Everyday life in Rus' 10th - 13th centuries. Everyday life in ancient Rus'. Old Russian literature XII century

How the culture of Rus' was born. The culture of a people is part of its history. Its formation and subsequent development are associated with the same historical factors that influence the formation and development of the country’s economy, its statehood, and the political and spiritual life of society. The concept of culture includes everything that is created by the mind, talent, and hands of the people, everything that expresses its spiritual essence, its view of the world, of nature, of human existence, of human relationships.

Map. Kievan Rus in the 10th - 12th centuries.

The entire original cultural experience of the Eastern Slavs became the property of a single Russian culture. It developed as a culture of all Eastern Slavs, while at the same time retaining its regional features - some for the Dnieper region, others for North-Eastern Rus', etc.

The development of Russian culture was also influenced by the fact that Rus' developed as a flat country, open to everyone - both intra-tribal, domestic, and foreign, international - influences. And this came from the depths of centuries. The general culture of Rus' reflected both the traditions of, say, the Polans, Northerners, Radimichi, Novgorod Slovenes, Vyatichi, and other tribes, as well as the influence of neighboring peoples with whom Rus' exchanged production skills, traded, fought, made peace - Ugro-Finns, Balts, Iranian peoples , Western and Southern Slavic peoples. Rus' was strongly influenced by Byzantium, which for its time was one of the most cultural states in the world. Thus, the culture of Rus' developed from the very beginning as synthetic, that is, influenced by various cultural movements, styles, and traditions.

At the same time, Rus' not only copied other people’s influences and recklessly borrowed them, but applied them to its cultural traditions, to its folk experience that has come down from time immemorial, its understanding of the world around us, and its idea of ​​beauty. Therefore, within the characteristics of Russian culture, we are constantly faced not only with influences from outside, but also with their sometimes significant spiritual processing, their constant refraction in an absolutely Russian style.

For many years, Russian culture developed under the influence of pagan religion and pagan worldview. With the adoption of Christianity by Russia, the situation changed dramatically. The new religion claimed to change people's worldview, their perception of all life, and therefore their ideas about beauty, artistic creativity, and aesthetic influence. However, Christianity, having had a strong impact on Russian culture, especially in the field of literature, architecture, art, literacy development, school affairs, and libraries, did not overcome the folk origins of Russian culture. For many years, dual faith remained in Rus': the official religion, which prevailed in the cities, and paganism, which went into the shadows, but still existed in remote parts of Rus', maintained its position in the countryside. The development of Russian culture reflected this duality in the spiritual life of society and in folk life. Pagan spiritual traditions, folk at their core, had a profound impact on the entire development of Russian culture.

Under the influence of folk traditions, foundations, habits, under the influence of the people's worldview, church culture itself and religious ideology were filled with new content. The harsh, ascetic Christianity of Byzantium, transferred to Russian soil with its cult of nature, with the worship of the sun, light, wind, with its cheerfulness, love of life, deep humanity, was significantly transformed. This is reflected in all areas of culture. It is no coincidence that in many church cultural monuments, for example in the works of church authors, we see completely secular, worldly reasoning and reflection of purely worldly passions, and the pinnacle of spiritual achievement of Ancient Rus' - the brilliant “Tale of Igor’s Host” - is all permeated with pagan motifs.

The openness and synthetic nature of Old Russian culture, its powerful reliance on folk origins and popular perception, developed by the entire long-suffering history of the Eastern Slavs, the interweaving of Christian and folk-pagan influences led to what is called in world history the phenomenon of Russian culture. Its long-suffering history of the Eastern Slavs, the interweaving of Christian and folk-pagan influences led to what in world history is called the phenomenon of Russian culture. Its characteristic features are the desire for monumentality, scale, imagery in chronicle writing; nationality, integrity and simplicity in art; grace, a deeply humanistic principle in architecture; gentleness, love of life, kindness in painting; the constant beating of the pulse of quest, doubt, passion in literature. And all this was dominated by the great unity of the creator of cultural values ​​with nature, his sense of belonging to all of humanity, worries about people, their pain and misfortunes. It is no coincidence that, again, one of the favorite images of the Russian church and culture has become the image of Saints Boris and Gleb, lovers of humanity, non-resistance, who suffered for the unity of the country, who accepted torment for the sake of the people.

Writing, literacy, schools. The basis of any ancient culture is writing. When did it originate in Rus'? For a long time there was an opinion that writing came to Rus' along with Christianity. However, it is difficult to agree with this. There is evidence of the existence of Slavic writing long before the Christianization of Rus'. This is what he says "Life" Slavic enlightener Kirill. During his stay in Chersonesos in the 60s. 9th century he became acquainted with the Gospel written in Slavic letters. Further Cyril and his brother Methodius became the founders of the Slavic alphabet, which, apparently, was in some part based on the principles of Slavic writing that existed among the Eastern, Southern and Western Slavs before their Christianization.

We must also remember that the treaties between Rus' and Byzantium dating back to the first half of the 10th century were also written in Greek and Russian. The existence of interpreters - translators and scribes who recorded the speeches of ambassadors on parchment - dates back to this time.

Nevertheless, the Christianization of Rus' gave a powerful impetus to the further development of writing and literacy. Church scholars and translators from Byzantium, Bulgaria, and Serbia began to come to Rus'. Numerous translations of Greek and Bulgarian books of both ecclesiastical and secular content appeared, especially during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise and his sons. In particular, Byzantine historical works and biographies of saints were translated. Translations became the property of literate people: they were read with pleasure in the princely-boyar, merchant environment, in monasteries, churches, where Russian chronicle writing originated. In the 11th century such popular translated works as "Alexandria", containing legends and traditions about the life and exploits of Alexander the Great, "Devgenie's act", which was a translation of the Byzantine epic poem about the exploits of the warrior Digenis.

The cadres of the first Russian scribes, scribes, and translators were formed in schools that were opened at churches since the time of Vladimir Svyatoslavich and Yaroslav the Wise, and later at monasteries. There is a lot of evidence of the widespread development of literacy in Rus' in the 11th-12th centuries, especially among wealthy townspeople, the princely-boyar elite, merchants, and artisans. In rural areas, in remote, remote places, the population was almost entirely illiterate.

From the 11th century In wealthy families, they began to teach literacy not only to boys, but also to girls. Vladimir Monomakh's sister Yanka, the founder of a convent in Kyiv, created a school there to educate girls.

A clear indication of the widespread spread of literacy in cities and suburbs are the so-called birch bark letters. In 1951, during archaeological excavations in Novgorod, birch bark with well-preserved letters on it was removed from the ground. Since then, hundreds of birch bark letters have been found, indicating that in Novgorod, Pskov, Vitebsk, Smolensk, and other cities of Rus', people loved and knew how to write to each other. Among the letters are business, including legal, documents, exchange of information, invitations to visit, and even love correspondence.

There remains one more interesting evidence of the development of literacy in Rus' - the so-called graffiti inscriptions. They were scratched on the walls of churches by those who loved to pour out their souls. Among these inscriptions are reflections on life, complaints, and prayers. Thus, Vladimir Monomakh, while still a young man, during a church service, lost in a crowd of the same young princes, scrawled on the wall of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv: “Oh, it’s hard for me” - and signed his Christian name Vasily.

Chronicles. Chronicles are the focus of the history of Ancient Rus', its ideology, understanding of its place in world history; they are one of the most important monuments of writing, literature, history, and culture in general. Only the most literate, knowledgeable, wise people took on the task of compiling chronicles, i.e., presenting events year by year, capable of not only setting out various affairs year after year, but also giving them an appropriate explanation, leaving posterity a clear vision of the era.

The chronicle was a state and princely matter. Therefore, the order to compile a chronicle was given not just to the most literate and intelligent person, but also to the one who would be able to implement ideas close to this or that princely house.

Chronicles, according to scientists, appeared in Rus' shortly after the introduction of Christianity. The first chronicle was probably compiled at the end of the 10th century. It was intended to reflect the history of Rus' before the reign of Vladimir with his impressive victories and the introduction of Christianity. From this time on, the right and duty to keep chronicles were given to church leaders. It was in churches and monasteries that the most literate, well-prepared and ancient tales, legends, epics, traditions were found; They also had the grand ducal archives at their disposal.

The second chronicle was created at the time when he united Rus' and founded the Church of St. Sophia. This chronicle absorbed the previous chronicle and other materials.

The compiler of the next chronicle acted not only as the author of newly written parts of the chronicle, but also as the compiler and editor of previous entries. It was his ability to direct the idea of ​​the chronicle in the right direction that was highly valued by the Kyiv princes.

The vault, which went down in history under the name "The Tale of Bygone Years", was created in the first decade of the 12th century. at the court of Prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich. Most historians consider the author of this code to be the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor.

In the first lines, the chronicler posed the question: “Where did the Russian land come from, who was the first to reign in Kyiv and where did the Russian land come from?” Thus, already in these first words of the chronicle it speaks of the large-scale goals that the author set for himself. And indeed, the chronicle did not become an ordinary chronicle, of which there were many in the world at that time - dry, dispassionately recording facts, but an excited story of the then historian, who introduced philosophical and religious generalizations, his own temperament and style into the narrative.

