Productive labor in any society, regardless of its social form, labor creates a material product (i.e., labor in the sphere of material production). However, in each socio-economic formation, productive labor appears as socially determined labor, which has its own specific features.

Thus, products must be produced by productive workers in such quantities as to feed not only themselves and (on the basis of the exchange of goods for goods) other commodity producers, but also unproductive workers (sellers of services). Economically, this means the following: 1) the provision of services in exchange for goods, the "sale of services", requires not only a given commodity economy, but also a sufficiently productive economy, whose surplus product (material, of course), acting as a commodity, is sufficient to support workers services; 2) the service sector, or non-material production, arises on the basis of material production, depends on it, subordinate him. The latter position remains true, no matter how the ratio of the number of people employed in material and non-material production changes, in any case, as long as the social division of labor persists. Material production workers contain both themselves and other members of society, including service workers.

2.2. Education, healthcare, culture

Education and healthcare directly participate not in the production itself, but in the reproduction of the most important factor of production - the labor force, participate in determining its price. A healthy worker can work more productively than a sick worker. A skilled worker can produce more value in the same period of working time than an unskilled worker. But in any case, the worker himself works productively, and the fact that he produces the means of subsistence, including for workers in medicine and education, is due to the fact that the latter exchange their labor for the product of the labor of the worker, and not because they are participants in the productive labor.

The participation of workers in medicine and education in determining the price of labor power means only that some part of the costs of maintaining health care, education and culture is included in the wages of the worker, but the value of his labor power is still created by the worker himself. The price of labor power is included in the cost of production of the capitalist along with the costs of the material elements of production. If the worker's family pays for medical services and for education itself, then these expenses determine the value of labor power, respectively, its selling price, which the worker must compensate the capitalist in excess. If the entire capitalist class imposes these costs on its collective executive body - the state, then as a result the capitalist pays for these services not in the form of the worker's wages, but in the form of taxes - from the surplus value that the wage workers create. In both cases, doctors and teachers are supported by the working class. The costs of maintaining them are such costs that, although they are necessary conditions for production, are not themselves included in it.

2.3. The science

The science, as predicted by Marx, becomes a direct productive force. Scientific activity, from the point of view of practical results, is the discovery of the laws of nature, which creates the possibility of using new forces of nature in the service of man. In this sense, science puts at the disposal of production not its own "power", but the forces of nature. That is why Marx compared science with the productive forces given by nature itself. The transformation of this possibility into reality is carried out through the technological application of scientific data. It follows from this that non-applied types of scientific activity must be excluded from production activity. But the technological application of science does not produce by itself, but realizes its participation in production through a change in the productivity of living labor. As long as there is an opposition between mental and physical labor, the participation of mental labor, in particular, the work of scientists in production, will still be indirect. There are, of course, no immovable sharp edges in society, and science partially enters the production sphere - at the stage of development work, but not at the stage of research and development. Marx, saying that "science is becoming a direct productive force", had in mind the prospect of overcoming the opposition between mental and physical labor, the transformation of all production into a conscious technological application of science. As long as this is not the case, the assignment of science to the sphere of production is premature.

Scientific activity does not create a material product, nor does it create a national income; on the contrary, it is an area of ​​significant costs that pay off with the development of technologies that increase the productivity of labor in material production. These costs are included in the cost of the final product, but do not represent newly created value.

2.4. The ratio of non-production and production spheres

The fact that no new value is produced in the non-productive sphere does not mean any belittling of non-productive labor, its uselessness by society. It only means that the sphere of material production is basis well-being of society, and the non-productive sphere is, as it were, a superstructure on top of it; it ultimately depends on material production and is determined by its basic relations. The presence of a developed sphere of material production is a necessary condition for the existence of a non-productive sphere.

Although labor in the non-productive sphere does not create national income, however, since it is aimed at developing the spiritual potential of a person, at preserving his health, etc., it has an impact on labor productivity and the qualifications of workers in material production and thus indirectly affects the size total social product and national income.

3. Productive labor under capitalism

It is characteristic of productive labor under capitalism that it creates surplus value. From the capitalist point of view, labor in the sphere of material production is not productive if it does not produce surplus value.

