The main fronts of the Crimean War. Crimean War: briefly about the causes, main events and consequences

Crimean War 1853 – 1856 - one of the largest events of the 19th century, which marked sharp turn in the history of Europe. The immediate cause of the Crimean War was the events surrounding Turkey, but its true causes were much more complex and deeper. They were rooted primarily in the struggle between liberal and conservative principles.

At first XIX century the indisputable triumph of conservative elements over aggressive revolutionary ones ended at the end of the Napoleonic wars with the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which established the political structure of Europe for a long time. Conservative-protective “System” Metternich"prevailed throughout the European continent and received its expression in the Holy Alliance, which initially embraced all the governments of continental Europe and represented, as it were, their mutual insurance against attempts to resume the bloody Jacobin terror anywhere. Attempts at new ("Southern Roman") revolutions made in Italy and Spain in the early 1820s were suppressed by decisions of the congresses of the Holy Alliance. However, the situation began to change after the French Revolution of 1830, which was successful and changed the internal order of France towards greater liberalism. The July coup of 1830 caused revolutionary events in Belgium and Poland. The system of the Congress of Vienna began to crackle. A split was brewing in Europe. The liberal governments of England and France began to unite against the conservative powers of Russia, Austria and Prussia. Then an even more serious revolution broke out in 1848, which, however, was defeated in Italy and Germany. The Berlin and Viennese governments received moral support from St. Petersburg, and the uprising in Hungary was directly helped by the Russian army to suppress the Austrian Habsburgs. Shortly before the Crimean War, the conservative group of powers, led by the most powerful of them, Russia, seemed to be even more united, restoring their hegemony in Europe.

This forty-year hegemony (1815 - 1853) aroused hatred on the part of European liberals, which was directed with particular force against “backward,” “Asian” Russia as the main stronghold of the Holy Alliance. Meanwhile international situation highlighted the events that helped bring together western group liberal powers and separated the eastern, conservative ones. These events caused complications in the East. The interests of England and France, dissimilar in many ways, converged on protecting Turkey from being absorbed by Russia. On the contrary, Austria could not be a sincere ally of Russia in this matter, because it, like the British and French, most of all feared the absorption of the Turkish East by the Russian empire. Thus, Russia found itself isolated. Although the main historical interest of the struggle was the task of eliminating the protective hegemony of Russia, which had towered over Europe for 40 years, the conservative monarchies left Russia alone and thus prepared the triumph of the liberal powers and liberal principles. In England and France, the war with the northern conservative colossus was popular. If it had been caused by a collision over some Western question(Italian, Hungarian, Polish), then this would unite the conservative powers of Russia, Austria and Prussia. However, the eastern, Turkish question, on the contrary, separated them. It served as the external cause of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Crimean War 1853-1856. Map

The pretext for the Crimean War was the dispute over holy places in Palestine, which began in 1850 between Orthodox clergy and Catholic, under the patronage of France. To resolve the issue, Emperor Nicholas I sent (1853) to Constantinople an extraordinary envoy, Prince Menshikov, who demanded that the Porte confirm the Russian protectorate over the entire Orthodox population of the Turkish Empire, established by previous treaties. The Ottomans were supported by England and France. After almost three months of negotiations, Menshikov received from the Sultan a decisive refusal to accept the note he presented and on May 9, 1853 he returned to Russia.

Then Emperor Nicholas, without declaring war, introduced the Russian army of Prince Gorchakov into the Danube principalities (Moldova and Wallachia), “until Turkey satisfies the just demands of Russia” (manifesto of June 14, 1853). The conference of representatives of Russia, England, France, Austria and Prussia, which gathered in Vienna to resolve the causes of disagreement peacefully, did not achieve its goal. At the end of September, Türkiye, under the threat of war, demanded that the Russians clear the principalities within two weeks. October 8, 1853 English and French fleets entered the Bosphorus, thereby violating the convention of 1841, which declared the Bosphorus closed to military courts of all powers.

The spirit in the troops is beyond description. During times ancient Greece there was not so much heroism. I was not able to be in action even once, but I thank God that I saw these people and live in this glorious time.

Lev Tolstoy

The wars of the Russian and Ottoman empires were a common phenomenon in international politics in the 18th-19th centuries. In 1853, the Russian Empire of Nicholas 1 entered into another war, which went down in history as the Crimean War of 1853-1856, and ended in the defeat of Russia. In addition, this war showed strong resistance from the leading countries Western Europe(France and Great Britain) strengthening the role of Russia in Eastern Europe, in particular in the Balkans. The lost war also showed Russia itself problems in domestic politics, which led to many problems. Despite victories in the initial stage of 1853-1854, as well as the capture of the key Turkish fortress of Kars in 1855, Russia lost the most important battles on the territory of the Crimean Peninsula. This article describes the reasons, course, main results and historical meaning V short story about the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Reasons for the aggravation of the Eastern Question

