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Functional zoning
Functional zoning - dividing a structure into zones from
homogeneous groups of premises, based on the commonality of their functions.
Functional blocks are groups of premises that have a common function.
There are three types of functional zoning:
❖ Horizontal
❖ Vertical
❖ Mixed (horizontal-vertical)

Horizontal zoning
All internal spaces are located, as a rule, in a horizontal plane
and are united mainly by horizontal communications (corridors, galleries,
pedestrian platforms, etc.).
Scheme of horizontal functional zoning of the bank

Vertical zoning
Internal spaces are arranged in levels (tiers) and are connected between
are, as a rule, vertical communications (stairs, elevators, escalators and
etc.), which are the main ones here.
Vertical zoning compared to horizontal zoning is in some cases
more progressive spatial and functional organization of large
public buildings and complexes.
Vertical diagram
functional zoning
jar

Mixed zoning
With horizontal - vertical functional zoning, both are combined
previous types of zoning.
Scheme of horizontal-vertical functional zoning
jar

Grouping schemes
premises
Main
the task of functional zoning is to identify relationships between
premises (or groups of premises) while maintaining their clear demarcation. This
the problem is solved using a certain grouping of premises.
In this case, the following basic schemes for grouping premises can be identified:
cellular;
corridor;
enfilade;
hall;
atrium;
pavilion;
mixed (combined)

Cellular scheme for grouping premises - these are the parts in
which have their different functional
processes. Such cells have common communication,
connecting them with the external environment. For example, children's
school buildings.
The corridor scheme for grouping rooms is
several small cells in which one occurs
functional process. They are connected to each other
general linear communication - corridor.
Cells can be located on one or both sides
corridor. The corridor scheme is used in dormitories,
hotels, boarding schools, administrative, educational,
therapeutic and prophylactic, etc.

The enfilade scheme for grouping rooms is a row
rooms that are located one after another and
connected to each other by a through passage. In all
One functional process takes place in the premises.
The enfilade scheme is used in palace and
religious buildings, museums, exhibition pavilions,
commercial buildings.
The hall scheme for grouping rooms is
organizing a single space for functions that
require large undivided areas accommodating
masses of visitors. The hall layout is typical for buildings
entertainment and sports, markets, exhibitions
pavilions.
The atrium scheme for grouping rooms is a row
premises that are located around a closed
courtyard - atrium - and opening into it.

The pavilion scheme for grouping premises is
distribution of premises or their groups in separate
volumes - pavilions interconnected by a single
compositional solution. For example, pavilion
a market consisting of fruit and vegetable pavilions,
"meat", "milk"; holiday homes with sleeping pavilions
housings, etc.
When combined or used together
Combined schemes are created from the indicated schemes:
corridor - circular, enfilade - circular, etc.
These are, for example, clubs, libraries, in which
mixed circuit is caused by complexity
functional processes.

As a rule, the most compact placement meets the convenience requirements
premises with the shortest routes for the movement of people and vehicles, without
their mutual intersections and oncoming traffic. The shorter the travel distances and,
therefore, the smaller the area of ​​​​communication rooms, the less
volume of the building and lower its cost.
Premises connected by a functional or technological process
should be located as close to each other as possible. This condition is especially
important for manufacturing enterprises where the length of traffic routes
production items affects not only the volume of the building, but also the cost
products. No less important for industrial and public buildings
the absence of intersections of human flows, but the intersection of human flows with
cargo is generally unacceptable both due to technological conditions and
safety conditions.

The figure shows a functional diagram of the theater building. Its premises are grouped as
as a rule, according to homogeneous functional characteristics. For example, artistic premises
grouped near the stage, with which convenient communication should be ensured; to the auditorium
adjoining the foyer and lobbies, representing a group of rooms with a homogeneous functional

Conclusion
For the correct location of rooms in a building
it is advisable to first draw up a functional
or technological diagram. She represents
conventional graphic representation of the grouping of premises
and connections between them. When designing for
used to organize connections between rooms
functional zoning.
Functional zoning is an effective way
planning organization of residential buildings, estates and entire
villages. Zoning contributes to the formation of the most
short connections and independent functioning of zones.

The main floor of the museum is intended to house the exhibition. In many buildings it is located at sidewalk level or slightly raised. The high-lying main floor creates certain operational difficulties. When choosing the level of the main exhibition floor, it is necessary to take into account the transportation of exhibits, their lighting, and the movement of visitors.

In museums with exhibition space up to 1000 m2, rooms are often located on the same horizontal level. A common version of the space-planning composition is the combination of auxiliary and service premises on one side of the exhibition halls. The functional division of the premises into two groups is reinforced by the introduction of a patio for open-air exhibitions. All rooms receive natural light. A circular exhibition around the courtyard provides a clear movement schedule.

Under specific construction conditions (difficult terrain, unique collections, etc.), it is possible to adjust this scheme. In cases where the area of ​​the main ground floor is insufficient for exhibition, the second floor is allocated for exhibition halls. Part of the administrative premises can also be located on the second floor. Administration rooms, together with storage service areas, often form a separate vertical block. A library may be located on the second floor. There are museums that use a combination of exhibitions and libraries in one hall, which is effective in small museums from scientific, educational, educational and cognitive points of view.

The most universal technique for demonstrating an exposition is a hall planning structure with an enfilade and circular movement schedule (Fig. 13.8). At the same time, rooms can alternate, varying in size and organization of internal space. When designing a museum's permanent exhibition area, it is necessary to provide a fairly flexible solution designed for the best perception of exhibits, while reception areas should be combined with relaxation areas. A unique group is formed by panorama museums, which require an all-round view.

Horizontal functional zoning is typical for small museums. The one-story composition of the building creates maximum convenience both in terms of the relative placement of the main premises and in terms of lighting.

The advantage of this type of layout is also the possibility of a close connection with nature, transformation and expansion of the museum as a whole and its individual sections.

Rice. 13.8.