Using previous collections and documentary materials, including, for example, treaties between Rus' and Byzantium, the chronicler unfolds a wide panorama of historical events that cover both the internal history of Rus' - the formation of all-Russian statehood with its center in Kiev, and the international relations of Rus' with the outside world. A whole gallery of historical figures passes through the pages of The Tale of Bygone Years - princes, boyars, posadniks, thousands, warriors, merchants, church leaders. It tells about military campaigns and the organization of monasteries, the foundation of new churches and the opening of schools, about religious disputes and reforms. Nestor constantly concerns the life of the people as a whole, their moods, expressions of discontent. On the pages of the chronicle we read about uprisings, murders of princes and boyars, and brutal social battles. The author describes all this thoughtfully and calmly, trying to be objective, as objective as a deeply religious person can be, guided in his assessments by the concepts of Christian virtue and sin. Nestor condemns murder, betrayal, deception, perjury, extols honesty, courage, loyalty, nobility, and other wonderful human qualities. The entire chronicle was imbued with a sense of the unity of Rus' and a patriotic mood. All the main events in it were assessed not only from the point of view of religious concepts, but also from the standpoint of these all-Russian state ideals.

In 1116-1118 the chronicle was rewritten again. Vladimir Monomakh, who was then reigning in Kyiv, and his son Mstislav were dissatisfied with how Nestor showed the role of Svyatopolk in Russian history, by whose order it was written "The Tale of Bygone Years". Monomakh took the chronicle from the Pechersk monks and transferred it to his ancestral Vydubitsky monastery. His abbot Sylvester became the author of the new code. In it, positive assessments of Svyatopolk were moderated, but all the actions of Vladimir Monomakh were emphasized, but the main part "Tales of Bygone Years" remained unchanged. And in the future, “The Tale of Bygone Years” was an indispensable component of both the Kyiv chronicles and the chronicles of individual Russian principalities, being one of the connecting threads for all Russian culture.

With the rise of individual Russian centers, the chronicle began to fragment. In addition to Kyiv and Novgorod, their own chronicle collections appeared in Smolensk, Pskov, Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Ryazan, Chernigov, and Pereyaslavl. Each of them reflected the peculiarities of the history of its region, with its own princes coming to the fore. Thus, the Vladimir-Suzdal chronicles showed the history of the reigns of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky, Vsevolod the Big Nest; Galician chronicle of the beginning of the 13th century. became, in essence, a biography of the warrior prince Daniil of Galicia; The Chernigov chronicle mainly told about the descendants of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich. And yet, even in this local chronicle, all-Russian cultural origins were clearly visible. Some local chronicles continued the tradition of Russian chronicles of the 11th century. So, at the turn of the XII - XIII centuries. In Kyiv, a new chronicle was created, which reflected the events that took place in Chernigov, Galich, Vladimir-Suzdal Rus', Ryazan and other Russian cities. It is clear that the author of the code had at his disposal the chronicles of various Russian principalities and used them. The chronicler also knew European history well.

The preservation of the all-Russian chronicle tradition was shown by the Vladimir-Suzdal chronicle code of the beginning of the 13th century, which covered the history of the country from the legendary Kiy to Vsevolod the Big Nest.

Old Russian literature XII century

We do not know the names of the authors of the tales about Oleg’s campaigns, Olga’s baptism, or Svyatoslav’s wars. The first famous author of a literary work in Rus' was Metropolitan Hilarion. In the early 40s. XI century he created his famous "A Word on Law and Grace", in which he outlined his understanding of Rus'’s place in world history in a vivid journalistic form. This "Word..." is devoted to the substantiation of the state-ideological concept of Rus', the full place of Rus' among other peoples and states, the role of the grand ducal power, its significance for the Russian lands. “The Word...” explained the meaning of the baptism of Rus' and revealed the role of the Russian church in the history of the country. This listing alone indicates the scale of Hilarion’s work.

The main theme of Hilarion's "Lay..." was the idea of ​​equal rights for Rus' among other peoples and states. The author asserts the freedom of choice of religion on the part of Rus', notes the importance of Vladimir as a Russian apostle, compares him with Emperor Constantine the Great, who made Christianity the state religion of the Roman Empire, with the first Christian apostles. Speaking about the first Russian princes, Hilarion proudly notes: “They were not rulers in a bad country or an unknown land, but in the Russian one, which is known and heard in all ends of the earth.” This idea of ​​​​connecting Rus' with world history was then reflected in the Tale of Bygone Years.

In the second half of the 11th century. other bright literary and journalistic works also appear, for example "Memory and praise of Vladimir" monk Jacob, in which Hilarion’s ideas are further developed and applied to the historical figure of Vladimir Svyatoslavich. At the same time, they are created “The Legend of the Initial Spread of Christianity in Rus'”, “The Legend of Boris and Gleb”, patron saints and defenders of the Russian land.

In the last quarter of the 11th century. the monk begins to work on his compositions Nestor. The chronicle was his final fundamental work. Before that he created "Reading about the life of Boris and Gleb". In it, as in "To the word..." Hilarion, as later in the Tale of Bygone Years, the ideas of the unity of Rus' are heard, and tribute is paid to its defenders and guardians. Already at that time, writers were worried about the growing political hostility in the Russian lands, in which they discerned a harbinger of future bloody strife.

Literature of the 12th century continues the traditions of Russian works of the 11th century. New ecclesiastical and secular works are being created, marked by a vivid form, richness of thoughts, and broad generalizations; new genres of literature emerge.

In his declining years, Vladimir Monomakh writes his "Teaching to Children", which became one of the favorite readings of Russian people of the early Middle Ages. Describing purely Russian affairs and Russian political passions, endless wars with the enemies of Rus', Monomakh constantly relied on Christian universal values. In them he found the answer to the questions that tormented him, in them he drew moral support. He begins to quote the Psalter with immortal words: “Why are you sad, my soul? Why are you embarrassing me? Trust in God, for I believe in Him.". His "Teaching"- this is a hymn to the righteous, rejection of evil and crafty people, faith in the triumph of good, in the meaninglessness and doom of evil.

At the beginning of the 12th century. one of Monomakh's associates, Abbot Daniel, creates "Hegumen Daniel's Walk to Holy Places". The pious Russian man went to the Holy Sepulcher and made a long and difficult journey - to Constantinople, then through the islands of the Aegean Sea to the island of Crete, from there to Palestine and to Jerusalem, where at that time there was a state of the Crusaders led by King Baldwin. Daniel described in detail his entire journey, spoke about his stay at the court of the King of Jerusalem, about the campaign with him against the Arabs. Daniel prayed at the Holy Sepulcher, placed a lamp there from the entire Russian land: near the Sepulcher of Christ he sang fifty liturgies “for the Russian princes and for all Christians.”

AND "Teaching", And "Walking" were the first genres of their kind in Russian literature.

XII - early XIII century. They gave many other bright religious and secular works that added to the treasury of Russian culture. Among them "Word" And "Prayer" Daniil Zatochnik, about whom little is known. Having been in captivity and having experienced a number of other everyday dramas, he reflects on the meaning of life, on a harmonious person, on an ideal ruler. Addressing his prince in "Prayers", Daniel says that a real person must combine the strength of Samson, the courage of Alexander the Great, the intelligence of Joseph, the wisdom of Solomon, the cunning of David. Turning to biblical stories and ancient history helps him convey his ideas to the addressee. A person, according to the author, must strengthen his heart with beauty and wisdom, help his neighbor in sorrow, show mercy to those in need, and resist evil. The humanistic line of ancient Russian literature firmly asserts itself here too.

Author of the mid-12th century. Kyiv Metropolitan Klimenty Smolyatich in his "Message", referring to the Greek philosophers Aristotle, Plato, and the work of Homer, also recreates the image of a highly moral person, alien to the lust for power, love of money and vanity.

IN "The Parable of the Human Soul"(late 12th century) Bishop Kirill of the city of Turov, relying on the Christian worldview, gives his interpretation of the meaning of human existence and discusses the need for a constant connection between soul and body. At the same time he puts in "Parable" issues that are quite topical for Russian reality, reflects on the relationship between church and secular authorities, defends the national-patriotic idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land, which was especially important at a time when some princes began to implement centralizing policies.

Simultaneously with these works, where religious and secular motives were constantly intertwined, copyists in monasteries, churches, princely and boyar houses diligently copied church service books, prayers, collections of church traditions, biographies of saints, and ancient theological literature. All this wealth of religious and theological thought also formed an integral part of general Russian culture.