By the Eastern Question, historians understand a number of controversial issues in Russian-Turkish relations, which at any moment could lead to conflict. The main problems of the Eastern question, which became the basis for the future war, are the following:

• The loss of Crimea and the northern Black Sea region to the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 18th century constantly stimulated Turkey to start a war in the hope of regaining the territories. Thus began the wars of 1806-1812 and 1828-1829. However, as a result, Türkiye lost Bessarabia and part of the territory in the Caucasus, which further increased the desire for revenge.
• Belonging to the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. Russia demanded that these straits be opened for the Black Sea Fleet, while the Ottoman Empire (under pressure from Western European countries) ignored these Russian demands.
• The presence in the Balkans, as part of the Ottoman Empire, of Slavic Christian peoples who fought for their independence. Russia provided them with support, thereby causing a wave of indignation among the Turks about Russian interference in the internal affairs of another state.

An additional factor that intensified the conflict was the desire of Western European countries (Britain, France, and Austria) not to allow Russia into the Balkans, as well as to block its access to the straits. For this reason, countries were ready to provide support to Turkey in a potential war with Russia.

The reason for the war and its beginning

These problematic issues were brewing throughout the late 1840s and early 1850s. In 1853, the Turkish Sultan handed over the Bethlehem Temple of Jerusalem (then the territory of the Ottoman Empire) to the administration catholic church. This caused a wave of indignation at the top Orthodox hierarchy. Nicholas 1 decided to take advantage of this, using the religious conflict as a reason to attack Turkey. Russia demanded that the temple be transferred to the Orthodox Church, and at the same time also open the straits to the Black Sea Fleet. Türkiye refused. In June 1853, Russian troops crossed the border of the Ottoman Empire and entered the territory of the Danube principalities dependent on it.

Nicholas 1 hoped that France was too weak after the revolution of 1848, and Britain could be appeased by transferring Cyprus and Egypt to it in the future. However, the plan didn't work European countries called on the Ottoman Empire to act, promising it financial and military assistance. In October 1853, Türkiye declared war on Russia. This is how, to put it briefly, the Crimean War of 1853-1856 began. In the history of Western Europe, this war is called the Eastern War.

Progress of the war and main stages

The Crimean War can be divided into 2 stages according to the number of participants in the events of those years. These are the stages:

1. October 1853 – April 1854. During these six months the war was between the Ottoman Empire and Russia (without direct intervention other states). There were three fronts: Crimean (Black Sea), Danube and Caucasian.
2. April 1854 - February 1856. British and French troops enter the war, which expands the theater of operations and also marks a turning point in the course of the war. Allied forces outnumbered Russians technical side, which was the reason for the changes during the war.

As for specific battles, the following key battles can be identified: for Sinop, for Odessa, for the Danube, for the Caucasus, for Sevastopol. There were other battles, but the ones listed above are the most basic. Let's look at them in more detail.

Battle of Sinop (November 1853)

The battle took place in the harbor of the city of Sinop in Crimea. The Russian fleet under the command of Nakhimov was completely defeated Turkish fleet Osman Pasha. This battle was perhaps the last major world battle on sailing ships. This victory significantly raised the morale of the Russian army and inspired hope for an early victory in the war.

Map of the Sinopo naval battle November 18, 1853

Bombing of Odessa (April 1854)

At the beginning of April 1854, the Ottoman Empire sent a squadron of the Franco-British fleet through its straits, which quickly headed for the Russian port and shipbuilding cities: Odessa, Ochakov and Nikolaev.

On April 10, 1854, the bombardment of Odessa, the main southern port, began Russian Empire. After a rapid and intense bombardment, it was planned to land troops in the northern Black Sea region, which would force the withdrawal of troops from the Danube principalities, as well as weaken the defense of Crimea. However, the city survived several days of shelling. Moreover, the defenders of Odessa were able to deliver precise strikes on the Allied fleet. The plan of the Anglo-French troops failed. The Allies were forced to retreat towards Crimea and begin battles for the peninsula.

Fighting on the Danube (1853-1856)

It was with the entry of Russian troops into this region that the Crimean War of 1853-1856 began. After success in Battle of Sinop, Another success awaited Russia: the troops completely crossed over to the right bank of the Danube, an offensive was opened on Silistria and further on Bucharest. However, the entry of England and France into the war complicated the Russian offensive. On June 9, 1854, the siege of Silistria was lifted, and Russian troops returned to the left bank of the Danube. By the way, Austria also entered the war against Russia on this front, which was worried about the rapid advance of the Romanov Empire into Wallachia and Moldavia.

In July 1854, a huge landing of the British and French armies (according to various sources, from 30 to 50 thousand) landed near the city of Varna (modern Bulgaria). The troops were supposed to enter the territory of Bessarabia, displacing Russia from this region. However, a cholera epidemic broke out in the French army, and the British public demanded that the army leadership give priority to the Black Sea Fleet in the Crimea.

Fighting in the Caucasus (1853-1856)

An important battle took place in July 1854 near the village of Kyuryuk-Dara ( Western Armenia). The combined Turkish-British forces were defeated. At this stage, the Crimean War was still successful for Russia.

