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Literary genres are groups of works collected according to formal and content characteristics. Works of literature are divided into separate categories according to the form of the narrative, the content and the type of belonging to a particular style. Literary genres make it possible to systematize everything that has been written since the time of Aristotle and his Poetics, first on “birch bark letters”, tanned skins, stone walls, then on parchment paper and scrolls.

Literary genres and their definitions

Definition of genres by form:

A novel is an extensive narrative in prose, reflecting the events of a certain period of time, with a detailed description of the lives of the main characters and all other characters involved to one degree or another in these events.

A story is a form of storytelling that does not have a specific volume. The work usually describes episodes from real life, and the characters are presented to the reader as an integral part of the events taking place.

A short story (short story) is a widespread genre of short prose and is called “short story”. Because the short story format is limited in scope, the writer can usually develop the narrative within the framework of a single event involving two or three characters. An exception to this rule was the great Russian writer Anton Pavlovich Chekhov, who could describe the events of an entire era with many characters in a few pages.

An essay is a literary quintessence that combines the artistic style of storytelling and elements of journalism. Always presented in a concise form with a high content of specificity. The subject of the essay, as a rule, is related to socio-social problems and is of an abstract nature, i.e. does not affect specific individuals.

A play is a special literary genre designed for a wide audience. Plays are written for the theater stage, television and radio performances. In their structural design, the plays are more like a story, since the duration of theatrical performances corresponds perfectly to a story of average length. The genre of the play differs from other literary genres in that the narration is told from the perspective of each character. The text indicates dialogues and monologues.

Ode is a lyrical literary genre, in all cases of positive or laudatory content. Dedicated to something or someone, often a verbal monument to heroic events or exploits of patriotic citizens.

An epic is a narrative of an extensive nature, including several stages of state development that have historical significance. The main features of this literary genre are global events of an epic nature. An epic can be written both in prose and in verse, an example of this is Homer's poems "Odyssey" and "Iliad".

An essay is a short piece of prose in which the author expresses his own thoughts and views in an absolutely free form. An essay is a somewhat abstract work that does not claim to be completely authentic. In some cases, essays are written with a degree of philosophy; sometimes the work has a scientific connotation. But in any case, this literary genre deserves attention.

Detectives and science fiction

Detective stories are a literary genre based on the age-old confrontation between police officers and criminals. Novels and short stories in this genre are action-packed; in almost every detective work, murders occur, after which experienced detectives begin an investigation.

Fantasy is a special literary genre with fictional characters, events and an unpredictable ending. In most cases, the action takes place either in space or in the underwater depths. But at the same time, the heroes of the work are equipped with ultra-modern machines and devices of fantastic power and efficiency.

Is it possible to combine genres in literature?

All of the listed types of literary genres have unique distinctive features. However, there is often a mixture of several genres in one work. If this is done professionally, a rather interesting and unusual creation is born. Thus, the genres of literary creativity contain significant potential for updating literature. But these opportunities should be used carefully and thoughtfully, since literature does not tolerate profanation.

Genres of literary works by content

Each literary work is classified according to its type: drama, tragedy, comedy.

What kinds of comedies are there?

Comedies come in different types and styles:

Farce is a light comedy built on elementary comic techniques. It is found both in literature and on the theater stage. Farce as a special comedic style is used in circus clowning.
Vaudeville is a comedy play with many dance numbers and songs. In the USA, vaudeville became the prototype of the musical; in Russia, small comic operas were called vaudeville.
An interlude is a small comic scene that was performed between the actions of the main play, performance or opera.
Parody is a comedic technique based on the repetition of recognizable features of famous literary characters, texts or music in a deliberately modified form.

Modern genres in literature

Types of literary genres:

Epic - fable, myth, ballad, epic, fairy tale.
Lyrical - stanzas, elegy, epigram, message, poem.

Modern literary genres are periodically updated; over the past decades, several new directions in literature have appeared, such as political detective fiction, the psychology of war, as well as paperback literature, which includes all literary genres.

Introduction

The title has attracted serious research attention over the past decades. Particular interest in it is explained by the unique position of the title in the text and the variety of its functions. The title accumulates the meaning, style and poetics of the work, acts as a semantic cluster of the text and can be considered as a kind of key to its understanding. Highlighted graphically, it is interpreted by the reader as the most noticeable part of it. Linguistically, the title is the primary means of nomination; semiotically, it is the first sign of the topic.

The specificity of the title is that it is an intermediary between the titled text and the reader (his emotional and value sphere, experience and the volume of his knowledge). The headline programs the reader’s network of associations, influencing the emergence and strengthening of reader interest, or extinguishing this interest. “The network of associations formed by the title is all the information put into it by the author within the framework of the philological and historical tradition and reflected in the reader’s perception in accordance with his own cultural experience” Vasilyeva T.V. Title in the cognitive-functional aspect: based on the material of a modern American story / T.V. Vasilyeva. Author's abstract. dis. ...cand. Philol. Sci. - M., 2005 - p. 23.