The first Russian churches of the 11th - 12th centuries

Architecture. They say that architecture is the soul of the people, embodied in stone. This applies to Rus' with some amendments. For many years, Rus' was a wooden country, and its pagan chapels, fortresses, towers, and huts were built of wood. In wood, Russian people, like the peoples who lived next to the Eastern Slavs, expressed their perception of structural beauty, a sense of proportion, and the merging of architectural structures with the surrounding nature. If wooden architecture goes back mainly to pagan Rus', then stone architecture is associated with already Christian Russia. Western Europe, which since ancient times built both temples and dwellings of stone, did not know such a transition.

Russian wooden architecture was characterized by multi-tiered buildings, crowning them with turrets and towers, and the presence of various types of extensions - cages, passages, vestibules. Intricate artistic wood carving was a traditional decoration of Russian wooden buildings. This tradition continues to this day.

The world of Byzantium, the world of Christianity brought new construction experience and traditions to Rus'. Rus' adopted the construction of churches in the image of the cross-baptismal temple of the Greeks. A square, dissected by four pillars, forms its basis; rectangular cells adjacent to the dome space form an architectural cross. But the Greek masters who arrived in Rus' from the time of Vladimir, as well as the Russian craftsmen who worked with them, applied this model to the traditions of Russian wooden architecture, familiar to the Russian eye and dear to the heart. If first Russian churches, including the Tithe Church of the end of the 10th century, were built by Greek masters in strict accordance with Byzantine traditions, the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv reflected a combination of Slavic and Byzantine traditions. Thirteen chapters of the new temple were placed on the base of the cross-domed church. This step pyramid of St. Sophia Cathedral resurrected the style of Russian wooden architecture.

St. Sophia Cathedral, created at the time of the establishment and rise of Rus' under Yaroslav the Wise, showed that construction is also politics. With this temple, Rus' challenged Byzantium, its recognized shrine, the St. Sophia Cathedral of Constantinople. In the 11th century St. Sophia Cathedrals grew in other large centers of Rus' - Novgorod, Polotsk, and each of them laid claim to its own throne, independent from Kyiv, just like Chernigov, where the monumental Transfiguration Cathedral was built. All over Rus', multi-domed churches with thick walls and small windows were built - evidence of power and beauty.

In the 12th century, according to the figurative expression of one art critic, Russian single-domed warrior temples marched throughout Rus', replacing the previous pyramids. The dome rose up on a powerful, massive square. This became the Dmitrov Cathedral in Vladimir-on-Klyazma, the Cathedral of St. George in Yuryev-Polsky.

Architecture reached great prosperity during the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky. His name is associated with the buildings of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the white stone palace beautifully located on the steep bank of the Klyazma in the village of Bogolyubovo, the Golden Gate in Vladimir - a powerful white stone cube crowned with a golden-domed church. Under him, a miracle of Russian architecture was created - the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl. The prince built a church not far from his chambers after the death of his beloved son Izyaslav. This small single-domed church has become a poem made of stone, which harmoniously combines modest beauty, quiet sadness, and enlightened contemplation of architectural lines.

Andrey's brother Vsevolod continued construction activities. His masters left to posterity the wonderful Dmitrovsky Cathedral in Vladimir - majestic and at the same time modest.

In the XII - early XIII centuries. Temples were built in Novgorod and Smolensk, Chernigov and Galich, Pskov and Novgorod-Volynsky. A characteristic feature of Russian architecture is the stone carving decorating buildings. We see this amazing art on the walls of cathedrals in Vladimir-Suzdal Rus', Novgorod, and other Russian cities.

Another feature that was common to all Russian architecture of that time was the organic combination of architectural structures with the natural landscape. Look at the churches of that time and you will understand what we are talking about.

Old Russian art

Art. Old Russian art- painting, sculpture, music - also experienced tangible changes with the adoption of Christianity. Pagan Rus' knew all these types of art, but in a purely pagan, folk expression. Ancient woodcarvers and stone cutters created wooden and stone sculptures of pagan gods and spirits. Painters painted the walls of pagan temples, made sketches of magic masks, which were then made by artisans; musicians, playing string and woodwind instruments, entertained tribal leaders and entertained the common people.

The Christian Church introduced completely different content into these types of art. Church art is subordinated to a higher goal - the glorification of God, the exploits of the apostles, saints, and church leaders. If in pagan art the flesh triumphed over the spirit and everything earthly, personifying nature was affirmed, then church art sang the victory of the spirit over the flesh, affirmed the high feats of the human soul for the sake of the moral principles of Christianity. This was expressed in the fact that painting, music, and the art of sculpture were created mainly according to church canons, where everything that contradicted the highest Christian principles was rejected. Asceticism and rigor in painting (icon painting, mosaic, fresco), the sublimity of Greek church prayers and chants, the temple itself, which became a place of prayerful communication between people, were characteristic of Byzantine art, which became a model for Russian Christian art.

Transferred to Russian soil, canonical in content, brilliant in its execution, the art of Byzantium collided with the pagan worldview of the Eastern Slavs, with their joyful cult of nature - the sun, spring, light, with their completely earthly ideas about good and evil, sins and virtues. And from the very first years of the transfer of Byzantine church art to Rus', it experienced the full power of Russian folk culture and folk aesthetic ideas.

It was already discussed above that a single-domed Byzantine temple in Rus' in the 11th century. transformed into a multi-domed pyramid. The same thing happened with painting. Already in the 11th century. The strict ascetic manner of Byzantine icon painting was transformed under the brush of Russian artists into portraits close to life, although Russian icons bore all the features of a conventional icon-painting face. At this time, the Pechersk monk-painter Llimpius became famous. Contemporaries said about him that he “he was very cunning to paint icons”. Icon painting was Alimpiy’s main means of existence, but he spent the money he earned in a very unique way: with one part he bought everything that was necessary for his craft, gave the other to the poor, and donated the third to the Pechersky Monastery.

Along with icon painting, fresco painting and mosaics developed. The frescoes of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv show the writing style of Greek and Russian masters, their commitment to human warmth, integrity and simplicity. On the walls of the cathedral we see images of saints, and the family of Yaroslav the Wise, and images of Russian buffoons, and animals. Beautiful icon paintings, frescoes, and mosaics filled other churches in Kyiv. Known for their great artistic power are the mosaics of St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery with their depiction of the apostles, saints who have lost their Byzantine severity; their faces became softer and rounder. Later, the Novgorod school of painting took shape. Its characteristic features were clarity of idea, reality of image, and accessibility. From the 12th century Wonderful creations of Novgorod painters have reached us: the icon "Angel Golden Hair", where, despite the conventionality of the angel’s appearance, one can feel his trembling and beautiful soul. On the icon "Savior Not Made by Hands" Christ, with his expressive arch of eyebrows, appears as a formidable, all-understanding judge of the human race. On the icon "Assumption of the Virgin Mary" the faces of the apostles depicted all the sorrow of loss.

The wide distribution of icon painting and fresco painting was also characteristic of Chernigov, Rostov, Suzdal, and later Vladimir-on-Klyazma, where wonderful frescoes depicting "The Last Judgment", decorated Dmitrovsky Cathedral.

At the beginning of the 13th century. The Yaroslavl school of icon painting became famous. Many excellent icons were painted in the monasteries and churches of Yaroslavl. Especially famous among them is the so-called "Yaroslavl Oranta", depicting the Virgin Mary. Its prototype was the mosaic image of the Virgin Mary in the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, the work of Greek masters, who depicted a stern, powerful woman stretching out her hands over humanity. Yaroslavl artists made the image of the Mother of God warmer, more humane. This is, first of all, a mother-intercessor, bringing help and compassion to people.

Over the course of many centuries of Russian history, the art of wood carving and, later, stone carving was constantly developing and improving there. Wooden carved decorations generally became a characteristic feature of the homes of townspeople and peasants, and wooden churches.

White stone carving, especially from the time of Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest, clearly expressed in the decoration of palaces and cathedrals, became a remarkable feature of ancient Russian art in general. Utensils and dishes were famous for their beautiful carvings. In the art of carvers, Russian folk traditions and Russian ideas about beauty and grace were most fully manifested.

Elegant jewelry and true masterpieces were created by ancient Russian jewelers - gold and silversmiths. They made bracelets, earrings, pendants, buckles, tiaras, medallions, and decorated utensils, dishes, and weapons with gold, silver, enamel, and precious stones. Icon frames, as well as books, were decorated with special care and love. An example is the setting of the Gospel skillfully decorated with leather and jewelry, created by order of the Kyiv mayor Ostromir during the time of Yaroslav the Wise, the so-called "Ostromir Gospel"- the oldest Russian book that has survived to this day.

Earrings made by a Russian artisan (11th-12th centuries) still inspire admiration. They are rings with semicircular shields, to which six silver cones with balls and 500 rings with a diameter of 0.06 cm made of wire with a diameter of 0.02 cm are soldered. Tiny grains of silver with a diameter of 0.04 cm are attached to the rings. How people did it, who did not have magnifying devices, it is difficult to imagine.