For large museums, vertical functional zoning is mainly used: the upper floors are allocated for exhibitions, which are formed around a core of vertical communications or a central hall. Storage areas, administrative offices, a lecture hall and various service areas occupy the lower floors. With this solution, the vestibule is a compositional node from which the vertical development of space begins.

Back in the 19th century, two schemes for organizing the internal space of museums spread - radial and segmental. With a radial layout, in the center of the museum there is a permanent exhibition for the bulk of visitors, along the radii there are industry departments for specialists, study rooms and storage facilities. With a segment scheme, the museum consists of several independent volumetric-spatial elements, erected alternately as needed. Each such element contains an exhibition area and storage rooms. In large museums these elements may develop into separate specialized museums.

The museum is characterized by a relatively stationary exhibition and a certain movement schedule. The layout should be simple; in some cases, it should provide for the possibility of selective inspection of part of the exhibition. The dramaturgy of the perception of the exhibited material dictates in each specific case the solutions for the museum’s interior, such as:

• - organization of the central core - distribution space;
• - differentiation of space depending on the needs of visitors.

The architecture of the exhibition halls influences the space-planning and visual design of the entire building. The halls should be close to the visitor, and pedestrian communications should be reduced and facilitated as much as possible. The principle of economy of premises, which determines the construction of the museum from the lobby to the exhibition, must be observed in the halls themselves. Since movement in the hall begins from the entrance (Fig. 13.9), let's consider how its location affects the route of movement. For dead-end halls, the position of the entrance is unimportant. After exploring the perimeter, the viewer returns to the entrance. In walk-through halls, when doors are located on the same axis, it is more advantageous to place them on the wide side. Diagonally located doors provide the longest single passage. Intermediate spaces between halls should not be simply communication spaces. They should create pauses for rest, relief from the emotional stress that arises when viewing the exhibition.

Rice. 13.9.

Exhibition techniques that influence changes in the nature of visitors’ attention and the direction of their movement: 1 - directed attention; 2 - distracted attention; 3 - concentrated attention; 4 - distracted attention

The exhibition equipment of the museum plays an important role in the formation of the interior: without acting as an independent artistic value, it should contribute to the formation of an object environment that would ensure the stylistic and compositional unity of the exhibition despite a variety of display techniques. As a rule, it should be as inconspicuous as possible so as not to distract attention from the exhibits.

Lighting plays a leading role in organizing the interior space of a museum. The following approaches to solving it can be identified:

• - maximum opening and natural lighting of the entire space;
• - differentiation of light flows (separate rooms with overhead lighting);
• - in a two-story building - side lighting on the first floor and top lighting on the second floor;
• - top-side and artificial lighting systems.

Conceptually, the interpretation of the interior spaces of museums is solved in different ways. The most traditional type of museum interior space, closed and self-sufficient, is often replaced in modern projects by a more open and complex one. This more organically corresponds to the ideology of the museum as a universal arts center, a more democratic spatial object - part of the environment. This desire for openness is expressed at different levels. The ratio of open and closed spaces, as well as the emphasis on the use of “semi-closed” spaces as a metaphor for the mobility and ambiguity of contemporary art, becomes important. If traditionally glazing was used for various types of communications and buffer spaces - atriums, passages, halls, then in modern practice authors are increasingly resorting to opening up exhibition spaces, achieving additional visual connections with the surrounding urban space (Fig. 13.10).

In the structure of the museum, the relationship between permanent exhibitions and temporary exhibitions is very important. Really,

Rice. 13.10.

a museum that has nothing to add to what was previously created inevitably dies. In modern practice, there are museums whose activities are entirely based on organizing temporary exhibitions. The exhibition area is dedicated to the temporary and transient, which is reflected in the architecture of the buildings. Most often, in the process of development of the complex, the composition acquires a complex, dissected character. In modern design practice, as a rule, a developed spatial structure of the museum and exhibition complex is initially laid down.

Image of space

There cannot be an equal sign between a work of art and the life phenomenon that underlies it, since the artist does not copy reality. Being one of the forms of social consciousness, art reflects life in artistic images, and large multifaceted events and complex characters in works of art are most often embodied in individual facts or persons. This, in fact, largely explains the importance of the artist’s careful selection of vital material, which underlies the work and must be typical and relevant. Only such material gives a person the opportunity to correctly understand life.

But, revealing the essence of phenomena, art, unlike science, cannot abstract from specific objects. For example, in works of painting, the objective world appears before the viewer in all its authenticity. And the artist expresses even the most general ideas only through the depiction of certain objects. In order to convey to the viewer his knowledge of life, his thoughts about it and the conclusions that the artist wants to draw, he must be able to depict life material so that the viewer sees the figures and objects that make up the picture exactly as he knows them in reality - alive and plastic .

The fine arts have their own difficulties here, which are overcome by the skill of the artist. For example, one of the visual tasks is associated with the need to convincingly convey through painting the three-dimensional real world with its spaces, volumes, textures on a two-dimensional plane. The vitality and truthfulness of the picture will largely depend on how expressively it conveys these familiar characteristics of the real world, the existence of which in the picture the viewer must unconditionally believe; it must evoke precise visual associations and direct the viewer to authentic life.

The photographer, who also depicts the volumetric and spatial world on a plane, encounters exactly the same problem in his work.

In black and white photography, the photographer operates with tone and is faced with the task of depicting the color real world in a range of achromatic tones, etc. The professional skill of a photographer helps solve these problems.

Each art has developed its own means and techniques. Thus, to convincingly and expressively convey the space in a photograph, linear and tonal perspectives are used in photography.

Human perception of space in reality is associated with the following patterns, called linear perspective:

– objects seem to decrease as they move away from the observer’s eye;

– the edges of objects, forming lines going deep, in the direction from the observer’s eye, are reduced, appearing shorter than they actually are;

– parallel lines going deeper reveal a tendency to converge at one point.

Thus, figures and objects that are known to have the same size are perceived the more distant from the point of observation, the smaller they appear. The ratio of the scales of objects at different distances from the observation point gives a person an idea of ​​space and one of the possibilities for perceiving this space.