Another important battle in this region took place in June–November 1855. Russian troops decided to attack the eastern part of the Ottoman Empire, the fortress of Karsu, so that the allies would send some troops to this region, thereby slightly easing the siege of Sevastopol. Russia won the Battle of Kars, but this happened after the news of the fall of Sevastopol, so this battle had little impact on the outcome of the war. Moreover, according to the results of the “peace” signed later, the Kars fortress was returned to the Ottoman Empire. However, as the peace negotiations showed, the capture of Kars still played a role. But more on that later.

Defense of Sevastopol (1854-1855)

The most heroic and tragic event of the Crimean War is, of course, the battle for Sevastopol. In September 1855, French-English troops captured the last point of defense of the city - Malakhov Kurgan. The city survived an 11-month siege, but as a result it was surrendered to the Allied forces (among which the Sardinian kingdom appeared). This defeat was key and provided the impetus for ending the war. From the end of 1855, intensive negotiations began, in which Russia had practically no strong arguments. It was clear that the war was lost.

Other battles in Crimea (1854-1856)

In addition to the siege of Sevastopol, several more battles took place on the territory of Crimea in 1854-1855, which were aimed at “unblocking” Sevastopol:

1. Battle of Alma (September 1854).
2. Battle of Balaklava (October 1854).
3. Battle of Inkerman (November 1854).
4. Attempt to liberate Yevpatoria (February 1855).
5. Battle of the Chernaya River (August 1855).

All these battles ended in unsuccessful attempts to lift the siege of Sevastopol.

"Distant" battles

The main fighting of the war took place near the Crimean Peninsula, which gave the name to the war. There were also battles in the Caucasus, on the territory of modern Moldova, as well as in the Balkans. However, not many people know that battles between rivals also took place in remote regions of the Russian Empire. Here are some examples:

1. Petropavlovsk defense. The battle, which took place on the territory of the Kamchatka Peninsula between the combined Franco-British troops on one side and the Russian ones on the other. The battle took place in August 1854. This battle was a consequence of Britain's victory over China during the Opium Wars. As a result, Britain wanted to increase its influence in eastern Asia by displacing Russia. In total, the Allied troops launched two assaults, both of which ended in failure. Russia withstood the Petropavlovsk defense.
2. Arctic company. The operation of the British fleet to attempt to blockade or capture Arkhangelsk, carried out in 1854-1855. The main battles took place in the Barents Sea. The British also launched a bombardment of the Solovetsky Fortress, as well as the robbery of Russian merchant ships in the White and Barents Seas.

Results and historical significance of the war

Nicholas 1 died in February 1855. The task of the new emperor, Alexander 2, was to end the war, and with minimal damage to Russia. In February 1856, the Paris Congress began its work. Russia was represented there by Alexey Orlov and Philip Brunnov. Since neither side saw the point in continuing the war, already on March 6, 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed, as a result of which the Crimean War was completed.

The main terms of the Treaty of Paris 6 were as follows:

1. Russia returned the Karsu fortress to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol and other captured cities of the Crimean peninsula.
2. Russia was prohibited from having a Black Sea fleet. The Black Sea was declared neutral.
3. The Bosporus and Dardanelles straits were declared closed to the Russian Empire.
4. Part of Russian Bessarabia was transferred to the Principality of Moldova, the Danube ceased to be a border river, so navigation was declared free.
5. On the Allad Islands (an archipelago in the Baltic Sea), Russia was prohibited from building military and (or) defensive fortifications.

As for losses, the number Russian citizens who died in the war is 47.5 thousand people. Britain lost 2.8 thousand, France - 10.2, Ottoman Empire - more than 10 thousand. The Sardinian kingdom lost 12 thousand military personnel. The number of deaths on the Austrian side is unknown, perhaps because it was not officially at war with Russia.

In general, the war showed the backwardness of Russia, in comparison with European countries, especially in terms of the economy (completion of the industrial revolution, construction railways, use of steamships). After this defeat, the reforms of Alexander 2 began. In addition, in Russia for a long time the desire for revenge was brewing, which resulted in another war with Turkey in 1877-1878. But this is a completely different story, and the Crimean War of 1853-1856 was completed and Russia was defeated in it.

The cause of the Crimean War was the clash of interests of Russia, England, France and Austria in the Middle East and the Balkans. Leading European countries sought to divide Turkish possessions in order to expand their spheres of influence and markets. Türkiye sought to take revenge for previous defeats in wars with Russia.

One of the main reasons for the emergence of military confrontation was the problem of revising the legal regime for passage Russian fleet Mediterranean straits of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles, recorded in the London Convention of 1840-1841.

The reason for the outbreak of war was a dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy over the ownership of the “Palestinian shrines” (Bethlehem Church and the Church of the Holy Sepulcher), located on the territory of the Ottoman Empire.