Specifically capitalist wage labor means that it is exchanged for money as capital, in contrast to wage labor which is exchanged for money as income. In the first case, we are talking about the fact that the worker sells his ability to work to the capitalist, who organizes production in order to extract surplus value. In the second case, labor power is sold to satisfy the personal needs of the capitalist. For example, a capitalist hires a tailor to make him a suit. Here he uses the work of a tailor not for profit, not for the production of surplus value, as, for example, is the case in a garment factory.

The capitalist mode of production is based on wage-labour, which is directly exchanged for money as capital and thereby produces capital. This type of wage labor is productive labor in capitalist society. “An actor, for example, and even a clown, is, in accordance with this, a productive worker if he is employed by a capitalist (entrepreneur) to whom he returns more labor than he receives from him in the form of wages; meanwhile, the petty tailor who comes to the capitalist's house and mends his trousers, creating only use value for him, is an unproductive worker.

Wage labor, directly exchanged for capital, functions both in material and non-material production, i.e., where there is an increase in the value of capital. Therefore, wage labor directly exchanged for capital is the general form of productive labor under capitalism. But just as the general formula of capital M → C → M "does not give an answer about the source of the increase in the value of capital, the general form of productive labor does not answer the question: what kind of labor creates surplus value? The fact is that in the form of wage labor directly exchanged for capital, not only does labor create surplus value, as is the case in material production, but also labor, which only captures the added value already created, as it happens in the sphere of circulation and in non-material production.

Therefore, under capitalism, productive labor must be distinguished in essence and form. By essence productive labor under capitalism is labor that creates surplus value and thereby increases the value of capital. This labor is the material basis for the reproduction of capitalist production relations.

By shape productive labor is any wage labor directly exchanged for capital and increasing its value. This labor also reproduces capitalist production relations.

An artist working for an entrepreneur is an employee, but not a productive worker. By his labor he does not participate in the production of material goods and therefore does not create new value (hence, surplus value). The salary of the artist, as well as the profit that the entrepreneur receives, is a deduction from the income of the public. “The sale of these services to the public,” says K. Marx, “reimburses the wages of the entrepreneur and makes a profit.” From point of view entrepreneur, however, this artist will productive a worker, insofar as he provides him with a profit, just as a hired tradesman or a bank clerk is, from the point of view of a merchant and a banker, productive workers, insofar as their labor makes it possible to appropriate profit. This subjective point of view of the capitalist fetishizes social form of productive labor under capitalism. The appearance of phenomena is taken as their essence. This situation is due to the discrepancy between labor that produces surplus value and labor that brings profit to the capitalist.

The form of productive labor in capitalist society is all labor that is directly exchanged for capital and yields profit. The sphere of application of such labor is all types of human activity, if they are organized capitalistically. Under capitalism, writes K. Marx, “a writer is a productive worker, not because he produces ideas, but because he enriches the bookseller who publishes his works, that is, he is productive insofar as he is an employee of some capitalist” .

In essence, this approach of bourgeois economists to the national income completely coincides with its definition as the sum of the incomes of all the inhabitants of the country. Such a definition of the national income is beneficial to the bourgeoisie, since it obscures the actual process of its distribution in bourgeois society, conceals the process of exploitation. In reality, the national income is created only productive workers. Only these workers create new value of the annual social product by their labor.

The profit of the capitalist in the sphere of unproductive labor is a part of the surplus value produced in the sphere of material production and redistributed in accordance with the average rate of profit.

But surplus value is the value of the surplus product, the product of the surplus labor of the productive worker. Just as surplus product is part of the total product of the worker's labor, so surplus value is part of the value of the goods produced by the wage worker for the capitalist.

That is why Marxist political economy asserts that the concept of a productive worker under capitalism includes, firstly, the relationship between the worker and the product of his labor, and secondly, also the specifically social, historically arisen production relation, which makes the worker the direct instrument for increasing capital. The first relation is derived from the general conditions of material production. The second is from the capitalist character of production.

This is the fundamental difference between the views of Marxist political economy and the views of bourgeois political economy on the concept of productive labor. Bourgeois political economy considers any labor that brings "income" productive. Marxist political economy considers productive only labor in the sphere of material production, which creates new value, which breaks down into the wages of the worker and the surplus value appropriated by the capitalist.