The laws of linear perspective underlie the transfer of space in the visual arts, and each of them solves this problem with its own visual means. Therefore, the laws of linear perspective as applied to photography should be considered depending on the visual, expressive and technical means of photography and in accordance with the capabilities they provide.

The factors that determine the perspective construction of a photograph are the three coordinates of the shooting point: its distance, displacement and height, as well as the focal length of the lens used to shoot. Let's consider the influence of each of these factors on the perspective drawing of a photographic image.

A photographic object located in space always has a certain extent in depth, and, therefore, its individual elements are located at different distances from the shooting point, from the camera lens.

The following pattern is known in photography: the scale of the image of an object in a photograph, determined by the ratio of the size of the image of the object to its actual size, is directly proportional to the focal length of the lens and is inversely dependent on the distance from which the photograph is taken. This relationship of quantities is expressed by the formula:

R = l1 / l2 = F / (u - F)

where R – scale increase (linear increase),

l1 – linear dimensions of the object,

l2 – linear dimensions of the image of the object,

F – lens focal length,

u is the distance from the lens to the object being photographed.

From the above formula it becomes clear that the further the subject being photographed is from the shooting point, the smaller its image will be in the picture, and vice versa.

Thus, elements of the spatial object of the photograph, located at different distances from the lens, will have different image scales in the image, different sizes. And obviously, the greater the difference in the magnitudes of these distances, the greater it will be in the scale of images of individual elements of the spatial object in the photograph. The degree to which objects receding into the distance are reduced determines the nature of linear perspective; therefore, the perspective pattern of a photographic image depends decisively on the ratio of the distances from the lens to the near and far elements of the subject.

Rice. 3. The influence of the distance from which the shooting is taken on the perspective of the photographic image

Let us explain this with an example. In Fig. Figure 3 schematically shows the shooting object, the individual elements of which are located at a distance of 5 m from each other. In the first case (figure a), shooting is carried out from a distance of 40 m to the foreground. The distances to other elements of the object will be 45 and 50 m and will therefore differ slightly from each other. As a result, all three trees, which actually have the same height, will be depicted in the photo on almost the same scale and will have approximately the same size.

But if three objects have almost the same size in the picture, it will seem to the viewer that they are located very close to each other, that there is no space between them. The perspective of such a photograph is weakened, space is not expressed in it, it becomes flat and loses depth.

As the shooting point approaches the subject, the ratio of the distances to the foreground and to the background increases. So, in the second case (figure b), shooting is carried out from a distance of 20 m. Here the distance to the background (30 m) becomes one and a half times greater than the distance to the foreground, and the scale of the image of objects in the foreground and background changes accordingly. This perspective of the image better conveys the space in the picture.

With further approach to the object, the ratio of the distance to the foreground and background increases more and more. For example, in figure in they are related as 1:2, and the perspective of the image here gives a clear idea of ​​the depth and spatiality of the object due to the significant difference in distances to the nearest and most distant objects in the field of view of the lens.

And finally, in figure d, the element of the object closest to the shooting point enters the frame only partially, so the foreground is given here only as a detail, a fragment.

This technique of introducing into the frame details of an object located close to the camera lens is extremely widespread in photography practice. It helps to convey the depth of space in the picture, since the foreground here has a larger image scale compared to the image scale of objects located in depth, and the ratio of these scales determines, as it were, an emphasized, enhanced perspective of the image.

Thus, the remoteness of the shooting point, the distance from which the shooting is carried out, have a decisive impact on the nature of the linear perspective of the photographic image, on the transfer of space in the photograph, and the closer the shooting point is to the object, the more clearly the perspective cuts are expressed in the photograph, the more it is emphasized depth, spatiality of the object.

The distance of the shooting point from the object also affects the perspective of the photographic image due to the fact that at close distances the angles at which the object is viewed and photographed often arise.

The angle at which the photograph is taken is of great importance for the nature of the perspective of the photographic image, for conveying the spatial extent of the object and especially its height. Even small angles of inclination of the optical axis of the lens relative to the horizontal are reflected in the nature of the perspective of the photographic image, especially if the shooting is carried out with short-focus optics, which is usually associated with shooting at close distances.

Thus, when shooting a general plan of an architectural structure with clearly defined vertical lines with a lens with a focal length of 2.8 cm (small format camera), tilt angles of about 10° become important.

For longer focal length optics, for example, for a lens with a focal length of 8.5 cm, relatively small changes in the angle of inclination of the optical axis also play a significant role, given that lenses of such focal lengths are used to shoot mainly close-ups and close-ups, portraits where it is clear Even the most insignificant changes in the perspective pattern of the image are noticeable.

A change in the nature of the perspective image pattern when shooting at a certain angle occurs as a result of the difference in distances from the camera lens to the upper and lower parts of the object being photographed, as can be seen from Fig. 4. The diagram shows that in the case when the shooting is carried out at a significant distance of the camera from the subject, the distances from the lens to the upper part of the building being photographed (OA) and to its lower part (OB) differ little from each other. The difference here is the segment l.

Rice. 4. Changing the nature of the perspective pattern of a photograph when shooting at an angle

As the shooting point approaches the object, an angle of inclination of the optical axis of the lens appears, and the difference in distances to the lower and upper parts of the object being photographed (segments O1C and O1A) increases to a value of l1.

Thus, when shooting from a certain angle, different parts of the object are photographed as if from different distances, as a result of which the scale of their images in the picture will be different. Obviously, parts of the object that are closer to the lens will have a larger image scale than parts of the object that are further from the lens. And since the ratio of the scales of images of objects at different distances from the observer’s eye determines the perspective of the image, when shooting at an angle, a characteristic and often unusual perspective pattern of the image appears for the eye. It clearly shows emphasized, exaggerated perspective cuts, sharp descents of vertical lines from bottom to top (at the lowest point of shooting) or from top to bottom (when shooting from above).

Reality in such a photographic image acquires a special pictorial interpretation and appears before the viewer in a form changed by the artist.