In 1851, the Turkish Sultan, incited by France, ordered the keys to the Bethlehem Temple to be taken away from Orthodox priests and give them to Catholics. In 1853, Nicholas I put forward an ultimatum with initially impossible demands, which ruled out a peaceful resolution of the conflict. Russia, having severed diplomatic relations with Turkey, occupied the Danube principalities, and as a result, Turkey declared war on October 4, 1853.

Fearing Russia's growing influence in the Balkans, England and France entered into a secret agreement in 1853 on a policy of opposing Russia's interests and began a diplomatic blockade.

The first period of the war: October 1853 - March 1854. The Black Sea squadron under the command of Admiral Nakhimov in November 1853 completely destroyed the Turkish fleet in the bay of Sinop, capturing the commander-in-chief. In the ground operation, the Russian army achieved significant victories in December 1853 - crossing the Danube and pushing back Turkish troops, it was under the command of General I.F. Paskevich besieged Silistria. In the Caucasus, Russian troops won a major victory near Bashkadılklar, thwarting the Turkish plans to seize Transcaucasia.

England and France, fearing the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, declared war on Russia in March 1854. From March to August 1854, they launched attacks from the sea against Russian ports on the Addan Islands, Odessa, the Solovetsky Monastery, and Petropavlovsk-on-Kamchatka. Attempts at a naval blockade were unsuccessful.

In September 1854, a 60,000-strong landing force was landed on the Crimean Peninsula to capture the main base of the Black Sea Fleet - Sevastopol.

The first battle on the river. Alma in September 1854 ended in failure for the Russian troops.

On September 13, 1854, the heroic defense of Sevastopol began, which lasted 11 months. By order of Nakhimov, Russian sailing fleet, which could not offer resistance to the enemy’s steam ships, was sunk at the entrance to Sevastopol Bay.

The defense was led by admirals V.A. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov, V.I. Istomin, who died heroically during the assaults. The defenders of Sevastopol were L.N. Tolstoy, surgeon N.I. Pirogov.

Many participants in these battles gained fame as national heroes: military engineer E.I. Totleben, General S.A. Khrulev, sailors P. Koshka, I. Shevchenko, soldier A. Eliseev.

Russian troops suffered a number of failures in the battles of Inkerman in Yevpatoria and on the Black River. On August 27, after a 22-day bombardment, an assault on Sevastopol was launched, after which Russian troops were forced to leave the city.

On March 18, 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed between Russia, Turkey, France, England, Austria, Prussia and Sardinia. Russia lost its bases and part of its fleet, the Black Sea was declared neutral. Russia lost its influence in the Balkans, and its military power in the Black Sea basin was undermined.

The basis of this defeat was the political miscalculation of Nicholas I, who pushed economically backward, feudal-serf Russia into conflict with strong European powers. This defeat prompted Alexander II to carry out a number of radical reforms.

The article briefly describes the Crimean War of 1853-1856, which influenced further development Russia and became the immediate reason for the reforms of Alexander II. The war revealed Russia's significant lag behind Europe both in the military field and in all spheres of government.

1. Causes of the Crimean War
2. Progress of the Crimean War
3. Results of the Crimean War

Causes of the Crimean War

• The cause of the Crimean War was the aggravation of mid-19th century V. eastern question. Western powers showed increased interest in the territories of the weakening Ottoman Empire in Europe, and plans were made for the possible division of these territories. Russia was interested in seizing control of the Black Sea straits, which was economically necessary. A stronger Russia would allow it to expand its influence in the region, which worried Western countries. They adhered to the policy of maintaining a weak Turkey as a source of constant danger to the Russian Empire. Turkey was promised Crimea and the Caucasus as a reward for a successful war with Russia.
• The central reason for the war was the struggle between the Russian and French clergy for the possession of holy places in Palestine. Nicholas I, in the form of an ultimatum, declared to the Turkish government that it recognized the right of the Russian emperor to provide assistance to all Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire (mainly the Balkan region). Hoping for support and promises from the Western powers, Türkiye rejected the ultimatum. It became clear that war could no longer be avoided.

Progress of the Crimean War

• In June 1853, Russia sent troops into the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia. The pretext is the protection of the Slavic population. In response to this in the fall, Türkiye declares war on Russia.
• Until the end of the year, Russia's military actions are successful. It expands its sphere of influence on the Danube, wins victories in the Caucasus, and the Russian squadron blocks Turkish ports on the Black Sea.
• Russian victories are causing concern in the West. The situation changes in 1854, when the fleet of England and France enters the Black Sea. Russia declares war on them. After this, European squadrons are sent to blockade Russian ports in the Baltic and Far East. The blockades were of a demonstrative nature; landing attempts ended in failure.
• Russia's successes in Moldavia and Wallachia ended under pressure from Austria, which forced the withdrawal of the Russian army and itself occupied the Danube principalities. A real threat has emerged to create a pan-European coalition against Russia. Nicholas I is forced to concentrate his main forces on the western border.
• Meanwhile, Crimea becomes the main arena of the war. The Allies are blocking the Russian fleet in Sevastopol. Then a landing occurs and the Russian army is defeated on the river. Alma. In the fall of 1854, the heroic defense of Sevastopol began.
• The Russian army is still winning victories in Transcaucasia, but it is already becoming clear that the war is lost.
• By the end of 1855, the besiegers of Sevastopol managed to capture the southern part of the city, which, however, did not lead to the surrender of the fortress. The huge number of casualties forces the allies to abandon further assault attempts. Fighting actually stop.
• In 1856, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, which is a black page in the history of Russian diplomacy. Russia was losing the Black Sea Fleet and all bases on the Black Sea coast. Only Sevastopol remained in Russian hands in exchange for the Turkish fortress of Kars captured in the Caucasus.