4. Production and non-production spheres and class affiliation

As is known, the proletariat is a class of hired workers deprived of their own means of production and therefore compelled to sell their labor power to the owners of the social means of production—the capitalists, who use wage labor for profit.

Under capitalism, any wage worker whose labor is a source of profit for the capitalist belongs to the proletarian class, regardless of whether he is employed in the sphere of material production (production of goods) or in the sphere of non-material production (production of services and spiritual goods).

On the other hand, the proletariat is not homogeneous, and the division of the proletariat into different "detachments" depending on the proximity to the vital organs of the "organism" of all capitalist production is objective. From a practical point of view, from the point of view of revolutionary political strategy and tactics, this division means that the detachments of the proletariat alone, by their very place in the social division of labor, can inflict more tangible blows on capital, have (at least potentially) greater economic (and hence and political) power than others.

5. Productive and unproductive labor under socialism

In a socialist society, whose goal is not the production of goods and not the production of surplus value, but the production of man himself, the opposition between productive and unproductive labor will lose its former meaning. When material production ceases to serve the accumulation of wealth as such, but becomes a means of ensuring the full well-being and all-round development of each member of society, other types of labor serving the same purpose will no longer be opposed to labor to create material wealth. In addition, overcoming the opposition between mental and physical labor will lead to the disappearance of social categories engaged exclusively in one or another type of labor, each of which will be labor for the benefit of the whole society.

Video lesson 2: Sectoral and territorial structure of the world economy

Lecture: Sectoral structure of the economy. Geography of the main branches of production and non-production spheres

Sectoral structure of the economy- this is the relationship of all industries, their composition and pace of development.

It is divided into manufacturing and non-manufacturing areas. To production or material include all industries producing material goods, delivering them to the consumer, continuing the process of production in the sphere of circulation. Non-production areas and includes services rendered to the population and social services.

Each of the branches of the economy is subdivided into smaller branches, which are divided into specialized branches, then into types of production.

for example. The transport industry is divided into water, air and land. Water, divided by specialization into river and sea.

A more complex division agro-industrial complex where agricultural and industrial sectors are closely intertwined, interconnected:

Agriculture;

an industry that produces agricultural machinery;

industries that process products and bring it to the consumer (product processing, catering).

Types of industries:

• latest

To old include coal, metallurgical, etc. New originated in the 20th century. This is the automotive industry, the production of plastic products. Newest associated with science are high-tech industries: robotics, microelectronics, chemistry of organic synthesis. High-tech are inherent in the Japanese economy.

Geography of the main branches of production and non-production spheres

Manufacturing

The transformation of industries has led to a reduction in the percentage of old ones, and an increase in new and new ones. Some southern countries have moved from developing to the top ten in industrial production. In high-tech production, the Nordic countries are leading. The geography of industries determines the location of large industrial areas (about 100). They are located in almost all regions. The numerical superiority falls on Europe.

Fuel and energy complex provides the population with fuel and energy. The world progress is ruled by the fuel and energy industry. To date, there are alternative energy sources, but so far they are not able to meet the needs of mankind. This industry is characterized by the development of extractive industries in some countries, and consumption in others. The main consumers are the USA, Europe, Japan. But developing countries are engaged in mining. The development of this industry has undergone changes: the first stage is the extraction and use of coal as a fuel. The second is based on the use of oil and gas, which has given advantages to countries with oil deposits. Until today, the cost of oil on the world market is an indicator of the economy on a global scale. Oil is produced in 90 countries. 40% of production comes from OPEC countries. Russia is among the top three countries in terms of oil production. 45% of oil goes to the international market.

Gas production in the 21st century got a second wind. The idea of ​​the energy of radioactive decay has not justified itself, since its use can lead to irreparable consequences. Gas is easier to produce, easier to transport, more environmentally friendly. The geography of gas production has also changed. The countries of the South took up the extraction of gas. 25% of natural gas enters the market. Part is transported through pipelines, the rest is in a liquefied state. Algeria was the first to transport liquid gas.