Such photographs are said to be taken from an angle. This term comes from the French word raccourci, which literally means shortened, abbreviated. Angle shots, therefore, always have emphasized perspective cuts, shortening of lines running in the direction from the camera lens into depth.

The perspective of the photographic image is also decisively affected by the height of the shooting point, which, together with its two other coordinates, determines the angle at which the object is observed and photographed. Thus, when the height of the shooting point changes, the perspective laws associated with shooting at an angle come into force, and perspective appears again.

Rice. 5 shows that at a normal shooting point, which is considered to be a point of view corresponding in height to the level of the eyes of a standing person, the distances to the upper and lower parts of the object (OA and OB) are equal to each other. In this case, the scale of the image of the top and bottom of the object will be the same, and perspective cuts that are unusual for the eye will not appear in the image.

Rice. 5. The influence of the height of the shooting point on the perspective of the photographic image

When the lower shooting point is sufficiently close to the object, an angle of inclination of the optical axis of the lens is formed and a difference in distances from the shooting point to the upper and lower parts of the object arises, equal to segment I. Such a photograph is foreshortened, and the lower angle leads to a large-scale exaggeration of the lower part and foreground objects .

When the top shooting point is sufficiently close to the object, an upper angle appears, giving a large-scale exaggeration of the upper part of the image object and sharp perspective convergence of vertical lines.

Normal points of view are the most widely used in photography practice. The height of these points is not a strictly defined value and can vary over a fairly wide range: when photographing a sitting person, it can drop to the level of the lower part of his face; when shooting wide shots, it can rise to a relatively high height. However, normal points always determine the perspective image of the subject, as well as its constituent objects and figures or a person’s face, that is familiar to the human eye.

But points from which photography gives an unusual perspective image of an object can also be successfully used, since perspective is one of the powerful visual means of photography and in some cases gives very interesting results, giving the picture special expressiveness.

For example, low angle is sometimes used when photographing architectural structures. Such an object usually has vertical lines that are clearly defined and run parallel to each other. In an angle shot, these lines turn out to be inclined, their perspective descents from bottom to top are clearly visible, as well as a large-scale reduction in architectural details from the bottom of the frame to the height. In life, the apparent decrease in objects as they move away from the observer’s eye tells us about significant distances separating these objects from the observer. And in an angle shot, the enlarged scale of the image of the lower part and the significantly smaller scale of the image of the upper speaks of the large distance that separates these parts of the building. Thus, the height of the architectural structure is emphasized, and the angle seems to be one of the ways to identify certain characteristic features of the object being photographed. A similar perspective drawing is shown in photo 60, where a high-rise building serves as the background for a person in the foreground.

Photo 60. V. Shkolny. Hello, Moscow!

But in this photo, the perspective turns out to be an effective technique not only because of the characteristic perspective background pattern. The meaning and purpose of using angle photography here is different. The lowest shooting point determines a special relationship between the foreground figure and background elements: the human figure is projected onto the background of the upper part of the high-rise building. This makes it seem elevated, and the “elevation” is conveyed not only to the linear design of the image, but also to the entire pictorial interpretation of the theme, which is, in fact, what the author is striving for. In this case, the theme receives a particularly full-voiced expression.

Such use of the expressive possibilities of the lower angle is quite common in photography.

The lower angle is widely used in sports filming (jumping, hurdles, some moments of playing football and other sports), where it is necessary to emphasize the height achieved by the athletes.

The angle can also be used in some cases of portrait photography. For example, the lower angle greatly exaggerates the lower part of the face and minimizes the upper part, reducing the length of the nose in the picture. The upper angle, on the contrary, exaggerates the scale of the upper part of the face, reduces the scale of the lower part, and lengthens the nose. Consequently, angle photography can help correct some facial defects, but the use of these techniques requires special skill, since such “corrections” can easily turn into distortion of facial proportions.

An unusual perspective drawing of a photographic image that arises during perspective shooting always requires its precise justification and justification by the meaning, content of the life material shown in the photograph, the nature of the subject being photographed, etc. An example of the successful and meaningful use of perspective to solve content problems can be the previously cited photo 25, where the lower angle was chosen by the author of the photo in order to show the structural originality of the bridge and emphasize its height.

An angle used without connection with the content, but only purely formally, for reasons of the “original” photograph, designed to amaze the viewer with the paradoxical composition of the composition, never gives an artistic result and, as a rule, leads to a distortion of reality in the photographic image. In photo 61, the angle is not justified in any way and, as a result, becomes a purely formal device. Such a perspective image does not in any way contribute to a truthful and expressive display of an architectural structure, about which the photograph does not give the viewer any idea.

Photo 61. Formal use of low angle

Here it should be noted that not every upper or lower shooting point determines the foreshortening image of the object, and not every photograph taken, for example, from above, is an foreshortening photograph.

The formation of an angle photographic image is usually associated not only with the height of the shooting point, but also with the distance from the shooting point to the object.

After all, only when shooting from close distances does the camera and the optical axis of the lens tilt, and only here do we deal with shooting at an angle. When shooting is done from above and from a great distance from the object, the angles of inclination of the optical axis of the lens are so insignificant that sharp perspective cuts are not formed. In addition, with a significant distance from the survey point, different distances to the near and far parts of the spatial object cease to give a noticeable result. In practice, the image scales of these parts of the object become almost identical. In this case, the photo cannot be considered from an angle.

An example of such an image of an object from an upper and significantly distant point is V. Kovrigin’s photograph “VDNKh. Collective Farms Square in the Evening” (photo 62), where the upper, but at the same time distant, shooting point did not give either a large-scale exaggeration of foreground objects or sharp perspective convergence of vertical lines from top to bottom.

Photo 62. V. Kovrigin. VDNH. Collective Farms Square in the evening

The displacement of the shooting point to the sides from the central position also plays a significant role in the perspective construction of a photograph, which was discussed in sufficient detail earlier and becomes clear from the material presented in the second chapter.

