer and settled in the Slavic lands. After his death, his close associate Oleg took control into his own hands. It was he who went on a campaign against Kyiv in 882. Thus, he united the two centers into one state - Rus or Kievan Rus.

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After Oleg’s death, the title “Grand Duke” was taken by Igor (912 -945), the son of Rurik. For excessive extortions, he was killed by people from the Drevlyan tribe.

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State formations in most of the East European Plain appeared relatively late. The Old Russian state arose during the period of the appearance of other European states on the historical arena: the collapse of the empire of Charlemagne (843) into the Western (future France), Middle (later Italy) and Eastern (Germany) kingdoms; Moravian State (830); Hungarian State(896); Polish state (960).

The emergence of Russian civilization was inextricably linked with the processes taking place on the European continent. At the same time, the formation of Russian civilization, the Old Russian state, and ancient Russian culture was the result of the historical development of the East Slavic tribes, their life activity, and the creativity of the Russian people. The Russian people had many close and distant ancestors, who left behind very different memories in a vast space, where in the 9th century. The state of Ancient Rus' was formed.

The prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state were:

development of the productive forces of the East Slavic tribes;

development of trade, including international and intertribal;

the growth of social and property inequality, the separation of tribal nobility;

existence of external danger.

The tribal reigns of the Slavs had signs of emerging statehood. Tribal principalities often united into large super-unions, revealing features of early statehood. The wide spread of agriculture using iron tools, the collapse of the clan community and its transformation into a neighboring one, the growth in the number of cities, the emergence of squads are evidence of the emerging statehood.

The Slavs mastered the East European Plain, interacting with the local Baltic and Finno-Ugric populations. The military campaigns of the Antes, Sklavens, and Rus against more developed countries, primarily against Byzantium, brought significant military booty to the warriors and princes. All this contributed to the stratification of East Slavic society. Thus, as a result of economic and socio-political development, statehood began to emerge among the East Slavic tribes.

“Our country is great, but there is no order in it.” This statement is associated with the version of the “calling of the Varangians.” In the Tale of Bygone Years, Nestor the Chronicler (who lived in the 11th century) wrote in 852: “When Michael (the Byzantine emperor) began to reign, the Russian land began to be called. We learned about this because under this king Rus' came to Constantinople (Constantinople ), as it is written about this in the Greek chronicles. That is why from now on we will begin and put down the numbers." Further under 859 it is reported: “The Varangians from overseas collected tribute from the Chud and from the Slavs, and from the Meri, and from all the Krivichi, and the Khozars took from the glades and from the northerners, and from the Vyatichi - they took a silver coin and a squirrel from the smoke.” (With smoke in At that time they called a separate household, one family.)

Under 862, which is considered the date of formation of the Old Russian state, Nestor wrote: “They drove the Varangians overseas and did not give them tribute, and began to rule by themselves. And there was no truth among them, and generation after generation arose, and they had strife and began to fight with themselves. And they said to themselves: “Let us look for a prince who would rule us and judge us by right.” And they went overseas to the Varangians, to Rus'. Those Varangians were called Russia, just as others are called theirs ( Swedes), and some Normans and Angles, and still others Gotlanders - that’s how these were called. The Chud, Slavs, Krivichi and all told Rus': “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order in it. Come reign and rule us." And three brothers were chosen with their clans and took all of Rus' with them, and came to the Slavs, and the eldest Rurik sat in Novgorod, and the other - Sineus - on Beloozero, and the third - Truvor - in Izborsk. And "Russian land was nicknamed from all the Varangians. The Novgorodians are those people from the Varangian family, and before they were Slavs."

The lack of reliable, indisputable data about the pre-state period in the history of our country is the reason for many years of discussions and various speculations.

According to the Norman theory, the Old Russian state was founded by the Varangians (Vikings, Normans, i.e. Scandinavians), who in 862 were invited to reign and rule themselves by two Slavic (Ilmen Slovenes and Krivichi) and two Finnish tribes (Chud and Ves). For the first time this the theory, based on a legendary chronicle story, was formulated in the 18th century. German scientists G.-F. Miller and G.-Z. Bayer, invited to work in Russia.

The first anti-Normanist was M.V. Lomonosov. Supporters of the Slavic theory believed that already in the VI-VIII centuries. Slavic tribal principalities united into large super-unions with the features of early statehood. Based on various sources, such proto-states are called the Power of the Volynians, Cuiaba (around Kyiv), Slavia (around Novgorod), Artania (region of Ryazan, Chernigov), Rus'.

1. At the end of the 9th century. the process of formation of a single Old Russian state took place. It consisted of two stages:

- the calling to reign in 862 by the inhabitants of Novgorod of the Varangians, led by Rurik and his squad, the establishment of the power of the Rurikovichs over Novgorod;

- the forced unification by the Varangian-Novgorod squad of East Slavic tribes settled along the Dnieper into a single state - Kievan Rus.