The world got bigger produce and consume electricity. Most of it is produced in the countries of the northern hemisphere. 64% of electricity is generated at thermal power plants. Here the leading place is occupied by the USA, China, Russia, Japan. The percentage of thermal power plants in the share of electricity prevails in Poland, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait. Their stations operate on coal and oil products. 18% of energy is produced by hydroelectric power plants. The leading position belongs to the countries of North America, Russia and China. The share of nuclear energy in the world is growing. 31 countries of the world use nuclear power plants. In the USA, France, Japan most of all produce atomic energy. The share of nuclear energy is higher compared to other sources in Lithuania, France, Belgium. The accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant has reduced the construction of new nuclear power plants. Some countries have declared a moratorium on the use of nuclear energy, in some countries nuclear power plants have been dismantled. The amount of nuclear energy in Russia has decreased. People paid too high a price for the use of atomic energy. Although it is impossible to completely abandon this type of energy, developments are now underway to use it more safely.

Development pace mining industry decreased markedly, but the role of the industry in the world is great. After the raw material crisis of the 1970s, many countries revised the concept of using the mineral resource complex, reoriented towards the use of their own raw materials and saving resources. There are 8 leading mining countries in the world: USA, Canada, Australia, South Africa, Brazil, India, China, Russia.

Until the 70s metal production determined the degree of development of the economy. Now the trends have changed, as today, in many industries, metal products have begun to be replaced with plastic products. The second reason is the transfer of "dirty production" to the southern countries. The geography of metallurgy has also changed. If earlier this industry was focused on raw materials and coal deposits, now there are mini-factories that are focused on the consumer. About 200 million tons of ferrous metals are exported annually. Main suppliers: Europe and Japan.

Development non-ferrous metallurgy decreased in post-industrial countries, but increased in the southern. The reason is the same. The countries of Europe and America care about the environment in their countries, "dirty production" is moving to the south.

mechanical engineering has also undergone some metamorphosis. Older industries have stabilized or are in decline, such as shipbuilding. The production of new ones is growing, for example, automotive, electronics, robotics, etc. On the world economic map, 4 large regions can be distinguished: North America (all types of production), Europe, East and Southeast Asia (production of household appliances), CIS countries, in which mechanical engineering is the main industry.

Accommodation chemical industries has changed radically. The production of organic synthesis products and polymers, which are based on the processing of petroleum products, is increasingly expanding its boundaries. Chemistry has moved to oil-producing countries: the countries of the Persian Gulf, North Africa, Mexico.

Old branches light industry, previously located in the UK, USA, Europe fell into decay. On the other hand, the countries of the south, oriented towards cheap labor and their own raw materials, received a new impetus in development. Everywhere you can find cheap clothes and textiles from China.

• Non-manufacturing sphere

The non-production sphere occupies a significant position in the economy of states. It includes: education, art, culture, science, transport services, housing and communal services, the financial sector, tourism, etc. In the non-manufacturing sector, the United States leads the world. The share of the economy is dominated by the non-manufacturing sector. It employs 2/3 of the country's population. For example, New York is the largest financial center, the centers of science and education are such cities as Stanford, Cambridge, Los Angeles. The share of tourism is great, especially in the states of Florida, California, Hawaii.

In each of the countries there are centers of finance, culture, science and tourism. In Hungary it is Budapest, in Russia it is Moscow and St. Petersburg. The structure of trade between countries is growing. Imported goods can be found in all countries of the world. The budget of some developing countries is completely dependent on tourism. The UK is considered the center of world education.