How does the focal length of the shooting lens affect the perspective of an image and does this factor directly affect the nature of the perspective pattern of the photographic image?

If you carefully examine photo 63, a, b, c, taken respectively with lenses with focal lengths of 3.5; 5.0 and 13.5 cm (frame size 24x36 mm) from one point, it becomes clear that the ratio of the linear dimensions of foreground objects to the linear dimensions of background objects remains the same everywhere, in all photographs. Consequently, the perspective of a photographic image in frames taken with different lenses, but from the same point, remains the same and does not change. This occurs as a result of the fact that when shooting with different lenses from the same point, the scales of the foreground and background images change to the same extent, but the ratio of these scales, which determines the perspective of the photographic image, remains constant.

Photo 63. A. Trofimov (VGIK). Shooting with lenses of different focal lengths from one point

At the same time, there is a firmly rooted opinion, seemingly confirmed by the practice of photography, that the use of short-focus optics causes sharp perspective reductions, emphasized vanishing lines, and enhanced perspective of the image. Indeed, photographs taken with short-focus wide-angle lenses often differ in these features.

Nevertheless, the point here is not the size of the focal length of the shooting lens; it is not this value in itself that determines the above-listed features of the image obtained using a short-focus lens. These features arise as a consequence of the fact that when a long-focus lens is replaced with a short-focus lens, free, unfilled spaces, as a rule, appear in the field of view around the main object of the image. To exclude them from the frame, the photographer usually approaches the subject and places the camera at a very close distance from it. But then the laws associated with the approaching of the shooting point to the object come into force. As mentioned earlier, the scale of the image of foreground and background objects becomes sharply different as the shooting point approaches, which explains the sharp perspective reductions in the frame.

In the case of foreshortening photography, lenses with different focal lengths and, therefore, with different angles of view give a different perspective image when shooting from one point.

As Fig. 6, when shooting with a long-focus lens with a small angle of view, the distances to the lower and upper parts of the imaged object differ slightly from each other (segment l).

Rice. 6. Angle shooting with lenses of different focal lengths

When changing lenses and when shooting with a wide-angle lens, this difference in distances increases to the value of the segment l1 due to the fact that the frame includes details of the object that are very close and very distant from the shooting point. Consequently, the ratio of the image scales of the lower and upper parts of the object in two such photographs will not be the same, and therefore the perspective will be different.

The sharp perspective cuts and accentuated perspective of photos taken with a short lens are often a consequence of the fact that these lenses, which have wide coverage angles, allow foreground objects or details of the subject to be captured in the frame. When shooting with longer lenses that have smaller angles of coverage, smaller angles of view, these objects or details remain behind the scenes.

Naturally, foreground objects, being at a close distance from the shooting point, are depicted in the image on a large scale. This large-scale image, in comparison with the small scale of images of objects in the background, gives an idea of ​​​​the large spaces separating the first and distant plans, creating the impression of spatiality and emphasized perspective of the picture.

Thus, the focal length of the lens is directly related only to the distance from the shooting point to the subject, which usually changes when changing optics. The influence of the focal length of the lens on the perspective of the photographic image is reflected only when the shooting point changes, when the distance from which the shooting is carried out, when shooting from angles, or when objects located close to the lens are introduced into the frame.

It is the long distances from which long-focal lenses allow shooting that explain the lack of spatiality in such photographs. The fact that the difference in distances to the foreground and background is insignificant in this case also determines the insignificant difference in the scale of the image of the foreground and background, which is why these objects are perceived as located close to each other, and the space separating the objects of the foreground and background in reality is is hidden in the photo. In photographs taken with lenses with focal lengths of 30 cm, 50 cm or longer, the main subject of the image always appears to be located in close proximity to the background behind it, although in fact there is considerable space between them.

And, conversely, the short distances from which short-focus lenses allow shooting emphasize the spatiality of the subject. The fact that in this case there is a significant difference in the distances to the front and far parts of the object causes a significant difference in the scale of the image of close and distant objects, which is why these objects are perceived as very distant from each other. The space separating foreground and background objects in reality is exaggerated in the photograph.

Photographs of interiors taken with lenses with focal lengths of 3.5 or 2.8 cm always have an emphasized spatiality, and even a small interior in such a photo looks large-scale.

These are the possibilities of depicting space in a photograph using linear perspective.

Another extremely expressive means of depicting space in a photograph is the use of tonal or aerial perspective.

As is known, human perception of spaces in reality is associated with the following patterns of aerial perspective:

– the clarity and clarity of the outlines of objects is lost as they move away from the observer’s eye;

– at the same time, the saturation of colors decreases, and as they move away they lose their brightness;

– contrasts of light and shade in depth are softened;

– depth, distances seem lighter than the foreground.

A person’s perception of spaces is inevitably connected with these vital patterns: figures and objects that are known to have the same contour and volumetric shape and the same colors seem the more distant they are, the more blurred their contours are, the less clearly they are distinguished by the eye, the less their colors are saturated.

These phenomena, called aerial perspective, are explained by the presence of air, a medium whose transparency depends on many variable factors and decreases with increasing thickness of the air layer.

The air, being between the eye of the observer and the observed object, seems to obscure the objects, and the further they are located, the thicker the air layer between the object and the eye of the observer and the less clearly these objects are visible. And the brighter the air layer is illuminated, the brighter the distances appear.

The patterns of aerial perspective, noticed by artists, are used to convey space in works of fine art, for which the artist uses figurative and expressive means and techniques of his art.

Thus, Leonardo da Vinci, striving to achieve vitality and artistry in the pictorial representation of reality, studied the laws of aerial perspective in order to reproduce them in his paintings using the means of painting.

“Things at a distance,” he wrote, “seem ambiguous and doubtful to you; do them with the same vagueness, otherwise they will appear at the same distance in your picture... do not limit things that are distant from the eye, because at a distance not only these boundaries, but also parts of bodies are imperceptible."