An integral part of the art of Rus' was the art of music and singing. IN "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" the legendary storyteller-singer Boyan is mentioned, who “put” his fingers on living strings, and they “the princes themselves rumbled glory”. On the frescoes of the St. Sophia Cathedral we see images of musicians playing woodwind and string instruments - lute and harp. The talented singer Mitus in Galich is known from chronicle reports. It is known that at the courts of Russian princes, during feasts, those present were entertained by singers, storytellers, and guslars.

Folklore. An important component of ancient Russian culture was folklore - songs, tales, epics, proverbs, sayings, aphorisms, and fairy tales. Wedding, drinking, and funeral songs reflected many features of the life of people of that time. Thus, ancient wedding songs also spoke about the time when brides were kidnapped, "kidnapped"(as a rule, with their consent) or ransomed, and in the songs of Christian times they talked about the consent of both the bride and parents to marriage.

The whole world of Russian life is revealed in epics. Their main character is a hero, a defender of the people. The heroes had enormous physical strength. Thus, it was said about the beloved Russian hero Ilya Muromets: “Wherever he turns, there are streets, wherever he turns, there are alleys.”. At the same time, he was a very peace-loving hero who took up arms only when there was no other choice. The people's heroes also possessed enormous magical power, wisdom, and cunning. So, the hero Volkhv Vseslavovich could turn into a gray falcon, a gray wolf.

In the epic images of enemies one can also discern the real foreign policy opponents of Rus', the fight against which has deeply entered the consciousness of the people. Under the name of Tugarin Zmeevich one can see a generalized image of the Polovtsians with their khan Tugorkan. Under the name Zhidovin, Khazaria is deduced, where Judaism was the state religion. Russian epic heroes faithfully served the epic prince Vladimir. They fulfilled his requests for the defense of the Fatherland; he turned to them at crucial times. The relationship between the heroes and the prince was not easy. There were grievances and misunderstandings here. But all of them - both the prince and the heroes - in the end decided on one common cause - the cause of the people. Scientists have shown that under the name of Prince Vladimir the generalized image of both Vladimir Svyatoslavich - a warrior against the Pechenegs, and Vladimir Monomakh - the defender of Rus' from the Polovtsians, and the appearance of other princes - brave, wise, cunning - merged. And some epics reflected the legendary times of the struggle of the ancestors of the Eastern Slavs with the Cimmerians, Sarmatians, and Scythians. The epics telling about the ancient heroes of those times are akin to the epic of Homer and the epic of other Indo-European peoples.

Life in Kievan Rus of the 12th century

Life of the people. The culture of a people is inextricably linked with its way of life, everyday life, and the life of the people, determined by the level of development of the country’s economy, is closely connected with cultural processes.

People lived both in large cities for their time, numbering tens of thousands of people, and in villages with several dozen households, and villages in which two or three households were grouped.

Kyiv remained the largest city for a long time. In its scale and many stone buildings - temples, palaces - it competed with other European capitals of that time. No wonder the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise, Anna Yaroslavna, who married in France and came to Paris in the 11th century, was surprised by the wretchedness of the French capital compared to Kiev. Here the golden-domed temples shone with their domes, the palaces of Vladimir, Yaroslav the Wise, Vsevolod Yaroslavich amazed with their grace, the St. Sophia Cathedral, the Golden Gate - a symbol of the victory of Russian weapons, surprised with its monumentality and wonderful frescoes. And not far from the princely palace there were bronze horses taken by Vladimir from Chersonesos; in the old Yaroslavl city there were courtyards of prominent boyars, and here on the mountain there were also the houses of rich merchants, other prominent citizens, and the highest clergy. Houses were decorated with carpets and expensive Greek fabrics.

In the palaces, rich boyar mansions, a complex life went on - warriors, servants were located here, and servants crowded around. From here the administration of principalities, cities, and villages took place; here they judged and tried, and here tributes and taxes were brought. Feasts often took place in the entryway and spacious griddles, where overseas wine and our own native wine flowed like a river. "honey", servants served huge dishes of meat and game. Women sat at the table equally with men. Women generally took an active part in management, housekeeping, and other matters. There are many known women who are figures of this kind: Princess Olga, Monomakh’s sister Yanka, mother of Daniil Galitsky, wife of Andrei Bogolyubsky, etc. At the same time, food and small money were distributed to the poor on behalf of the owner.

The favorite pastimes of rich people were falconry and hound hunting. Races, tournaments, and various games were organized for the common people. An integral part of Russian life, especially in the north, was the bathhouse.

Below, on the banks of the Dnieper, a cheerful Kiev trade was noisy, where products and products were sold not only from all over Rus', but also from all over the world, including India and Baghdad. Down the slopes of the mountains towards Podol were various types of houses - from good wooden houses to poor dugouts - the dwellings of artisans and working people. Hundreds of large and small ships were crowded at the berths of the Dnieper and Pochaina.

A motley, multilingual crowd scurried along the streets of the city. Boyars and warriors walked here in expensive silk clothes, cloaks decorated with fur and gold, and beautiful leather boots. The buckles of their cloaks were made of gold and silver. Merchants also appeared in good-quality linen shirts and woolen caftans, and poorer people scurried about in homespun canvas shirts and portages. Rich women decorated themselves with gold and silver chains, necklaces made of beads, which were very loved in Rus', earrings, jewelry made of gold and silver, trimmed with enamel, and niello. But there were also simpler, cheaper jewelry, made from inexpensive stones and simple metal - copper, bronze. Poor people wore them with pleasure. Even then, women wore traditional Russian clothes - sundresses, and covered their heads with ubruses (shawls).

Temples, palaces, wooden houses and semi-dugouts stood on the outskirts in other Russian cities, there were noisy trades there, and on holidays, smartly dressed residents filled the narrow streets.
His life, full of work and anxiety, flowed in Russian villages and hamlets, in log huts, in half-dugouts with stoves in the corner. There people persistently fought for existence, plowed new lands, raised livestock, beekeepers, hunted, defended themselves from "dashing" people, and in the south - from nomads, wooden dwellings that had been burned after enemy raids were rebuilt again and again. Moreover, plowmen often went out into the field armed with spears, clubs, bows and arrows to fight off the Polovtsian patrol. On long winter evenings, in the light of splinters, women spun yarn, men drank intoxicating drinks, honey, remembered the days gone by, composed and sang songs, listened to the storytellers and storytellers of epics.

The culture of a people is inextricably linked with its way of life, everyday life, just as the life of the people, determined by the level of development of the country’s economy, is closely connected with cultural processes. The people of Ancient Rus' lived both in large cities for their time, numbering tens of thousands of people, and in villages with several dozen households and villages, especially in the northeast of the country, in which two or three households were grouped.

All contemporary evidence suggests that Kyiv was a large and rich city. In terms of its scale, many stone temple buildings, palaces, it competed with other European capitals of that time. It is not for nothing that the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise, Anna Yaroslavna, who married in France and came to Paris in the 11th century, was surprised by the provinciality of the French capital in comparison with Kiev, which shone on the way from the “Varangians to the Greeks.” Here the golden-domed temples shone with their domes, the palaces of Vladimir, Yaroslav the Wise, Vsevolod Yaroslavich amazed with their grace, the St. Sophia Cathedral, the Golden Gate - a symbol of the victories of Russian weapons, surprised with its monumentality and wonderful frescoes. And not far from the princely palace stood bronze horses taken by Vladimir from Chersonesus; in the old city there were palaces of prominent boyars, and here on the mountain there were also houses of rich merchants, other prominent citizens, and the clergy. Houses were decorated with carpets and expensive Greek fabrics. From the fortress walls of the city one could see the white stone churches of Pechersky, Vydubitsky and other Kyiv monasteries in the green bushes.

In the palaces and rich boyar mansions there was a life of its own - warriors, servants were located here, and countless servants crowded around. From here the administration of principalities, cities, and villages took place; here they judged and tried, and here tributes and taxes were brought. Feasts were often held in the vestibule, in the spacious grits, where overseas wine and their native “honey” flowed like a river, and servants served huge dishes of meat and game. Women sat at the table on equal terms with men. Women generally took an active part in management, housekeeping, and other matters. There are many known women - figures of this kind: Princess Olga, Monomakh's sister Yanka, mother of Daniil Galitsky, wife of Andrei Bogolyubsky, etc. Guslyars delighted the ears of eminent guests, sang "glory" to them, large bowls, horns of wine went around in a circle. At the same time, food and small money were distributed to the poor on behalf of the owner. Such feasts and such distributions were famous throughout Rus' during the time of Vladimir I.

The favorite pastimes of rich people were falconry, hawk hunting, and hound hunting. Races, tournaments, and various games were organized for the common people. An integral part of ancient Russian life, especially in the North, however, as in later times, was the bathhouse.

In the princely-boyar environment, at the age of three, a boy was put on a horse, then given to the care and training of a pestun (from “to nurture” - to educate). At the age of 12, young princes, together with prominent boyar advisers, were sent to manage volosts and cities.

Below, on the banks of the Dnieper, a cheerful Kiev trade was noisy, where, it seems, products and products were sold not only from all over Rus', but also from all over the world of that time, including India and Baghdad.