The non-productive sphere should be understood as a set of industries and activities that are not involved in the creation of material wealth, the activities of which are aimed directly at a person or at transforming the social conditions in which he exists, and is mediated by economic relations regarding the provision of various services to meet national and personal needs. , as well as to service the movement of a material product.
The subject of the economy of the non-productive sphere is the totality of economic relations arising in society in connection with the functions of non-productive industries.
The finances of non-manufacturing sectors have the following components:
1) finances of housing and communal services;
2) finances of consumer services for the population;
3) finances of passenger transport;
4) finances of a number of industries;
5) health care and physical culture finance;
6) education finance;
7) finances of culture and art;
8) finances of science and scientific services;
9) finances of public organizations;
10) finances of banking and credit and insurance organizations;
11) finances of commercial and intermediary organizations (including commodity and stock exchanges, brokerage houses, funds, etc.);
12) finances of governing bodies;
13) defense finance;
14) finances of law enforcement agencies.
The non-productive sphere includes: health care, education, art, culture and science, sports, tourism, consumer services, housing and communal services.
According to the form of influence of non-productive industries on material production and the nature of their impact on the subject of productive labor, a classification of industries is proposed, divided into five main groups.
First group. Material and technical supply and sales; procurement, finance, credit, trade.
Second group. Public catering, consumer services, preschool children's institutions.
Third group. Health care and education.
Fourth group. Science, art, literature, cultural service.
Fifth group. Public administration, defense, paid functions in public organizations.
Branches of the first group. They are so close to the sphere of production of material goods that statistics directly take into account most of them as branches of material production. These branches serve the circulation of production assets and are directly connected with the commodity and monetary forms of these assets, their metamorphoses under the conditions of commodity production.
In terms of the nature of its connection with material production and the way in which it is influenced, the first group of branches of the non-productive sphere has a number of differences from its other groups. A feature of the first group of branches of the non-productive sphere is the combination of direct and indirect impact on material production (through the subjects of productive labor) of the socially useful labor expended in them. This labor is aimed at serving the processes of exchange of activity between productive workers and the distribution between them of products of individual consumption.
Branches of the second group. The main purpose of the branches of the non-productive sphere, classified in the classification to the second group, is the socialization of labor that serves the consumption of workers. This reduces the time spent on unproductive labor in the individual household and increases the free time of the workers.
Branches of the third group. Education and health care directly ensure the process of expanded reproduction of the labor force, and also create conditions for the full and comprehensive development of all members of society.
The economic effect of health care is manifested through an increase in the working capacity of workers as a result of improved sanitary and hygienic living conditions and a decrease in morbidity. However, the effect of the development of the healthcare system is not limited to these indicators: it is also necessary to take into account the increase in labor productivity of workers as a result of maintaining or restoring their health. In addition, the development of health care creates conditions for the education of a new person, in which spiritual wealth and moral purity should be harmoniously combined with physical perfection.
Branches of the fourth group. If public catering and consumer services establishments can rightly be called factories of the working people's free time, then the non-productive branches assigned to the fourth group serve this free time.
Thus, non-productive industries, the source of existence and development of which is productive labor, in turn, have a strong impact on the growth of production. This reverse influence of the non-productive sphere on material production is carried out in various forms: maintenance of the circulation of production assets (material and technical supply and marketing, finance and credit, trade); strengthening the material interest of workers in the results of their work (financial and credit system, trade), etc.
Features of the non-production sphere.
The functions of the purpose of the non-productive sphere differ from material production.
There is no exchange between man and nature, and labor is aimed at the formation and development of human needs.
Labor in the non-productive sphere is individualized, which requires special character traits from the worker in the non-productive sphere.
Labor in the non-productive sphere is practically not subject to automation and mechanization.
The natural factor is not of decisive importance when locating non-production enterprises.
Fixed non-productive assets (except for buildings and structures), as well as current material consumption resources, enter the non-productive sphere as follows:
1. by purchasing in a distribution network;
2. in the order of transfer (patronage);
3. through the logistics system (MTS).
Features of pricing in the non-manufacturing sector:
1. in the pricing process, it is recommended to adhere to the principle of equal payment for services of the same beneficial effect;
2. when setting prices, it is necessary to take into account the qualitative characteristics of the service and the condition of its consumption;
3. when setting the price, it is necessary to take into account the social significance of the service;
4. The variety of prices and methods of their establishment necessitates careful control over their level.
Methods of financing non-productive sphere.
1. self-supporting;
2. budget - which consists of normative financing, in which natural and cost norms of resource consumption are applied and which ensures a more rational use of funds and equal conditions for all enterprises in the industry.
3. estimate method - the estimate reflects all items of expenditure, the intended purpose of funds and their quarterly distribution.
A significant part of the national income created by society is directed by the state to the development of the non-productive sphere.
The effective, rational use of these funds, their targeted spending largely depends on the organization of finance in the non-productive sphere.
In non-productive sectors, labor is not directly productive and, most often, is in the nature of services. This is the main difference between the product of labor in the non-productive sphere.
The result of labor, acting as a service, is consumed in the process of production itself, or the processes of production and consumption coincide in time.
The amount of funds allocated to the non-productive sectors is determined by the needs of society in the results of their activities, as well as by the national income generated. Also, at present, it largely depends on the state budget and the ongoing financial policy. But, despite a significant reduction in funding for non-productive industries at this stage of development of the national economy, they have an active influence on material production, ensuring the reproduction of the labor force.
The services of non-manufacturing industries can be either free or paid (in whole or in part). Public services paid by the state are mostly free. The source of ensuring the production of free services is the state budget.
However, in the context of a shortage of public funds due to the budget deficit, paid services are increasingly developing, which determine specific methods of managing the economy and forms of financial relations.
Taking into account the nature of activities, methods of organizing management and financing of enterprises, institutions and organizations in the non-productive sphere, they are classified into three groups:
1. Unproductive industries that are very close to material production. They carry out their activities on the principles of self-financing and self-financing, their services are provided for a fee. The source of covering the costs of their production is the proceeds from the sale of services, that is, the funds of consumers. Finances are organized in them, as in enterprises of material production.
2. Industries that are on incomplete cost accounting, that is, they have some income and receive funds from the budget in the form of direct financing or subsidies (mixed financing). Their services are partially paid.
3. Branches maintained at the expense of the budget. The services they provide are free of charge, the source of their funding is the state budget.
Thus, the production of services in institutions of the non-productive sphere is accompanied by the formation, distribution and use of monetary funds and specific financial relations.