In the same place, Leonardo da Vinci notes that the distance of an object from the observer’s eye is associated with a change in the color of the object. Therefore, to convey the depth of space in a painting, the closest objects must be depicted by the artist in their own colors; with the removal of objects, the colors acquire a bluish tint, and “... the very last objects in it (in the air. - Authors) visible, such as mountains , due to the large amount of air between your eye and the mountain, they appear blue, almost the color of air...".

The laws of aerial perspective are widely used in photography, where they also contribute to creating a sense of spatiality in the photograph and emphasize the vital truthfulness of the photographic image, giving it artistic expressiveness.

In a photograph constructed according to the laws of aerial perspective, the diversity of the image is clearly distinguished; The sharpest and clearest in relation to the entire image is the foreground, objects located at a close distance from the lens. The second plan is softer; to some extent, the clarity of the linear outlines of objects and the contrast of tones and light and shade are lost due to the light airy haze. The least clear is the long shot, where the objects in the image have almost no detail, lose their three-dimensional shape, look flat and are limited only by very vague contours. There are also no clear boundaries between these three main plans; they gradually transform into one another through many intermediate plans and harmoniously merge with each other, which creates the illusion of depth and spatiality of the photograph.

The degree of loss of clarity of contours and saturation of tones depends on the degree of transparency of the air environment: on a clear, fine day, especially in the fall, when the air is clean and transparent, distances are perfectly visible to the eye and are clearly drawn in the picture. In the early morning, when light steam rises from the ground, or after rain, when the sun begins to warm the wet ground, a haze of significant optical density appears, and the aerial perspective intensifies.

Of great importance for identifying the air environment, and through it the space in the picture, is the nature of lighting on location. So, with forward, frontal lighting, when the sun is behind the camera and the direction of incidence of its rays coincides with the direction of shooting, the sides of objects and figures facing the camera are brightly illuminated. At the same time, the aerial haze is also illuminated, but its brightness is many times less than the brightness of figures and objects illuminated by the sun, and therefore the haze against a bright background is not visible, is lost, and the aerial perspective is sharply weakened or disappears altogether.

Backlighting, on the contrary, helps to identify the air environment, and through it, space, emphasizing the existing haze, since backlight, highlighting the air and airborne haze, leaves the surfaces of objects facing the device unlit. In this case, the haze is clearly readable against the background of the unlit sides of objects that form a dark background, which makes it possible for the air haze to clearly appear in the picture.

The brightness of the air haze under such lighting increases greatly, since when the sun's rays meet particles of moisture or dust, specular reflection angles are formed, the particles glare in the sun's rays, and the entire air environment is saturated with a large amount of diffused light.

In photo 64, aerial perspective is expressed very clearly; it is the basis for the tonal structure of the photograph and helps solve the problem of depicting space using photography.

Photo 64. N. Ardashnikov (VGIK). Leningrad. Isaac's Square

The patterns of aerial perspective are observed and can be used to construct a photographic image not only on location, but also in interiors, especially when they are of significant size. In the photograph by S. Preobrazhensky and A. Grakhov “In the Mechanical Shop” (photo 65), the interior space is conveyed as a result of an increase in brightness and a loss of clarity of contours in the depths of the frame.

Photo 65. S. Preobrazhensky and A. Grakhov. In the machine shop

Air haze is a very desirable component in a color landscape photograph. The colors of the subject in the depths of the frame are modified under the influence of air haze: the lightness of the air haze, superimposed on these colors, seems to add white to them, making them less saturated. Changing colors in depth not only emphasizes the spatiality of the object, but also makes it possible to work on the color of the photographic image.

Indeed, colors conveyed in equal strength both in the foreground and in depth inevitably lead to excessive variegation in the photographic picture. At the same time, colors that fade into depth make it possible to focus the viewer’s attention on the foreground, since in such a photograph the distances are depicted in soft colors, and the foreground in richer colors. The image turns out to be collected, the coloring is calmer, and the picture is easily read by the viewer.

Similar techniques for working with color are widely used by painters. Suffice it to recall, for example, the painting by V.I. Surikov “Boyarina Morozova”, where this perspective of flowers is amazing and where the ringing yellow color of the scarves in the foreground softly fades away on the domes of the churches in the background.

Photographers should learn fine work on the color of an image using aerial perspective from painters.

Air haze is formed due to the scattering of light in the earth's atmosphere. The more suspended particles there are in the air, the more dusty or smoky the air is, the more drops of moisture there are in it, the more light will be scattered in the air, the denser the air haze will be.

But the phenomena of aerial perspective can be observed in completely clean air. In this case, haze is formed as a result of light scattering when a light beam meets air molecules (molecular haze).

It is known that the nature and intensity of light scattering in the air depends on the ratio of the wavelength of the incident light and the size of particles suspended in the air. In the case when these particles are very small (have a diameter of no more than 0.1?), the medium affects only the short-wavelength part of the spectrum, that is, it scatters only blue-violet rays, as a result of which the molecular haze has a bluish color. For this reason, molecular haze always has a bluish color, which is considered the proper color of air.

It should also be noted that molecular haze in its pure form can rarely be observed near cities and other large populated areas, since there is always dust and smoke. When light meets solid particles suspended in the air, light rays of all wavelengths begin to scatter, resulting in the formation of brown haze that is more pronounced and more easily reproduced in a photograph. Molecular haze is usually observed at high altitudes, where the air is clean and transparent.

With an increase in the size of particles suspended in the air, not only short-wave rays begin to dissipate, but also long-wave rays, and therefore the color of the haze also changes, which becomes brown when the air becomes dusty or smoky.

The most common hazes in outdoor landscape photography are those formed by light scattering on moisture droplets, which are always present in the air in varying quantities. The sizes of light-scattering particles, depending on the saturation of the air with moisture, can fluctuate within a fairly wide range, and with significant diameters of moisture particles suspended in the air, fogs appear. Water haze, formed as a result of the scattering of both short- and long-wave rays in the air, is white.

These questions are described in detail in specialized literature, and in this book they are mentioned only to clarify the possibility of using light filters in the presence of air haze on location.