At the first stage, according to the generally accepted legend:

• ancient Russian tribes, despite the beginnings of statehood, lived separately;
• Enmity was common both within the tribe and between tribes;
• in 862, the residents of Novgorod turned to the Varangians (Swedes) with a request to take power in the city and restore order;
• at the request of the Novgorodians, three brothers arrived from Scandinavia - Rurik, Truvor and Sineus, together with their squad;

Rurik became the Prince of Novgorod and is considered the founder of the princely Rurik dynasty, which ruled Russia for more than 700 years (until 1598).

Having established themselves in power in Novgorod and mixed with the local population, the Rurikovichs and the Novgorod-Varangian squad began to unite the neighboring East Slavic tribes under their rule:

• after the death of Rurik in 879, Rurik’s young son Igor (Ingvar) was proclaimed the new prince, and the military leader Prince Oleg became the de facto ruler;
• Prince Oleg at the end of the 9th century. made campaigns against neighboring tribes and subjugated them to his will;
• in 882, Kyiv was captured by Prince Oleg, the local Polyana princes Askold and Dir were killed;
• The capital of the new state was moved to Kyiv, which was called “Kievan Rus”.

The unification of Kyiv and Novgorod in 882 under the rule of one prince (Oleg) is considered the beginning of the formation of the Old Russian state.

2. In connection with the formation of Kievan Rus, there are two common theories:

• Norman, according to which the Varangians (Normans) brought the state to the Slavic tribes;
• ancient Slavic, which denies the role of the Varangians and claims that the state existed before their arrival, but information in history has not been preserved; it is also hypothesized that Rurik was a Slav and not a Varangian.

Accurate archival evidence of this or that theory has not been preserved. Both points of view have their supporters and opponents. There are two theories about the origin of the term “Rus”:

• “southern theory”, according to which the name came from the Ros River near Kiev;
• “Northern theory”, according to which the name “Rus” was brought by the Varangians. A number of Scandinavian tribes, especially their elite - military leaders, managers, called themselves "Rus". In the Scandinavian countries there are many cities, rivers, names derived from the root “Rus” (Rosenborg, Rus, Russa, etc.). Accordingly, Kievan Rus, according to this theory, is translated as the state of the Varangians (“Rus”) with its center in Kiev.

Also controversial is the question of the existence of a single ancient Russian people and the centralized nature of the state of Kievan Rus. Most sources, especially foreign ones (Italian, Arabic), prove that even under the rule of the Rurikovichs, Kievan Rus, until its collapse, remained a union of different Slavic tribes. Boyar-aristocratic Kyiv, culturally close to Byzantium and nomads, was very different from the trading democratic republic of Novgorod, which gravitated towards the northern European cities of the Hanseatic Trade Union, and the life and way of life of the Tiverts living at the mouth of the Danube was very different from the life of Ryazan and the Vladimir-Suzdal land.

Despite this, in the 900s. (X century) there is a process of spreading the power of the Rurikovichs and strengthening the Old Russian state they created. It is associated with the names of the first ancient Russian princes:

• Oleg;
• Igor Rurikovich;
• Olga;
• Svyatoslav Igorevich.

3. In 907, the squad of Kievan Rus, led by Prince Oleg, made the first major foreign campaign of conquest and captured the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople (Constantinople). After this, Byzantium, one of the largest empires of that time, paid tribute to Kievan Rus.

4. In 912, Prince Oleg died (according to legend, from the bite of a snake hidden in the skull of Oleg’s horse).

His heir was Rurik's son Igor. Under Igor, the tribes were finally united around Kyiv and forced to pay tribute. In 945, during the collection of tribute, Prince Igor was killed by the Drevlyans, who with this step protested against the increase in the amount of tribute.

Princess Olga, Igor's wife, who reigned from 945 to 964, continued his policies. Olga began her reign with a campaign against the Drevlyans, burned many Drevlyan settlements, suppressed their protests and avenged the death of her husband. Olga was the first of the princes to convert to Christianity. The process of Christianization of the ancient Russian elite began, while the majority of the population remained pagans.

5. The son of Igor and Olga, Svyatoslav, spent most of his time on campaigns of conquest, in which he showed very great strength and courage. Svyatoslav always declared war in advance (“I’m going to fight you”) and fought with the Pechenegs and the Byzantines. In 969 - 971 Svyatoslav fought on the territory of Bulgaria and settled at the mouth of the Danube. In 972, during his return from a campaign in Kyiv, Svyatoslav was killed by the Pechenegs.

6. By the end of the 10th century. the process of formation of the Old Russian state, which lasted about 100 years (from Rurik to Vladimir Svyatoslavovich), was basically completed. Its main results can be highlighted:

• under the rule of Kyiv (Kievan Rus) all the main ancient Russian tribes were united, which paid tribute to Kyiv;
• at the head of the state was the prince, who was no longer only a military leader, but also a political leader; the prince and the squad (army) defended Rus' from external threats (mainly nomads) and suppressed internal strife;
• from the prince's wealthy warriors, the formation of an independent political and economic elite began - the boyars;
• the Christianization of the ancient Russian elite began;
• Rus' began to seek recognition of other countries, primarily Byzantium.