More on the topic 1. The content and significance of the non-productive sphere for the national economy.:

1. G.A. MENSHIKOV. ECONOMY AND SOCIOLOGY OF THE NON-PRODUCTION SPHERE (Educational and methodological manual for correspondence students), 2001
2. G.A. MENSHIKOVA
   . ECONOMY AND SOCIOLOGY OF THE NON-PRODUCTION SPHERE (Educational and methodological manual for correspondence students), 2001
3. 1. The ratio of the production and non-production sphere
4. SECTION 2. REGULARITIES OF DEVELOPMENT AND FUNCTIONING OF MARKET-ORIENTED INDUSTRIES
5. Unknowna7a7a. Finance of the non-productive sphere. Lecture. 2013, 2013
6. Economic crises: causes, symptoms and their consequences for the national economy.
7. 2. National legal prerequisites for prejudicial requests to the Court of Justice of the European Union and their significance for an appropriate degree of implementation
8. Approach to the implementation of the admissibility of evidence in the criminal process of national legal systems and its significance for law enforcement
9. §5. The Importance of the APEC Model Contract on Investment Projects for the Consolidation of Uniform Approaches to Investment Regulation by National Legislation
10. Topic 2.1. National economy. State regulation of the economy
11. 1.2 Content and meaning of Article 3 common to all Geneva Conventions for the Protection of Victims of War 1949

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Industry- a separate sphere of science, knowledge, production. Branch of the economy - a set of enterprises producing (mining) homogeneous or specific products using the same type of technology.

All sectors of the national economy are divided into two large areas:production and non-production. The existence of organizations belonging to the second group (culture, education, consumer services, management) is impossible without the successful development of enterprises of the first.

They belong to the branch of the production sphere of enterprises that carry out activities aimed at creating material wealth. Also, the organizations of this group sort them, move them, etc. The exact definition of the production sector is as follows: "The set of enterprises that manufacture a material product and provide material services."

The production sphere plays a very prominent role in the development of the national economy. It is the enterprises related to it that create national income and conditions for the development of non-material production. There are the following main industries: industry, agriculture, construction, transport, trade and public catering, logistics.

1 Industry. This industry includes enterprises engaged in the extraction and processing of raw materials, the manufacture of equipment, the production of energy, consumer goods, and other similar organizations, which are the main part of such an area as the manufacturing sector. The sectors of the economy related to industry are divided into:

− power industry. The enterprises included in this group are engaged in the generation and transmission of electrical energy, as well as control over its sale and consumption. Production of products of any kind without organizations carrying out such activities is impossible.