The bluish molecular haze is easily cut off by a yellow filter, and distances, soft and picturesque in reality, become clear and graphic in the photograph, as a result, picturesqueness gives way to dry linear outlines of objects. Therefore, in cases where haze is an element that helps expressive and artistic disclosure of the theme of the photograph, the question of using one or another filter should be decided depending on the nature of the haze, taking into account the color and nature of the entire subject, and first of all the sky included in the frame .

Hazes formed in dusty or smoky air are brown in color. They are easily reproduced in a photograph using yellow filters, the transmission curves of which show that the optical medium of such a filter is not an obstacle to the path of rays of this color.

Water haze, which has a white color, is easily reproduced both when shooting without filters and when using them.

At the same time, it should be taken into account that the nature of the tonal and optical pattern of the photograph, in which airy haze or light fog is reproduced, is soft and plastic. Therefore, the use of dense yellow or orange light filters is not always advisable here, since light filters, making the light and shadow pattern of the image more contrasting, can lead to a violation of the overall harmony of the tones of the image.

Aerial perspective, emphasizing the depth and spatiality of the image object, is widely used in photography, where it serves as one of the means of solving space.

However, not in all cases of shooting, the photographer has an air haze at his disposal, which helps to obtain spatial images. Very often, such haze is either completely absent or so weak that it does not provide the necessary highlighting of the depth of the frame; Sometimes conditions do not allow shooting from the direction that is most advantageous for identifying existing light haze. In these cases, is it possible to take a deep, multifaceted picture?

This question should be answered positively. Aerial perspective is the perspective of tones, their change from dark and contrasting in the foreground to light and soft in depth. But using this principle, it is possible to construct a picture even in the absence of air haze, using a special composition and lighting solution for the frame, which will help us obtain the distribution of tones in the frame that we need.

On location, the shooting point can be chosen so that an unlit object, figure, or detail of the subject is in the foreground of the frame, while the depth of the frame is brightly lit. Shadows cast by objects are also often used as a dark foreground. The darkened foreground in comparison with the light depth gives the image spatiality.

Such a light pattern of a frame is relatively easy to obtain with the back direction of the sun's rays, since the sides of objects and figures facing the camera are not illuminated at this time and can be placed in the foreground, and the depth is highlighted due to the bright lighting of horizontal surfaces (ground, water, etc.) .), light-colored sky, etc.

Thus, when shooting with natural light, the scheme described above can be chosen, one of the many light patterns that exist on location. It is even more possible to obtain the desired distribution of tones in the frame when shooting with artificial lighting devices, where tonal perspective can be formed by appropriate installation of light sources and the distribution of brightness in the frame.

Tonal perspective, therefore, can be obtained in the absence of air haze and is a broader concept than aerial perspective, which should be considered one of the varieties of tonal perspective.

The depth of space can be conveyed in a photograph by establishing a certain degree of sharpness in the foreground and background and corresponding orientation of the depth of the sharply depicted space.

Photographic technology gives the widest possibilities here. At the will of the author of the image, the focusing plane can be selected and the aperture set, which will determine the distance to the front and rear boundaries of the sharply imaged space, and, consequently, the distribution of sharpness over the entire depth of the frame.

Aerial perspective, as mentioned above, causes the loss of clarity and clarity of the outlines of objects as they move away from the observer’s eye. Therefore, orienting the depth of the sharply depicted space when shooting in accordance with these life patterns allows you to convey space in the picture even in the absence of air haze on location. A clear and sharp foreground and a certain decline in sharpness in depth always give the picture a certain spatiality and multifacetedness.

This is exactly how the depth of sharply depicted space is oriented in V. Kovrigin’s photograph “Stone Flower Fountain” (photo 66), where the foreground is given as sharp as possible, the background less sharp and the background even less sharp. As a result of this distribution of sharpness, space is clearly felt in the picture; it is clearly visible that the edge of the pool, the fountain and the Moscow pavilion are at different distances from the camera lens and, therefore, from the viewer. This is also helped by highlighting tones in the depths of the frame.

Photo 66. V. Kovrigin. VDNH. Fountain "Stone Flower"

Space is perceived differently in the photograph by the same author, “VDNKh. Fountains at Night” (photo 67). Here the foreground and background have the same degree of sharpness and, in addition, are similar in tonality. As a result, the depth of space in the photo is lost and it seems that the fountains and the USSR pavilion are in close proximity to each other.

Photo 67. V. Kovrigin. VDNH. Fountains at night

The nature of the decline in sharpness and the degree of blur in the background may be different in different cases. Thus, when shooting a portrait, the sharpness of the background may be completely absent if the photographer does not set himself the task of showing the person being portrayed in a certain setting and if showing this setting is not mandatory or desirable when solving a visual theme.

In other cases, when the surroundings are important to the characterization of the subject, as is the case, for example, in a production portrait, sharpness in depth may be lost only to some extent so that the surrounding objects are depicted quite clearly. But at the same time, the degree of sharpness of objects in the photograph should indicate their location in space relative to the main object of the image, their distance from the person being portrayed.

When shooting general plans, where the meaning of showing foreground and depth objects is often equally important, only a very slight loss of sharpness in depth, etc. can be allowed.

The decrease in sharpness of the image in depth helps the image of space in the image. The loss of sharpness in the distance is perceived by the viewer as a natural pattern observed in reality.

But space is reproduced much worse in photographs where the depth is oriented so that when the distance is sharply depicted, the foreground is blurred. This distribution of sharpness in the frame, which goes against the usual ideas of a person’s life, is most often perceived as a technical inaccuracy, since it arises as a result of improper use of the visual means of photography.

In cases where the main object of the image is located in depth, and the lighting conditions of the shooting do not allow reducing the diameter of the effective lens aperture and thereby increasing the depth of the sharply depicted space, inclusion of foreground elements in the composition should be avoided. If the foreground is necessary, but it is not possible to get it sharp, it is recommended to light the foreground objects less brightly so that they do not attract the viewer’s attention.