A variety of dwellings of artisans and working people descended along the slopes of the mountains towards Podol - from good wooden houses to poor dugouts. Hundreds of large and small ships were crowded at the berths of the Dnieper and Pochaina. There were also huge princely boats with many oars and many sails, and merchants' seaty boats, and lively, nimble boats.

A motley, multilingual crowd scurried along the streets of the city. Boyars and warriors walked here in expensive silk clothes, in cloaks decorated with fur and gold, in epanchas, and in beautiful leather boots. The buckles of their cloaks were made of gold and silver. Merchants also appeared in good-quality linen shirts and woolen caftans, and poorer people also scurried about in homespun canvas shirts and portages. Rich women decorated themselves with gold and silver chains, necklaces made of beads, which were very popular in Rus', earrings, and other jewelry made of gold and silver, trimmed with enamel, and niello. But there were also simpler, cheaper jewelry, made from inexpensive stones and simple metal - copper, bronze. Poor people wore them with pleasure. It is known that women already then wore traditional Russian clothes - sundresses; the head was covered with ubrus (shawls).

Similar temples, palaces, the same wooden houses and the same half-dugouts stood on the outskirts of other Russian cities, the same trading noises were noisy, and on holidays, smartly dressed residents filled the narrow streets.

His life, full of work and anxiety, flowed in modest Russian villages and hamlets, in log huts, in semi-dugouts with stoves in the corner. There, people persistently fought for existence, plowed new lands, raised livestock, beekeepers, hunted, defended themselves from “dashing” people, and in the south - from nomads, and again and again rebuilt dwellings burned by enemies. Moreover, often plowmen went out into the field armed with spears, clubs, bows and arrows to fight off the Polovtsian patrol. On long winter evenings, in the light of splinters, women spun, men drank intoxicating drinks, honey, recalled the days gone by, composed and sang songs, listened to the storytellers and storytellers of epics, and from the wooden floors, from the far corners, the eyes of little Russians watched them with curiosity and interest, whose life, full of the same worries and anxieties, was still ahead.

ancient Rus', culture, everyday culture, structure of everyday life

The article discusses the features of everyday culture of Ancient Rus'

Article text:

Old Russian state - state of the 9th - early 12th centuries. in Eastern Europe, which arose in the last quarter of the 9th century. as a result of the unification under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty of the two main centers of the Eastern Slavs - Novgorod and Kyiv, as well as lands (settlements in the area of ​​​​Staraya Ladoga, Gnezdov) located along the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”. In its heyday, the Old Russian state covered the territory from the Taman Peninsula in the south, the Dniester and the headwaters of the Vistula in the west, to the headwaters of the Northern Dvina in the north. The formation of the state was preceded by a long period (from the 6th century) of the maturation of its prerequisites in the depths of military democracy. During the existence of the Old Russian state, the East Slavic tribes formed into the Old Russian nationality.

Power in Rus' belonged to the prince of Kyiv, who was surrounded by a squad that depended on him and fed mainly from his campaigns. The veche also played a certain role. The government was carried out with the help of thousand and sotskys, i.e., on the basis of a military organization. The prince's income came from various sources. In the 10th - early 11th centuries. These are basically “polyudye”, “lessons” (tribute) received annually from the field.

In the 11th - early 12th centuries. In connection with the emergence of large land ownership with various types of rent, the functions of the prince expanded. Owning his own large domain, the prince was forced to manage a complex economy, appoint posadniks, volostels, tiuns, and manage a numerous administration.

Palace officials emerged who were in charge of individual branches of government. The cities were headed by the urban patriciate, formed in the 11th century. from large local landowners - “elders” and warriors. The merchants enjoyed great influence in the city. The need to protect goods during transportation led to the appearance of armed merchant guards; among the city militia, merchants occupied first place. The largest part of the urban population were artisans, both free and dependent. A special place was occupied by the clergy, divided into black (monastic) and white (secular).

The rural population consisted of free communal peasants (their number was decreasing) and already enslaved peasants. There was a group of peasants, cut off from the community, deprived of the means of production and who were the labor force within the estate.

During the era of the formation of the Old Russian state, arable farming with harnessed tillage tools gradually replaced hoe tillage everywhere (in the north somewhat later). A three-field farming system emerged; Wheat, oats, millet, rye, and barley were grown. Chronicles mention spring and winter bread. The population was also engaged in cattle breeding, hunting, fishing and beekeeping. Village craft was of secondary importance. The first to emerge was iron production, based on local bog ore. The metal was obtained by the cheese blowing method. Written sources give several terms to designate a rural settlement: “pogost” (“peace”), “svoboda” (“sloboda”), “village”, “village”.

The main trend in the development of the social system of Ancient Rus' was the formation of feudal ownership of land, with the gradual enslavement of free community members. The result of the enslavement of the village was its inclusion in the system of feudal economy, based on labor and food rent. Along with this, there were also elements of slavery (servitude).

In the 6th-7th centuries. in the forest belt, places of settlement of a clan or a small family (fortified settlements) disappear, and they are replaced by unfortified village settlements and fortified estates of the nobility. A patrimonial economy begins to take shape. The center of the patrimony is the “prince’s yard”, in which the prince lived from time to time, where, in addition to his mansion, there were houses of his servants - boyars-warriors, homes of serfs, serfs. The estate was ruled by a boyar - a fireman who disposed of the princely tiuns. Representatives of the patrimonial administration had both economic and political functions. Crafts developed on the patrimonial farm. With the complication of the patrimonial system, the estate isolation of unfree artisans begins to disappear, a connection with the market and competition with urban crafts arise.

The development of crafts and trade led to the emergence of cities. The most ancient of them are Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Smolensk, Rostov, Ladoga, Pskov, Polotsk. The center of the city was a market where handicraft products were sold. Various types of crafts developed in the city: blacksmithing, weapons, jewelry (forging and chasing, embossing and stamping of silver and gold, filigree, granulation), pottery, leatherworking, tailoring.

Everyday culture of Ancient Rus'.

Lifestyle. Since ancient times, the Slavs have been distinguished by their respectful attitude towards elders. The head of the family was both his father and his boss; and everyone else: wife, children, relatives and servants obeyed him unquestioningly. Russians were meek and quiet, their modesty simplified marriage life, calmness and chastity reigned in families.

Our ancestors were distinguished by moderation, being content with what nature produced; enjoyed longevity, were strong and cheerful, loved dancing, music, round dances and songs. Tireless in their work and tied to agriculture, they were rewarded with a bountiful harvest, meat, milk and skins, which served as cover from the weather. Kindness of heart, shown everywhere by hospitality and hospitality, was a distinctive feature of our ancestors.

There was a custom to invite a traveler or passer-by to your house, feed him and greet him. The hosts greet the guest with joy, serve everything they have on the table, and do not take any payment from him, thinking that taking money from a passerby for bread and salt is a great sin.

Russians did not like to find fault with words; they were very simple in their manners and said “you” to everyone.

For a long time in Rus', people got up before sunrise and immediately prayed to God, asking for his holy help for good deeds; without praying they did nothing. Whether they were going on a journey, building a house, or sowing a field, first of all they went to church to pray. Before dangerous enterprises, they confessed and received communion. Faith strengthened the people during the greatest adversity. Before setting out on a campaign, no regiment will move forward without serving a prayer service and without being sprinkled with sacred water.

Whether someone sat down at the table or stood up from it, he crossed his forehead with the sign of the cross.

Holidays were celebrated with reverent rituals. During the festivities, everyone forgot their enmity and formed a single society.

Every person who met an acquaintance or passed by someone unfamiliar, but distinguished in some way, greeted him by removing his hat and bowing his head. A stranger who entered a hut or a magnificent chamber first turned his gaze to the icon and prayed; then he bowed and said hello.

Nobles and rich people were arrogant towards the poor, but hospitable and polite among themselves. The guest was greeted with hugs and asked to sit down, but the guest, upon entering the room, looked for icons with his eyes, approached them, crossed himself and first made three prostrations, then addressed the hosts with greetings. Having given each other their hand, they kissed and bowed several times, and the lower, the more respectful it was considered; then they sat down and talked. The guest sat down facing the images. Here he was treated to honey, beer, and cherries. At the end of the conversation, the guest, taking the hat, approached the images, crossed himself, made the same bows and said goodbye to the owner, wishing him health. The owner responded with a reciprocal wish and accompanied him without a hat to the porch; the beloved guest was escorted all the way to the gate, and the honored guest was escorted even further, a few steps from the gate.

Clothes, suit (regular, festive) . Finds from the layers of ancient Russian cities, tombs and rural burials tell about the whole variety of locally produced fabrics from which clothes were made. These include woolen fabrics, woven mainly from sheep wool and fabrics from plant fibers of different structures (flax, hemp). Among woolen and half-woolen fabrics there are checkered and striped fabrics. Patterned fabrics are also known. Common for the 10th – 12th centuries are patterned and unpatterned ribbons, braids, laces and fringes made of woolen yarn. Cloth and felt items were widespread. Some of the fabrics were woven from wool in natural brown, black, and gray colors. Mineral dyes were also used - ocher, red iron ore, etc.