− metallurgy. This industry, in turn, is divided into two sub-sectors: non-ferrous and ferrous. The first includes enterprises engaged in the extraction of precious metals (gold, silver, platinum), diamonds, copper, nickel, etc. At the plants of the ferrous metallurgy industry, mainly steel and cast iron are produced.

− fuel industry. The structure of this industry includes enterprises engaged in the extraction of coal, oil and gas.

− chemical industry. Technological productions of this type produce products for various purposes. The latter can be divided into four main categories: basic and specialty chemicals, consumer goods, life support products.

− timber industry. This group includes enterprises that harvest logs, produce sawn timber, as well as paper, pulp, matches, etc.

− mechanical engineering and metalworking. Factories in this area are engaged in the manufacture of equipment, tools and machines.

− light industry. The enterprises of this group mainly produce consumer goods: clothing, footwear, furniture, etc.

− building materials industry. The main activity of factories and plants in this industry is the production of products intended for the construction of buildings and structures (concrete mixtures, bricks, blocks, plasters, insulation, waterproofing, etc.

− glass industry. The structure of this industry also includes factories for the production of porcelain and faience. The enterprises of this sub-sector produce dishes, sanitary ware, window glass, mirrors, etc.

All industrial enterprises are classified into two large groups:mining- mines, quarries, mines, wells; processing- combines, factories, workshops.

2 Agriculture. This is also a very important area of ​​the state's economy, falling under the definition of "industrial sector". Branches of the economy of this direction are primarily responsible for the production and partial processing of food products. They are divided into two groups: animal husbandry and crop production.

The structure of the first includes enterprises engaged in:

− cattle breeding. Cultivation of large and small livestock makes it possible to provide the population with such important food products as meat and milk.

− pig breeding. The enterprises of this group supply lard and meat to the market.

− fur farming. Wearables are mainly made from the skins of small animals. A very large percentage of this production is exported.

− poultry farming. The agricultural enterprises of this group supply dietary meat, eggs and feathers to the market.

Crop production includes such sub-sectors as:

− grain cultivation. This is the most important sub-sector of agriculture, the most developed in our country. Agricultural enterprises of this group of the production sector are engaged in the cultivation of wheat, rye, barley, oats, millet, etc. The degree to which the population is provided with such important products as bread, flour, cereals depends on how effectively this industry is developed.

− vegetable growing. This type of activity in our country is carried out mainly by small and medium-sized organizations, as well as farms. Fruit growing and viticulture. It is developed mainly in the southern regions of the country. The agricultural enterprises of this group supply fruits and wines to the market.

Plant growing also includes such sub-sectors as potato growing, flax growing, melon growing, etc.

Industry and agriculture are considered the main sectors of the manufacturing sector. However, an equally important role in the country's economy is played by enterprises and other groups that are in close interaction with them.

3 Construction. Organizations of this group are engaged in the construction of buildings and structures. It can be both household objects, and cultural, administrative or industrial. In addition, construction organizations develop projects for buildings and structures, reconstruct them, expand them, overhaul them, etc.

Absolutely all other branches of the production sphere interact with groups of enterprises of this type. Construction companies can work both on government orders and from specific organizations or individuals.

4 Transport. Organizations in this area of ​​the national economy are responsible for the transportation of raw materials, semi-finished products and finished products. It includes the following industries:

− road transport. Companies in this group mainly deliver goods over short distances.

− marine. This type of transport carries out mainly foreign trade transportation (oil and oil products). In addition, maritime companies serve remote areas of the country.

− rail transportation. Within the developed economic zone, trains are the main transport delivering goods over long distances.

− aviation. Companies in this area of ​​the transport industry are mainly engaged in the transportation of perishable products.

The success of the functioning of enterprises in such industries as agriculture, industry, construction, etc. directly depends on the efficiency of the companies of the transport group. In addition to those discussed above, this area of ​​the production sector includes organizations that transport oil, products of its processing, gas, etc.

5Trade. An equally important role in the country's economy is played by such industries as: wholesale trade; retail; catering.