To make the title more expressive, impressive, and to attract attention to it, writers and publicists often use expressive figurative means of language: antonyms, phraseological units, catchphrases, etc., combining words of different styles or semantic fields.

In my work, I decided to consider the role of the title in Gogol’s poem “Dead Souls”. The title of the poem, so spectacular and mysterious, gives rise to thought about the meaning that is hidden in it.

The role of the title in the work

The title is a definition of the content of a literary work, usually placed in front of the last one. It is not always necessary for a work to have a title; in lyric poetry, for example, they are often absent (“Am I wandering along the noisy streets” by Pushkin, “When the yellowing field is agitated” by Lermontov, “Lorelei” by Heine, etc.). This is explained by the expressive function of the title, which usually expresses the thematic essence of the work. In lyric poetry - the most expressive and emotionally rich kind of poetry - there is simply no need for a title - “the property of lyrical works, the content of which is elusive for definition, like a musical sensation.” Belinsky V.G. Division of poetry into genera and types - M., Direct-Media, 2007. - p. 29. The art of the title has its own socio-economic prerequisites. The primary function of a title in a manuscript text is to provide a short and easy-to-reference designation of a work and, in a codex containing a number of works, to separate one of them from another. Hence the low significance of the title in the composition of the text, their insignificant graphical emphasis and often not related to the theme of the work, the conventional nature of the title in terms of the number of chapters or verses, in the nature of the meter, especially those adopted in the East - “32 (stories about) monks”, “100 ( stanzas about) love”, titles according to the location of the text - “Metaphysics” by Aristotle, etc.). The evaluative nature of the title does not stand out particularly clearly, although the Middle Ages already know the transformation of “Donkey” into “Golden Ass” and “Comedy” into “Divine Comedy”. The invention of printing, creating the possibility of large circulations, led to the need to advertise the book. To this we must add the anonymity of the book - an extremely common phenomenon in the literature of the 15th-17th centuries. Both circumstances played a big role in the history of the title, which had to speak for both the author and the publisher. Often a book contains an appeal to the reader so that he buys it; the titles should perform direct advertising functions.

Then, having lost to a large extent their advertising and evaluative character, titles in new and recent literature often acquire a compositional meaning, replacing the frame that motivates the nature of the tale, the choice of topic, etc. (“The Investigator’s Story,” “Notes of a Doctor”). This is the case in new literature. arr. titles are a compositional device determined by the theme of the work. Since this latter is itself determined by the social psychoideology embedded in the work, the title becomes a deterministic component of the style. Using examples of the writer’s work, individual genres and movements, we can easily convince ourselves of this. Thus, tabloid novelists like Montepin or Ponson du Terrail intrigue the bourgeois reader with all sorts of “secrets,” “horrors,” “murders,” “crimes,” etc. The authors of pamphlets give their titles expressiveness and oratorical intensity (“J"accuse!” Zola , “Napoleon le petit” by Hugo, “Down with the Social Democrats” by Braquet, etc.).Russian tendentious fiction writers of the 60s-80s selected allegorical titles for their novels, which branded the criminal essence of the nihilistic movement: “The Haze” by Klyushnikov , “Nowhere” and “On Knives” by Leskov, “Cliff” by Goncharov, “The Turbulent Sea” by Pisemsky, “Bloody Pouf” by Krestovsky, “The Abyss” by Markevich, etc. Ostrovsky’s moralizing dramas contain corresponding titles such as folk proverbs, the edge of which is Many are directed against the tyranny of the patriarchal merchants: “Truth is good, but happiness is better”, “Don’t live the way you want”, “Don’t get into your own sleigh”, “It’s not all Maslenitsa for the cat”, etc. The ideas of early futurism are sought “to shock the bourgeoisie” (“Dead Moon”, “Cloud in Pants”); Z. decadents of the late XIX - early XX centuries. reflect the desire to go into the ivory tower, inaccessible to the uninitiated, to the profanum vulgus, by the incomprehensibility of the language: “Urbi et orbi”, “Stephanos”, “Crurifragia”, etc. Thus, the titles of proletarian literature formulate tasks characteristic of the era of industrialization of the country -- “Cement” by Gladkov, “Blast Furnace” by Lyashko, “Sawmill” by Karavaeva. In all these cases, the titles represent a thematic cluster of works, a clear formulation of their social orientation.