Results of the Crimean War

• In addition to territorial concessions and losses, Russia suffered a serious moral blow. Having shown its backwardness during the war, Russia was excluded from the list of great powers for a long time and was no longer perceived in Europe as a serious adversary.
• Nevertheless, the war became a necessary lesson for Russia, revealing all its shortcomings. There was an understanding in society of the need for significant changes. The reforms of Alexander II were a natural consequence of the defeat.

The Crimean War, called in the West Eastern War(1853-1856) - a military clash between Russia and a coalition of European states that came out in defense of Turkey. It had little effect on the external position of the Russian Empire, but significantly on its domestic policy. The defeat forced the autocracy to begin reforms of everything government controlled which ultimately led to the abolition of serfdom and the transformation of Russia into a powerful capitalist power

Causes of the Crimean War

Objective

*** Rivalry between European states and Russia in the matter of control over the numerous possessions of the weak, collapsing Ottoman Empire (Turkey)

On January 9, 14, February 20, 21, 1853, at meetings with the British Ambassador G. Seymour, Emperor Nicholas I proposed that England share the Turkish Empire together with Russia (History of Diplomacy, Volume One pp. 433 - 437. Edited by V. P. Potemkin)

*** Russia's desire for primacy in managing the system of straits (Bosphorus and Dardanelles) from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean

“If England is thinking of settling in Constantinople in the near future, then I will not allow it... For my part, I am equally disposed to accept the obligation not to settle there, of course, as an owner; as a temporary guardian is a different matter" (from the statement of Nicholas the First to the British Ambassador Seymour on January 9, 1853)

*** Russia's desire to include in the sphere of its national interests affairs in the Balkans and among the southern Slavs

“Let Moldova, Wallachia, Serbia, Bulgaria come under Russian protectorate. As for Egypt, I fully understand the importance of this territory for England. Here I can only say that if, during the distribution of the Ottoman inheritance after the fall of the empire, you take possession of Egypt, then I will have no objection to this. I will say the same about Candia (the island of Crete). This island might be right for you and I don't see why it shouldn't be English proficiency"(conversation between Nicholas the First and British Ambassador Seymour on January 9, 1853 at an evening at Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna)

Subjective

*** Turkey's weakness

“Türkiye is a “sick man”. Nicholas did not change his terminology all his life when he spoke about the Turkish Empire" ((History of Diplomacy, Volume One pp. 433 - 437)

*** Nicholas I's confidence in his impunity

“I want to speak to you as a gentleman, if we manage to come to an agreement - me and England - the rest doesn’t matter to me, I don’t care what others do or will do” (from a conversation between Nicholas the First and British Ambassador Hamilton Seymour on January 9, 1853 at the evening at Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna)

*** Nicholas's suggestion that Europe is unable to present a united front

“the tsar was confident that Austria and France would not join England (in a possible confrontation with Russia), and England would not dare to fight him without allies” (History of Diplomacy, Volume One pp. 433 - 437. OGIZ, Moscow, 1941)

*** Autocracy, the result of which was the wrong relationship between the emperor and his advisers

“... Russian ambassadors in Paris, London, Vienna, Berlin, ... Chancellor Nesselrode ... in their reports distorted the state of affairs before the Tsar. They almost always wrote not about what they saw, but about what the king would like to know from them. When one day Andrei Rosen convinced Prince Lieven to finally open the Tsar’s eyes, Lieven answered literally: “So that I would say this to the Emperor?!” But I'm not a fool! If I wanted to tell him the truth, he would throw me out the door, and nothing else would come of it" (History of Diplomacy, Volume One)

*** The problem of "Palestinian shrines":

It became apparent back in 1850, continued and intensified in 1851, weakened in the beginning and middle of 1852, and again unusually worsened just at the very end of 1852 - beginning of 1853. Louis Napoleon, while still president, told the Turkish government that he wanted to preserve and restore all the rights and benefits of the Catholic Church confirmed by Turkey back in 1740 in the so-called holy places, that is, in the churches of Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Sultan agreed; but a sharp protest followed from Russian diplomacy in Constantinople, pointing out the advantages of the Orthodox Church over the Catholic Church based on the conditions of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace. After all, Nicholas I considered himself the patron saint of the Orthodox