The main types of clothing were a shirt and ports, and among the nobility it was underwear, among the people it was the main one. The richer the person, the more layered his suit was. We can say that a shirt is the oldest of clothes, for its name goes back to the ancient word “rub”, i.e. "the rudest" The length of the shirt, the material from which it was made, and the nature of the ornaments were determined by social class and age. Long shirts were worn by noble and elderly people, shorter ones by other classes, since, unlike the measured and leisurely life of princes and boyars, the everyday life of the working people was filled with hard work and clothing should not hinder movements. A shirt was worn for graduation and always with a belt (if a person did not put on a belt, they said that he had loosened his belt). The fabrics were woven narrow (30-40 cm), and therefore shirts were made with one-piece sleeves or a rectangular armhole. For ease of movement, gussets were inserted; for strength, they were placed on a lining made of another fabric (this is what it means to “know the background of the matter”). Festive shirts for the nobility were made from expensive thin linens or silks in bright colors and decorated with embroidery. Despite the conventionality of the pattern of the ornament, many of its elements were of a symbolic nature; they seemed to protect a person from other evil eyes and misfortunes. The decorations were “hanging” - removable: collars, necklaces and sleeves - cuffs, richly embroidered with gold, precious stones and pearls.

Portas, narrowed at the ankle, were made of canvas; noble men wore another one on top - silk or cloth. They were tied together at the waist with a cord called a cup (hence the expression “to keep something in a stash”). The ports were tucked into boots made of colored leather, often embroidered with patterns or wrapped with onuchi (pieces of linen 2.5 meters long), and bast shoes were put on them, with strings pulled through the ears - frills, and the onuchi were wrapped with them. In our minds, all bast shoes are the same. But that's not true. The bast shoes were thick and thin. Dark and light, simple and woven with patterns, there were also elegant ones - made of tinted multi-colored bast.

Outerwear was a retinue, caftan and fur coat. Vita was put on over the head. It was made of cloth, with narrow long sleeves, the knees were necessarily covered, and girded with a wide belt. Caftans were of the most varied types and purposes: everyday, for riding, festive - sewn from expensive fabrics, intricately decorated. A mandatory part of a man's costume was a headdress, in summer - a leather strap, and in winter - a wide variety of hats - leather, felt, fur. Portas, narrowed at the ankle, were made of canvas; noble men wore another one on top - silk or cloth. They were tied together at the waist with a cord called a cup (hence the expression “to keep something in a stash”). The ports were tucked into boots made of colored leather, often embroidered with patterns or wrapped with onuchi (pieces of linen 2.5 meters long), and bast shoes were put on them, with strings pulled through the ears - frills, and the onuchi were wrapped with them. In our minds, all bast shoes are the same. But that's not true. The bast shoes were thick and thin. Dark and light, simple and woven with patterns, there were also elegant ones - made of tinted multi-colored bast.

In Rus', women always covered their heads with a warrior; tearing off a headdress was considered a terrible insult (to lose your hair means to disgrace yourself). Girls braided their hair or wore it loose, secured with a ribbon, braid or hoop made of leather, birch bark, covered with multi-colored fabric.

A festive suit was made for Sundays and patronal feasts, an everyday suit for work at home, in the field and in the forest; Ritual ones were divided into pre-wedding, wedding and funeral - “miserable”. In addition, clothing differed according to age and marital status: girlish and for a young woman (before the birth of her first child), for a mature woman and an old woman. They also dressed smartly on labor holidays: the day of the first furrow, the day of pasture of livestock, the day of the beginning of haymaking and stubble.

One of the most characteristic features of Russian folk clothing is its multi-layered design, which gives the female figure a sculptural monumentality.

In the old days, bright, elegant embroideries played the role of a talisman, so their locations were clearly defined: the collar and wrist trims, the shoulder and bottom of the shirt, and the field of the sleeves. Intensively embroidered, these places seemed to protect a person from evil forces. For embroidery they used flax, hemp, wool, dyed with decoctions of herbs and roots, in addition, multi-colored silks, gold and silver threads. Ancient seams: painting, casting, satin stitch, half cross determined the nature of the embroidery pattern and its connection with the structure of the fabric. The ornaments reflected phenomena closely related to the life of peasants: the change of seasons, bountiful harvests, flowering trees and plants, figures of a woman - the progenitor of all living things, horses, birds, heavenly bodies - the sun and stars. From generation to generation, under the hands of skilled craftswomen, ancient simple patterns were enriched with new technical techniques, and at the same time they conveyed a range of patterns used only in a given area. To decorate shirts, pieces of various fabrics were also used, especially red, which were also filled with embroidery, like the main one. textile. This ancient method of decorating clothes was used in boyar costume, when pieces of precious overseas fabrics, left over from cutting large clothes, or already worn out, were sewn as decoration onto a newly sewn dress. In addition to woven and embroidered patterns and fabric inlays, multi-colored “grass” ribbons, bindweed, lace, sequins, gold and silver braids and braids were used. All this decorative wealth was transformed into a precious work of art by the hands of talented embroiderers.

Even “miserable” shirts were decorated, and here, too, the canons in the use of patterns and colors were observed. So, when mourning for parents, they wore white shirts with white embroidery, and for children - with black ones, made with a cross and a set. Only widowed women had shirts without any “decoration,” which they wore when performing the “plowing” ritual. Widow women were collected from all over the village, and barefoot, bare-haired, dressed only in linen shirts, they had to plow the land around the village with a plow to prevent it from cholera and livestock deaths.

The shirt was used on all occasions in the life of a Russian woman and, having stood the test of time, passing through centuries, freely entered our wardrobe in the form of a variety of one-piece dresses and blouses.

But in the ancient costume, the shirt was rarely worn separately; most often in the northern and central regions of Russia a sundress was worn on top, and in the southern regions - a poneva. Poneva is a type of skirt consisting of three panels of woolen or half-woolen fabric, tied at the waist with a woven narrow belt - gashnik: it was worn only by married women. Poneva was round, that is, sewn, or swinging, consisting of separate canvases. Mostly ponevs were dark blue, dark red, and less often black. Its dark field was divided by squares, and their color and size depended on the traditions of the province, village or hamlet in which the ponevs were woven. Ponevas, like shirts, were divided into festive and everyday. Everyday ones were trimmed along the bottom with a narrow homespun strip of braid or strips of red tape. In the festive ponevs, much attention was paid to the “cludge” - the so-called patch along the hem, in which all the richness of decoration was used to the maximum: multi-color embroidery, braid, tinsel lace made of gilded and silver threads, grass ribbons, bindweed, sequins, glass beads and beads. In round ponies, the seams served not only to connect individual parts, but also as an additional finish. The belt - the “edge” - was woven on a loom from multi-colored woolen threads, its ends fluffed out and threads of beads were woven among the threads.

Over the shirt and blanket they put on an apron - a “curtain”, tied at the back with ribbons - “mutozki”. The intensity of color and decorativeness of the ornament gradually intensified from top to bottom, it was created through inserts of bright chintz, stripes of patterned weaving and embroidery, ribbons, lace, fringe and sparkle.

The ensemble was completed with a shushpan made of wool, half-woolen or canvas fabric with very delicate decoration: mainly connecting seams and edging with embroidery in a red pattern. The costume was complemented by a complex headdress. The entire territory of Russia is characterized by two sharply different categories of headdresses. Girls' dresses, leaving the hair and crown of the head open, had the shape of a wreath-hoop or headband. Women's headdresses were varied, but they all completely hid their hair, which, according to popular belief, had witchcraft powers and could bring misfortune.

The basis of all varieties of South Russian headdresses of the “Magpie” type was a hard forehead piece sewn from quilted canvas, compacted with hemp or birch bark, and worn directly on the hair. Depending on its shape, flat or imitating horns extending back, it was called a kichka or a horned kichka. It was this detail that gave its entire structure one form or another, which was completed with the help of the upper part - a kind of cover made of calico, calico or velvet - Soroka; The back of the head was covered with a rectangular strip of fabric - the back of the head. A complex and multi-layered headdress was created around these three elements. Sometimes it included up to twelve parts, and its weight reached up to five kilograms.

Numerous buttons, metal openwork and with a pattern, glass and simple, were used not only for fastening, but were also included in the decorative row of decorations.

Colored wide belts were also a necessary part of the costume. The girls hung elegant handbags “for gifts” sewn from various scraps to their belts.

The legs were wrapped in onuchas made of white “Svei” cloth or canvas and put on bast shoes woven from elm or linden bast, or white wool stockings “knitted in one needle and leather shoes - cats, which were figuratively punched with copper wire in front and back for decoration. The last place in the costume was occupied by various decorations. Necklaces made of pearls, garnets and gaitanas were worn around the neck in large quantities - stringed beads, amber beads, which, according to legend, brought health and happiness, necklaces made of chains. Large “stuffed cabbage” earrings and smaller, graceful ones were very popular. Delicate, easily movable “guns” - balls woven from goose down, which were worn along with earrings, were also a kind of decoration.