Its subjects are enterprises and organizations involved in the sale of goods produced by industry and agriculture, as well as related works and services. Public catering establishments include canteens, barbecue houses, cafes, restaurants, pizzerias, bistros, etc.

6 Logistics. The main activity of the subjects of this branch of the production sphere is the provision of enterprises in industry, agriculture, etc. working capital: components, containers, spare parts, equipment and tools that wear out quickly, etc. The logistics group also includes organizations involved in supply and marketing. Thus, the branches of the production sphere, the definition of which was given at the beginning of this article, are the most important components of the national economy. The effectiveness of the development of the country's economy as a whole and, as a result, the growth of the welfare of its citizens directly depends on the success of the activities of their enterprises.

In the non-manufacturing sector, 2 groups of industries can be distinguished:

1. Industries whose services satisfy the general, collective needs of society:

− geology and exploration of subsoil and water management (except for those activities that were classified as material production);

− authorities: administrative apparatus, court, prosecutor's office;

− defense;

− party and public organizations;

− science and scientific services;

− finance;

− lending and state insurance.

2. Industries whose services satisfy the cultural and social needs of the population:

− housing and communal services;

− institutions and enterprises providing consumer services to the population (passenger transport, baths, hairdressers, etc.);

− education (schools, secondary and higher educational institutions, libraries, etc.);

− institutions of culture and art (museums, theaters, cinemas, palaces, houses of culture, etc.);

− communication in terms of servicing the population and the non-productive sphere;

− institutions for medical care of the population (polyclinics, hospitals, sanatoriums, etc.);

− institutions of physical culture and sports;

− institutions for social security of the population.

Workers employed in the non-productive sphere of the national economy do not produce material goods, but their labor is necessary for society and is socially useful labor.

Sometimes, outside the classification of industries of the manufacturing and non-manufacturing sectors, the industry "Public service" are singled out as a collective industry, which includes enterprises accounted for in the industries of the manufacturing and non-manufacturing spheres. From the manufacturing sector, this includes industrial enterprises engaged in the manufacture and repair of personal consumption items for individual orders of the population, and construction organizations that build and repair housing for individual orders of the population. From the non-productive sphere to the collective branch of consumer services, non-productive activities that have the character of purely consumer services to the population (baths, hairdressers, etc.) are included.

In economics, it is believed that all types of labor are productive in their functional content, therefore, the production sphere covers virtually all branches of material and non-material production. The modern economic theory of the West is characterized by ignoring (of course, not universal) the problem of distinguishing between productive and unproductive labor from the point of view of the general economic content of labor functions. However, even from the characteristics of the main milestones in the history of economic thought, one can see that this problem has occupied the minds of representatives of various schools of political economy, since its inception.

Without going into various interpretations of this problem, we only note that the position of A. Smith prevailed in Soviet economic science, according to which labor is productive only in material production, and labor in the non-material sphere is unproductive. In other words, the production sphere was identified with material production, and non-production - with non-material. True, not everyone shared this opinion in Soviet economic science.

It seems to us that all sectors, firstly, material production and, secondly, the service sector, should be included in the production sphere, since the labor employed in them creates use values ​​in the form of material goods or services. After all, both material goods and services are not just external useful effects of the labor that created them, but precisely independent, i.e., special, peculiar effects, different from all other specific external useful effects.

Due to the uniqueness of each material good and each service, the features of the types of labor that produce them are also formed. These features are, firstly, qualitative, i.e., expressed in the specificity of the material and personal factors of production used in each of them and the technologies for their use, and secondly, quantitative, or represented by different values ​​of the costs of resources necessary to create various products.

In contrast, unproductive types of labor do not create products (material goods and services), but the necessary conditions for the normal functioning of each and any production process, the entire economy and society as a whole. From this position, unproductive labor is a regulatory activity. Unproductive types of labor are valuable not in themselves, but because they regulate the productive types of labor and all social life, creating normal conditions for their flow.

Thus, the types of regulatory activities form a non-productive sphere. K. Marx called them pure costs, because they themselves do not create products, i.e., independent external beneficial effects. Regulatory activities can be divided into three types:

• 1) net management costs (transaction costs of the superstructure);
• 2) net distribution costs - transactional distribution costs;
• 3) net circulation costs - transaction costs of circulation.