*** France's desire to split the continental union of Austria, England, Prussia and Russia, which arose during the Napoleonic wars n

“Subsequently, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Napoleon III, Drouey de Luis, very frankly stated: “The question of holy places and everything that relates to it has no real significance for France. This whole eastern question, which is causing so much noise, served the imperial government only as a means of disrupting the continental union, which had paralyzed France for almost half a century. Finally, the opportunity presented itself to sow discord in a powerful coalition, and Emperor Napoleon grabbed it with both hands" (History of Diplomacy)

Events preceding the Crimean War of 1853-1856

1740 - France obtained from the Turkish Sultan priority rights for Catholics in the Holy Places of Jerusalem

1774, July 21 - Kuchuk-Kainardzhi peace treaty between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, in which preferential rights to Holy Places were decided in favor of the Orthodox

1837, June 20 - Queen Victoria took the English throne

1841 - Lord Aberdeen took over as British Foreign Secretary

1844, May - friendly meeting between Queen Victoria, Lord Aberdeen and Nicholas I, who visited England incognito

During his short stay in London, the Emperor charmed everyone with his knightly courtesy and royal grandeur, and charmed Queen Victoria, her husband and the most prominent statesmen the then Great Britain, with whom he tried to get closer and enter into an exchange of thoughts.
Nicholas’s aggressive policy in 1853 was due, among other things, to Victoria’s friendly attitude towards him and the fact that the head of the cabinet in England at that moment was the same Lord Aberdeen, who listened to him so kindly at Windsor in 1844

1850 - Patriarch Kirill of Jerusalem asked the Turkish government for permission to repair the dome of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. After long negotiations, the repair plan was drawn up in favor of the Catholics, and master key from the Bethlehem Church was transferred to the Catholics.

1852, December 29 - Nicholas I ordered to recruit reserves for the 4th and 5th infantry corps, which were driving along the Russian-Turkish border in Europe and to supply these troops with supplies.

1853, January 9 - at an evening with Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna, at which the diplomatic corps was present, the tsar approached G. Seymour and had a conversation with him: “encourage your government to write again about this subject (the partition of Turkey), to write more fully, and let it do so without hesitation. I trust the English government. I am asking him not for an obligation, not an agreement: this is a free exchange of opinions, and, if necessary, the word of a gentleman. That's enough for us."

1853, January - the Sultan's representative in Jerusalem announced the ownership of the shrines, giving preference to Catholics.

1853, January 14 - second meeting of Nicholas with British Ambassador Seymour

1853, February 9 - an answer came from London, given on behalf of the cabinet by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Lord John Rossel. The answer was sharply negative. Rossel stated that he does not understand why one can think that Turkey is close to the fall, does not find it possible to conclude any agreements regarding Turkey, even the temporary transfer of Constantinople into the hands of the tsar considers unacceptable, finally, Rossel emphasized that both France and Austria will be suspicious of such an Anglo-Russian agreement.

1853, February 20 - third meeting of the Tsar with the British Ambassador on the same issue

1853, February 21 - fourth

1853, March - Russian Ambassador Extraordinary Menshikov arrived in Constantinople

Menshikov was greeted with extraordinary honor. The Turkish police did not even dare to disperse the crowd of Greeks, who gave the prince an enthusiastic meeting. Menshikov behaved with defiant arrogance. In Europe, they paid a lot of attention even to Menshikov’s purely external provocative antics: they wrote about how he paid a visit to the Grand Vizier without taking off his coat, how he spoke sharply to Sultan Abdul-Mecid. From Menshikov’s very first steps, it became clear that he would never give in on two central points: first, he wants to achieve recognition of Russia’s right to patronage not only of the Orthodox Church, but also of the Sultan’s Orthodox subjects; secondly, he demands that Turkey’s consent be approved by the Sultan’s Sened, and not by a firman, i.e., that it be in the nature of a foreign policy agreement with the king, and not be a simple decree

1853, March 22 - Menshikov presented Rifaat Pasha with a note: “The demands of the imperial government are categorical.” And two years later, 1853, on March 24, a new note from Menshikov, which demanded an end to the “systematic and malicious opposition” and a draft “convention” that made Nicholas, as diplomats of other powers immediately declared, “the second Turkish Sultan”

1853, end of March - Napoleon III ordered his navy stationed in Toulon to immediately sail to the Aegean Sea, to Salamis, and be ready. Napoleon irrevocably decided to fight with Russia.

1853, end of March - a British squadron set off for the Eastern Mediterranean

1853, April 5 - the English ambassador Stratford-Canning arrived in Istanbul, who advised the Sultan to concede on the merits of the demands for holy places, since he understood that Menshikov would not be satisfied with this, because that was not what he came for. Menshikov will begin to insist on demands that will already be clearly aggressive in nature, and then England and France will support Turkey. At the same time, Stratford managed to instill in Prince Menshikov the conviction that England, in the event of war, would never take the side of the Sultan.