Despite the picturesque multicolor, the integrity of the entire ensemble was achieved mainly by finding color combinations and relationships.

Color, ornament, and symbolism acquired a special meaning in ritual and wedding costumes.

Family hierarchy. Family and marriage relations before the Baptism of Rus' were regulated by customary norms, and the state did not interfere in this area at all. The marriage was concluded by abducting the bride by the groom (“smart”). In the Tale of Bygone Years, this pagan method of marriage is attributed to the Drevlyans, Radimichs and some other tribes. Young people from different villages gathered on the banks of rivers and lakes for games with songs and dances, and there the grooms “kidnapped” the brides. The author of the chronicle - a monk - of course, had a negative attitude towards all pagan customs, but even he did not hide the fact that the “snatch” was carried out by prior agreement of the bride and groom, so the word “kidnapping” here, in general, does not fit. The head of the family, the husband, was a slave in relation to the sovereign, but a sovereign in his own home. All household members, not to mention servants and slaves in the literal sense of the word, were under his complete subordination.

The duties of the husband and father included “educating” the family, which consisted of systematic beatings to which the children and wife were to be subjected. Widows were highly respected in society. In addition, they became full-fledged mistresses of the house. In fact, from the moment of the death of the spouse, the role of head of the family passed to them.

Baptism brought many norms of Byzantine law to Rus', including those relating to family and marriage relations. The family was under the protection of the Orthodox Church, which is why family and marriage relations were regulated mainly by the norms of church law. The marriageable age was set by Byzantine law at 14-15 years for men and 12-13 years for women.

Christianity prohibited polygamy, which was practiced in Rus'. Marital status becomes an obstacle to entering into a new marriage. The charter of Prince Yaroslav threatened a church home (imprisonment in a monastery) for a young wife, because of whom the man’s previous marriage could be shaken. The latter was ordered to live with the old one.

The obstacles to marriage were kinship and property. In an effort to strengthen marriage bonds, church charters prohibited hidden forms of violation of marriage laws: adultery, sexual intercourse between relatives and in-laws. The Church viewed marriage not only as a carnal union, but also as a spiritual one, therefore marriages were allowed only between Christians. Marriage after the Baptism of Rus' should have taken place in the form of a church wedding. Practice also knew the preservation of previous, pagan forms of marriage, which was condemned by law. When an unmarried man and an unmarried woman lived together before marriage, the man was obliged to pay the ransom and marry the girl.

The list of reasons for divorce was almost entirely borrowed from Byzantine laws, in particular from Prochiron, but taking into account Russian traditions. So, the marriage was touched when:
1) it was discovered that the wife had heard from other people about the impending attack on the power and life of the prince, but hid it from her husband;
2) the husband caught his wife with an adulterer or this was proven by hearsay evidence;
3) the wife hatched a plan to poison her husband with a potion or knew about the murder of her husband being prepared by other people, but did not tell him;
4) the wife, without her husband’s permission, attended feasts with strangers and stayed overnight without her husband;
5) the wife attended the games day or night (it didn’t matter) despite her husband’s prohibitions;
6) the wife gave a tip to the thief to steal her husband’s property or she herself stole something or committed theft from the church.

Personal and property relations between parents and children were built on the basis of traditional rules, with changes made by canonical norms. The father's power was unquestionable; he had the right to resolve intra-family disputes and punish children. The law is quite lenient towards illegitimate children. The Church Charter of Yaroslav, of course, punishes a girl who, while living in the house of her father and mother, gave birth to a premarital child. The Charter also punishes a wife who gave birth to an illegitimate child. However, leaving a baby or disposing of a fetus by an unmarried girl is also condemned. The main idea of ​​the legislator is clear: children must be born in marriage, but if an unmarried woman conceives, she must give birth to the baby.

Parenting. The pre-Christian era is characterized by various educational forms. In the 6th century, elements of mentoring activities began to emerge among the ancient Slavic tribes. Under matriarchy, children of both sexes were raised in the mother's house, then the boys moved to the men's house, where they learned practical skills. The upbringing of children was entrusted to mentors who taught worldly wisdom in “youth houses.” Later, the closest relatives (uncles) were involved in raising and educating children. In the absence of such, these functions were performed by the closest neighbors (“nepotism”). Thus, in the VI - VII centuries. among the Eastern Slavs, priority was given to out-of-family education. Since the 8th century, parents stopped giving their children to strangers. From this time on, we can talk about the emergence of an educational function in the family. The main methods of public education were nursery rhymes, ditties, riddles, fairy tales, epics, and lullabies. They revealed the best features of the Slavic folk character: respect for elders, kindness, fortitude, courage, hard work, mutual assistance. They reflected the rich and original history of the Slavic people, strengthening and accompanying it from the first years of life. In the studies of S.D. Babishina, B.A. Rybakov shows a fairly high general cultural level, the original national character of education in pre-Christian Rus'. It is concluded that neither the pedagogical thought nor the education system in Ancient Rus' was a Byzantine copy, and “the general culture of the Russian people was highly pedagogical.”

The Christian era in folk pedagogy began with the illumination of the Baptism of Rus' by the holy Equal-to-the-Apostles Prince Vladimir.

The upbringing of children of the princely family had its own characteristics. Children of the princely family were transferred to another family for upbringing. This form of education is called “feeding”. Feeding is a socio-pedagogical phenomenon in Rus' in the 10th-12th centuries. - characterized as mentoring and responsibility for the moral, spiritual and physical education of young princes. They received their first knowledge at court - at the school of “book learning”, where they studied with the children of boyars and warriors. The first school of “book learning” was opened in Kyiv in 988, then in Novgorod in 1030 and other cities.

In the folk practice of family education in Russia, the main emphasis was on obedience as the main element of honoring God. The logic of reasoning justified it as follows: the husband, as the head of the family, must honor God, and the wife must humble herself before her husband, and children must honor their parents. There was an opinion that the falling away of people from the faith leads to the fact that the husband ceases to honor God, to live according to His will, and the wife disobeys her husband. And as a result, two naughty people grow up with a naughty child.

The main pedagogical principle of this period was the reproduction (transfer) of the way of life into the education system, enshrined in the first literary monuments of Ancient Rus'.

A feature of the educational system in Ancient Rus' with the advent of Christianity was the performance of this function by clergy, which passed to them from respectable neighbors. When the baby was baptized, the godfather was called “godfather” and from then on was considered the second father, revered and respected by the godson. Before God and people, he was responsible for the future of his pupil, his deeds and actions, and in the event of the loss of parents, he replaced them, taking the godson into his house as his own son. But the most important thing that a godfather had to do was to tirelessly pray for his godfather and monitor his spiritual life and spiritual maturity. We can conclude that Christianity contains the prevention of social orphanhood, which is spreading on such a scale in societies that are based on lack of faith and responsibility before God.

Christianity, as a methodology, has significantly influenced the overall spread of knowledge and literacy. The clergy, fulfilling God's will, actively influenced these processes. Thus, Holy Metropolitan Michael of Kiev blessed teachers and gave instructions on how to properly teach. In Novgorod, Smolensk and other cities, schools and colleges were organized at the bishops' departments to teach children to read and write. Gradually, in different cities of Rus', priests began to teach literacy in churches, schools and colleges to children of all classes. Over time, not only priests, but also people of non-church rank - “masters of literacy” - began to teach children. Boys received education from priests or “masters”; women’s education was concentrated mainly in women’s monasteries, of which there were about 10 before the Tatar-Mongol invasion. The daughter of Chernigov Prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich, Efrosinya, opened a women’s school at the monastery, in which she taught children of all classes literacy, writing and singing prayers.

A special place in the system of family education in Ancient Rus' was given to women. A woman was recognized with the right to care for children and raise them in good manners. A woman was supposed to be educated, since she was not only the keeper of the home, but also the first teacher of children in good and righteous deeds.

Home and its organization. Initially, the dwellings were log houses, which were usually located randomly. Inside there was one common room, and adjacent to it were outbuildings for livestock and poultry, for storing agricultural implements, bread, hay, etc. Barns or threshing floors stood not far from the huts.

The desire to create maximum comfort using minimal means determined the laconicism of the interior, the main elements of which were a stove, fixed furniture (benches, beds), movable furniture (table, bench) and various arrangements (chests, boxes).

The ancient Russian stove, entirely included in the hut, was both literally and figuratively a home - a source of warmth and comfort.

Judging by the prostate customs of that time, it can be assumed that huts and mansions were erected without decorations, built of wood. The living quarters were located inside the courtyard and were surrounded by wooden fences with or without bars and a palisade. Of course, the rich did it; and the rest surrounded their homes with fences or left them open. In the middle of the 10th century, stone buildings appeared.