These are the elements that make up the solution of space in a photograph.

Once again, it is necessary to emphasize the importance of the transfer of three-dimensional space on the plane of the image for its overall expressiveness. A photograph in which space is expressed more fully conveys the picture of reality, which is one of the main tasks of a realistic photograph.

The orientation of the depth of the sharply depicted space in order to convey diversity and to express space on a plane in the photograph should be carried out in accordance with semantic, thematic tasks.

For example, in some cases of reportage photography, the task of depicting space may fade into the background. Many reportage photographs are constructed as a medium, half-length shot, where the person is the center of the composition. In this case, the frame of the frame outlines a relatively small space, which, moreover, is quite densely filled with material. The most important thing in this case is to achieve emphasis on the main object of the image, and this can be facilitated by the appropriate orientation of the depth of the sharply depicted space.

With a sharp image of the main object, for example, a person standing at a machine, the details of this machine in the foreground may be blurred. Details can be conveyed with a minimum degree of sharpness, but still sufficient for them to be recognized by the viewer. Minor details, thus, do not distract the viewer’s attention from the plot-important element of the frame and, at the same time, organically enter into the overall composition of the photo, characterizing the environment in which the action takes place.

Depiction of texture A realistic depiction of reality using expressive means of art is associated with the mandatory transfer of textures of the real world. A convincingly conveyed texture increases the similarity of the photograph to the original and gives the viewer the opportunity to

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Schemes for transferring space Perspective of the staircase 139. BRAMANTE. Belvedere Staircase It is very difficult to draw a staircase according to all the rules of perspective. Look at the drawings and photographs on this spread. They will help you understand what the steps of the staircase look like from the front and

From the book Architecture and Iconography. “The body of the symbol” in the mirror of classical methodology author Vaneyan Stepan S.

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The interior design is influenced by type of enterprise catering, its capacity, location.

The nature of the interior depends on the time visitors spend in the sales area and the form of their relaxation. The longer the visitor’s stay in the sales area, the more comfortable the interior should be, the higher the requirements for its artistic expression and organization of the internal space.

Increasing the capacity of the retail group of premises opens up additional opportunities for enriching the space-planning solution and developing a multifaceted interior composition. So, in a dining room or large-capacity restaurant, you can diversify the methods of placing furniture and vary the shape of the hall. The capacity of the hall has a particularly great influence on the design of the restaurant's interior.

The nature of the work of a public catering establishment, and therefore the appearance of the interior, depends on the urban development zone in which it is located. The main urban development zones include, as is known, residential, industrial, administrative and public and recreation areas. If, for example, in the canteen of an industrial enterprise, the determining factor when deciding on the interior is the creation of conditions for self-service of visitors with minimal time spent, then in catering establishments located in parks and suburban areas, the main thing is to create an environment conducive to relaxation and contact with nature.

When choosing one or another interior option, the greatest opportunity is to locate the enterprise in a separate building. Then follows its location in the same building with other catering, trade, and consumer services enterprises. At the same time, blocking of these objects can be carried out in various forms: connecting sections using various layout options (horizontal blocking); floor placement of various enterprises (vertical blocking), etc.

The least opportunities in choosing interior solutions are provided by the built-in placement of a catering establishment in residential buildings, hotels, administrative, industrial or other buildings. Although externally similar to blocking, built-in placement differs from it in that the typological parameters of the building (grid of columns, building width, etc.) are determined based on considerations of convenience, economy of a residential building, workshop, educational building, i.e. the main design object . Naturally, in this case, the layout of a public catering establishment does not always meet the requirements for it. This also affects the aesthetic merits of the interiors. Thus, the trading floors of canteens built into a residential building have unpleasant, elongated proportions, and canteens built into workshops are not always provided with sufficient natural light.

More and more differences are observed in the nature of the interior of the main types of public catering establishments - dining room And restaurant . The interior of the dining room is influenced by the desire to reduce the time a visitor spends in the sales area. This problem is solved by mechanizing food preparation and delivery and using self-service.

If recently conveyors in the sales area were used only for transporting used dishes, now the conveyor can serve set meals from the kitchen to the sales area. The conveyor system for dispensing food is most widespread in canteens, which must serve numerous groups of consumers within a short period of time.

Let us highlight two schemes for placing conveyors in the sales area:

1. Each dish is completed on a separate continuous conveyor. Conveyors open into the sales area in the area immediately adjacent to the kitchen, forming a single distribution area.

2 All set lunch dishes are assembled on one conveyor, which extends to the entire depth of the sales floor or separates the kitchen from it. A variation of this scheme is the distribution of periodic action “Effect” with end-to-end heated storage cabinets, which are installed parallel to the conveyor with the front to the sales floor. Conveyors for used dishes most often extend to the entire depth of the sales floor and are located along the outer walls.

The conveyor becomes the leading compositional element in the interior of production premises.

The trading floors of restaurants and cafes can be divided into three types according to the nature of the compositional and planning solutions for the interior of commercial and household buildings:

panoramic, where the object of observation is the surrounding landscape;

shopping areas where the object of observation can be both the interior and external environment (both named types refer to a dynamic composition scheme, which is built on the sequential disclosure of internal and external space);

shopping areas where the object of observation is any part interior (static diagram). The role of such an element that attracts the main attention of visitors can be played by a stage, dance floor, fountain, panel, bar. Bars in the sales area of ​​a restaurant or cafe stand out significantly in size, shape and scale against the background of the entire interior. There are wall-mounted, free-standing and built-in bars. Freestanding bars can divide the sales area into parts and isolate one area from another.

The place for dancing in the hall of a restaurant or cafe can be neutral or play an active compositional role. In this case, the dance floor is raised or lowered in relation to the general floor level. It is also distinguished by the concentrated placement of lamps and the expressive shape of the ceiling.

In large full-service restaurants, which, in addition to the restaurant itself, unite a number of smaller enterprises (cafe, snack bar, beer and wine bars, culinary store), the interiors of all sales areas are connected by a single architectural and artistic design.