1853, May 4 - Türkiye conceded in everything related to the “holy places”; immediately after this, Menshikov, seeing that the desired pretext for occupying the Danube principalities was disappearing, presented his previous demand for an agreement between the Sultan and the Russian emperor.

1853, May 13 - Lord Redcliffe visited the Sultan and informed him that Turkey could be helped by the English squadron located in the Mediterranean Sea, as well as that Turkey must resist Russia. 1853, May 13 - Menshikov was invited to the Sultan. He asked the Sultan to satisfy his demands and mentioned the possibility of reducing Turkey to a secondary state.

1853, May 18 - Menshikov was informed of the decision taken by the Turkish government to promulgate a decree on holy places; issue to the Patriarch of Constantinople a firman protecting Orthodoxy; propose concluding a senedd giving the right to build a Russian church in Jerusalem. Menshikov refused

1853, May 6 - Menshikov presented Turkey with a note of rupture.

1853, May 21 - Menshikov left Constantinople

1853, June 4 - the Sultan issued a decree guaranteeing rights and privileges Christian churches, but especially the rights and benefits of the Orthodox Church.

However, Nicholas issued a manifesto that he, like his ancestors, must protect Orthodox Church in Turkey, and that in order to ensure the implementation by the Turks of previous treaties with Russia, violated by the Sultan, the Tsar was forced to occupy the Danube principalities (Moldova and Wallachia)

1853, June 14 - Nicholas I issued a manifesto on the occupation of the Danube principalities

The 4th and 5th infantry corps, numbering 81,541 people, were prepared to occupy Moldova and Wallachia. On May 24, the 4th Corps moved from Podolsk and Volyn provinces to Leovo. The 15th Division of the 5th Infantry Corps arrived there at the beginning of June and merged with the 4th Corps. The command was entrusted to Prince Mikhail Dmitrievich Gorchakov

1853, June 21 - Russian troops crossed the Prut River and invaded Moldova

1853, July 4 - Russian troops occupied Bucharest

1853, July 31 - “Vienna Note”. This note stated that Türkiye undertakes to comply with all the conditions of the Adrianople and Kuchuk-Kainardzhi agreements. peace treaties; The position on the special rights and advantages of the Orthodox Church was again emphasized.

But Stratford-Radcliffe forced Sultan Abdul-Mecid to reject the Vienna Note, and even before that he hastened to draw up, ostensibly on behalf of Turkey, another note, with some reservations against the Vienna Note. The king, in turn, rejected her. At this time, Nicholas received news from the ambassador in France about the impossibility of a joint military action by England and France.

1853, October 16 - Türkiye declared war on Russia

1853, October 20 - Russia declared war on Turkey

The course of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Briefly

1853, November 30 - Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay

1853, December 2 - victory of the Russian Caucasian army over the Turkish in the battle of Kars near Bashkadyklyar

1854, January 4 - the combined Anglo-French fleet entered the Black Sea

1854, February 27 - Franco-English ultimatum to Russia demanding the withdrawal of troops from the Danube principalities

1854, March 7 - Union Treaty of Turkey, England and France

1854, March 27 - England declared war on Russia

1854, March 28 - France declared war on Russia

1854, March-July - siege of Silistria, a port city in north-eastern Bulgaria, by the Russian army

1854, April 9 - Prussia and Austria joined diplomatic sanctions against Russia. Russia remained isolated

1854, April - shelling of the Solovetsky Monastery by the English fleet

1854, June - the beginning of the retreat of Russian troops from the Danube principalities

1854, August 10 - conference in Vienna, during which Austria, France and England put forward a number of demands to Russia, which Russia rejected

1854, August 22 - the Turks entered Bucharest

1854, August - the Allies captured the Russian-owned Åland Islands in the Baltic Sea

1854, September 14 - Anglo-French troops landed in the Crimea, near Evpatoria

1854, September 20 - unsuccessful battle of the Russian army with the allies at the Alma River

1854, September 27 - the beginning of the siege of Sevastopol, the heroic 349-day defense of Sevastopol, which
headed by admirals Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin, who died during the siege

1854, October 17 - first bombardment of Sevastopol

1854, October - two unsuccessful attempts by the Russian army to break the blockade

1854, October 26 - the battle of Balaklava, unsuccessful for the Russian army

1854, November 5 - unsuccessful battle for the Russian army near Inkerman

1854, November 20 - Austria announced its readiness to enter the war

1855, January 14 - Sardinia declared war on Russia

1855, April 9 - second bombing of Sevastopol

1855, May 24 - the Allies occupied Kerch

1855, June 3 - third bombardment of Sevastopol

1855, August 16 - an unsuccessful attempt by the Russian army to lift the siege of Sevastopol

1855, September 8 - Malakhov Kurgan was captured by the French - key position defense of Sevastopol

1855, September 11 - the Allies entered the city

1855, November - a series of successful operations of the Russian army against the Turks in the Caucasus