Rural huts built in those days were almost no different from each other: they were low, covered with boards and straw. The townspeople built tall houses and usually lived at the top. The lower part of the house was then allocated for cellars, called medushas, ​​since honey was stored in them, and for storerooms. The house was divided into cages (rooms). It was divided in half by a vestibule, sometimes called a platform. At a distance from the house, special resting rooms, or odrins, were built, whose name indicates that there were beds here that served not only for night sleep, but also for afternoon sleep.

The reception rooms in the grand ducal chambers were called gridnitsa. Boyars, gridniks, centurions, tens and all deliberate people were treated there. In the yard they built towers and huts for pigeons (golubnitsy). Mansions were tall wooden houses, and towers were chambers or rooms located in the upper tier.

The living quarters were illuminated by candles and lanterns. Wax candles burned in the grand ducal and boyar mansions, because wax was in abundance. People of modest means burned ordinary oil, poured into round clay vessels - kaganets or zhirnik.

The walls of the rooms were not decorated with anything, only the rich had oak tables and benches; they stood along the walls and were often covered with carpets. In those days there were no chairs or armchairs. When receiving ambassadors, the Grand Dukes sat on an elevated round seat that replaced the throne; during lunch - on ordinary benches covered with fabrics - silk and velvet. The decorations of the rooms usually consisted of images of holy martyrs and saints, inserted into icon cases and hung in the corner. A lamp glowed in front of them, and on holidays the images were illuminated with wax candles. There was a place of honor under the icons; There was a table covered with a white cloth right there.

Much later, such types of buildings as log huts, mud huts, huts and stone buildings appeared in Rus'.

Food intake standards. Our ancestors, living in patriarchal simplicity, were content with little: half-raw food, meat, roots. In the 11th century they also ate millet, buckwheat and milk; then we learned to cook food. They spared nothing for the guests, showing their hospitality with abundant food.

Honey was boiling at the table - the oldest and favorite drink of all Slavic tribes. Honey was our first drink, and it was made very strong. They didn’t breed bees back then; they lived in the forests themselves. There were honeys: cherry, currant, juniper, mixed, raspberry, princely, boyar, etc.

Our ancestors began to grow grain, and then they began to bake bread and make kvass. In the 10th century it was already in general use, and they even doused themselves with kvass in the bathhouse.

Beer was formerly called “olui”. It was made strong, had different names and colors (light or dark).

In Ancient Rus' there was no shortage of fruits or dishes: fish, game and meat were in abundance.

Feasts were then common, and it was customary for the rich to treat the poor. The grand dukes themselves treated the guests; ate and drank with them.

Pepper came to us from Constantinople and Bulgaria. From there we received almonds, coriander, anise, ginger, cinnamon, bay leaves, cloves, cardamom and other spices that served as seasoning for dishes.

Flour for baking bread was prepared in mills or in millstones by hand.

The common people ate rather poorly: bread, kvass, salt, garlic and onions constituted their main food. Cabbage soup, porridge and oatmeal jelly were being prepared everywhere. Cabbage soup was prepared with a piece of lard or beef. They were a favorite food at court.

Delicious bread, fish - fresh and salted, eggs, garden vegetables: cabbage, cucumbers - pickled, vinegared and fresh, turnips, onions and garlic were considered the best foods.

Since ancient times, our ancestors did not eat veal, hares, pigeons, crayfish and the meat of those animals that were slaughtered by the hands of a woman, considering them defiled.

Domestic servants did the cooking. But if a woman needed to kill a bird for the table, and none of the men were at home, she would go out the gate with a knife and ask the first passerby to do it.

Our ancestors strictly observed fasting: on Mondays, Wednesdays, Fridays and even Saturdays. Even seriously ill people did not dare to eat meat.

Baking bread required knowledge and experience, and a housewife who did not possess this skill was not valued, because it was believed: whose house has good bread is a good housewife. Wheat and coarse breads were baked on sweets, with different images.

Pies were baked with various fillings: eggs, cabbage, fish, mushrooms, rice, etc. Sweet pies prepared with sugar, raisins, jam and spices were called left-handed pies.

They ate several times a day, but usually had breakfast, lunch, afternoon snack and dinner. After a hearty lunch we rested for several hours.

They had breakfast early in the morning, lunch around noon, lunch around four or five o'clock, and dinner after sunset. Then, an hour later, they prayed to God and went to bed.

Family rituals and ceremonies.

BAPTISM. Childbirth and raising children in Rus' have long been surrounded by various beliefs, rituals and traditions. Many centuries ago, as now, expectant mothers sought to be easily relieved of their burden; parents wanted to protect their children from the evil eye, raise them to be hardworking and polite, and teach them to read and write.

Even during pregnancy, women learned from the midwives an ancient spell, which they then read to their children in the womb: “From you, my light, my little drop, I myself will take away all trouble. My love will be your dome, all your patience will be your cradle, and your prayer will be consolation. I’m waiting for you, my light, like the land of dawn, like the grass of dew, like the flowers of rain.” The sound of these gentle words had a beneficial effect on the child, and created the right mood for the mother before giving birth.

The birth of a person has always been considered a great sacrament, for which a woman began to prepare long before the event itself. Already at the wedding, it was customary to wish the newlyweds: “God grant you, Ivan Ivanovich, to get rich, and for you, Marya Petrovna, to be hunchbacked in front.” Midwives who mastered the art of obstetrics enjoyed special honor in Rus'. Not every woman could become a midwife; for example, this was prohibited for those whose own children suffered from some kind of illness. And, of course, great attention was paid to the purity of the midwife’s thoughts, because the lives of both the woman in labor and the new person directly depended on her.

As soon as a woman's contractions began, the midwife took her away from her home (childbirth often took place in a bathhouse). It was believed that one should be wary of “dashing people” or the “evil eye”, which could harm the newborn. Therefore, the presence of anyone, even the closest family members, during childbirth was prohibited. The child's father was ordered to pray fervently in front of the icon and fast.

The day of baptism was chosen randomly. If the child was weak or was in danger of imminent death, he was immediately baptized.

In ancient times, people were named at birth by the name of the saint who fell on the eighth day after birth. Our ancestors had two names, one given at birth, the other (secret) at baptism.

The custom of having godparents has existed in the Christian Church since ancient times. Baptism was immersive. The priest reads incantatory prayers. Then follows the renunciation of the catechumen, or in the case of his youth, his godfather, from Satan. Moreover, when they say “I deny,” they blow and spit three times, turning back; and then, turning to the east, they assure of unity with Christ and read the “Creed.” Then the priest, having anointed him with oil, immerses the catechumen three times in lukewarm, as if summer water, reads a prayer and puts white clothes and a cross on the baptized person.

When putting on white clothes, the troparion is sung. After baptism, chrismation follows; the forehead, eyes, nostrils, lips, ears, chest, hands and soles of the feet are anointed with myrrh.

Then the priest, having walked around the font three times with the person being baptized and his godparents, having read the Gospel and washed the members of the body anointed with myrrh, cuts his hair in a cross shape while reading the prayer; Having sealed them in wax, he gives them to his godfather, who throws them into the font; the water is then poured into a place that cannot be trampled underfoot.

When a baby is baptized, the recipient (godmother) provides him with a shirt and a headdress, and the recipient with a cross; each of them gives the mother and the child a generous gift, which is called “to the tooth”: material, money, whatever they can.

The parents of the person being baptized are not present at the baptism of their child. After baptism, the priest instructs the godparents to take care of the instruction of the godson or goddaughter in the Orthodox faith and in everything that a Christian needs.

In addition to weddings and christenings, in Ancient Rus' there were many rituals and celebrations, both Orthodox and pagan: name day, Red Hill, Radonitsa, Yarilo, Easter, Rusal Week, Trinity Day, Christmastide, Maslenitsa and many others. Each holiday had a certain providential algorithm and was celebrated on a special scale.

Literature

1. "Archeology. Ancient Rus'. Life and culture”, ed. B. A. Rybakova. M. - 1997
2. Belovinsky L.V. “History of Russian material culture”, M. – 2008
3. Ovsyannikov Yu. M. “Pictures of Russian life”, M. - 2000.
4. Rabinovich M. G. “Essays on the material culture of a Russian feudal city,” M. - 1990.
5. Semyonova M. “Life and beliefs of the ancient Slavs”, St. Petersburg. – 2001
6. Tereshchenko A. V. “History of the culture of the Russian people.” M. - 2007

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Culture of Rus'x-startedXIIIcenturies.

Before political fragmentation, the culture of Rus' was oriented towards the West; much was received from Byzantium. Culture developed both within Rus' itself and under the influence of neighboring states. As today, villages and villages have had the hardest time developing culturally.

The adoption of Christianity had a great influence on the change in the culture of Rus', but paganism did not completely disappear for many years. We remember that even today we celebrate holidays that are essentially pagan.

Life of the people.

Jewelry techniques for gold and silver were widespread (bracelets, earrings, buckles, tiaras, even dishes were decorated with precious stones and metals). The wood carving was most beautiful. Feasts with honey and wine among princes and warriors. Falconry, hawk hunting, and hound hunting were considered fun. Races were held.

Russians loved the bathhouse very much.