1855, October - December - secret negotiations between France and Austria, concerned about the possible strengthening of England as a result of the defeat of Russia and the Russian Empire about peace

1856, February 25 - the Paris Peace Congress began

1856, March 30 - Peace of Paris

Peace terms

The return of Kars to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol, the transformation of the Black Sea into neutral: Russia and Turkey are deprived of the opportunity to have a navy and coastal fortifications here, the concession of Bessarabia (the abolition of the exclusive Russian protectorate over Wallachia, Moldova and Serbia)

Reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War

- Russia's military-technical lag behind the leading European powers
- Underdevelopment of communications
- Embezzlement, corruption in the rear of the army

“Due to the nature of his activity, Golitsyn had to learn the war as if from scratch. Then he will see heroism, holy self-sacrifice, selfless courage and patience of the defenders of Sevastopol, but, hanging around in the rear on militia affairs, at every step he was faced with God knows what: collapse, indifference, cold-blooded mediocrity and monstrous theft. They stole everything that other - higher - thieves did not have time to steal on the way to Crimea: bread, hay, oats, horses, ammunition. The mechanics of the robbery were simple: suppliers provided rotten goods, which were accepted (as a bribe, of course) by the main commissariat in St. Petersburg. Then - also for a bribe - the army commissariat, then the regimental commissariat, and so on until the last spoke in the chariot. And the soldiers ate rotten stuff, wore rotten stuff, slept on rotten stuff, shot rotten stuff. Military units themselves had to purchase fodder from the local population with money issued by a special financial department. Golitsyn once went there and witnessed such a scene. An officer arrived from the front line in a faded, shabby uniform. The feed has run out, hungry horses are eating sawdust and shavings. An elderly quartermaster with major's shoulder straps adjusted his glasses on his nose and said in a casual voice:
- We'll give you money, eight percent is fine.
- Why on earth? — the officer was indignant. - We are shedding blood!..
“They sent a newbie again,” the quartermaster sighed. - Just small children! I remember that Captain Onishchenko came from your brigade. Why wasn't he sent?
- Onishchenko died...
- May the kingdom of heaven be upon him! - The quartermaster crossed himself. - It's a pity. The man was understanding. We respected him, and he respected us. We won't ask for too much.
The quartermaster was not embarrassed even by the presence of an outsider. Prince Golitsyn approached him, grabbed him by the soul, pulled him out from behind the table and lifted him into the air.
- I’ll kill you, you bastard!..
“Kill,” the quartermaster wheezed, “I still won’t give it without interest.”
“Do you think I’m joking?” The prince squeezed him with his paw.
- I can’t... the chain will break... - from last bit of strength the quartermaster croaked. - Then I won’t live anyway... The Petersburgers will strangle me...
“People are dying there, you son of a bitch!” - the prince cried out in tears and disgustedly threw away the half-strangled military official.
He touched his wrinkled throat, like a condor’s, and croaked with unexpected dignity:
“If we had been there... we would have died no worse... And please, please,” he turned to the officer, “comply with the rules: for artillerymen - six percent, for all other branches of the military - eight.”
The officer twitched his cold nose pathetically, as if he was sobbing:
“They’re eating sawdust... shavings... to hell with you!.. I can’t come back without hay.”

- Poor troop control

“Golitsyn was amazed by the commander-in-chief himself, to whom he introduced himself. Gorchakov was not that old, a little over sixty, but he gave the impression of some kind of rottenness, it seemed that if you poked a finger at him, he would crumble like a completely rotten mushroom. The wandering gaze could not concentrate on anything, and when the old man released Golitsyn with a weak wave of his hand, he heard him humming in French:
I'm poor, poor poilu,
And I'm not in a hurry...
- What else is that! - the colonel of the quartermaster service said to Golitsyn when they left the commander-in-chief. “At least he goes to positions, but Prince Menshikov didn’t remember at all that the war is on. He just made it all witty, and I must admit, it was caustic. He spoke about the Minister of War as follows: “Prince Dolgorukov has a threefold relationship with gunpowder - he did not invent it, did not smell it and does not send it to Sevastopol.” About commander Dmitry Erofeevich Osten-Sacken: “Erofeich has not become strong. I'm exhausted." Sarcasm at least! - the colonel added thoughtfully. “But he allowed a psalmist to be appointed over the great Nakhimov.” For some reason, Prince Golitsyn did not find it funny. In general, he was unpleasantly surprised by the tone of cynical mockery that reigned at headquarters. It seemed that these people had lost all self-respect, and with it any respect for anything. They didn’t talk about the tragic situation of Sevastopol, but they relished ridiculing the commander of the Sevastopol garrison, Count Osten-Sacken, who only knows what to do with priests, read akathists and argue about divine scripture. "He has one good property, added the colonel. “He doesn’t interfere in anything” (Yu. Nagibin “Stronger than all other commands”)

Results of the Crimean War

The Crimean War showed

The greatness and heroism of the Russian people

Defectiveness of the socio-political structure of the Russian Empire

The need for deep reforms of the Russian state