This role of the title causes increased attention to them. Authors consult with friends, editors, and publishers on how best to name their work (Goethe, Maupassant, Turgenev, Dostoevsky, Blok). Having come up with a successful title, they take care of keeping it secret (Flaubert, Goncharov), change the titles after publishing the work in a magazine for individual publications, in collected works, etc. Editors and publishers arbitrarily title the works (“The Divine Comedy” by Dante, “Boris Godunov" by Pushkin, "Sevastopol Stories" by L. Tolstoy, "Little Hero" by Dostoevsky). But the role of censorship is especially significant here. Pushkin’s poem “Andre Chénier in prison” turned out to be without a “dungeon”, “The History of Pugachev” turned into “The History of the Pugachev Rebellion”, “Message to the Censor” into a message to “Aristarchus”, Gogol’s “Dead Souls” were banned in Moscow, in St. Petersburg passed only thanks to special patronage, but with the addition of “The Adventures of Chichikov”; in the posthumous edition (1853), the title “Dead Souls” was deleted. Gogol’s “Morning of an Official” turned out to be “Morning of a Business Man”, Nekrasov’s “Decembrist Women” turned into “Russian Women”, etc.

The title is the first thing the reader encounters when picking up a book or looking at the contents of a magazine. This is the first information about the work that should interest the reader or at least give him an idea about it. Information can, naturally, be only outline, general, but it can also give a completely specific idea of the content, just like a false, misleading idea. The title can be an already condensed book, the book can be an expanded title. As S. Krzhizhanovsky writes: “The title is the book in restricto, the book is the title in extenso.” Krzhizhanovsky S. Poetics of titles. Nikitin subbotniks - M., 1931.- p. 3.

A capacious and expressive title not only leads to arousal of interest in the reader, but it also plays a significant role in the process of fixing the title of the book in the memory of the reader, or even entire generations of readers. Who Oblomov or Onegin is is often known even by those who have not read the book at all, i.e. the name from the title has become a household name (not only, however, thanks to the title, but also to the type of hero).

The title is one of the most important elements of the semantic and aesthetic organization of a literary text, therefore choosing the title of a work is one of the most difficult tasks for the author. His choice can be influenced by various circumstances related to personal and public life, as well as numerous “intermediaries” between the writer and the reader: editors, publishers, censors. The fate of the book largely depends on a well-chosen title.

1.1. Title of the work of art:

Ontology, functions, typology

The title opens and closes the work in a literal and figurative sense. The title, as a threshold, stands between the outside world and the space of the literary text and is the first to bear the brunt of overcoming this boundary. At the same time, the title is a limit that forces us to turn to it again when we close the book. In this way, the entire text is “short-circuited” into its title. As a result of such an operation, the meaning and purpose of the title itself is clarified.

The title can be defined as a borderline (in all respects: generation and being) element of the text, in which two principles coexist: external- facing outward and representing a work of art in the linguistic, literary and cultural-historical world, and internal- facing the text.

For every correctly constructed work of prose fiction, a title is required. (The concept of a correctly constructed literary text implies that the author, when working on the text, sought to find the most effective and expressive form for conveying his idea. Therefore, despite the variety of specific incarnations, the literary text must be organized according to certain rules.)

Organization is a necessary psychological requirement for a work of art. The concept of organization includes the fulfillment of the following conditions: “correspondence of the content of the text to its title (title), completeness in relation to the title (title), literary processing characteristic of a given functional style, the presence of superphrasal unities united by different, mainly logical types of connection, the presence purposefulness and pragmatic attitude" [Galperin 1981: 25]. It is significant that the first two requirements for the text as a whole consider the text in its relation to the title. When a text receives its final name (title), it gains autonomy. The text is isolated as a whole and is closed within the framework defined by the title. And only thanks to this does it acquire semantic capacity: the text establishes those semantic connections that could not be found in it if it were not an independent whole with a given title.

“Whatever the name, it has the ability, moreover, the power to delimit the text and endow it with completeness. This is its leading property. It is not only a signal directing the reader’s attention to a prospective presentation of thoughts, but also sets the framework for such presentation” [Galperin 1981: 134].

In a book dedicated to literary creativity, V. A. Kaverin writes that “the book resists the unfortunate title. The struggle with the author begins when the last line is written” [Kaverin 1985: 5]. The book itself is called “The Desk.” The writer spent a long time looking for the right title for it. And he succeeded only in collaboration with M. Tsvetaeva. “My faithful desk!” - this is how Tsvetaeva’s poem “The Table” opens. The “brilliantly precise, sparse lines” of this poem helped Kaverin determine the entire content of his book. The title combination of words “Desk” establishes those semantic connections that the author considers to be the main ones in the book.

Consequently, the title is a minimal formal construction that represents and closes the work of art as a whole.

The title, as a formally (graphically) distinguished element of the text structure, occupies a certain functionally fixed position in relation to the text. In accordance with the basic principles of decoding stylistics [Arnold 1978], there are four strong positions in a literary text: title, epigraph, beginning and end of the text. Decoding stylistics is based on the general psycholinguistic conclusion that “the “code” on which a person encodes and decodes is the same” [Zhinkin 1982: 53]. Revealing the basic principles of the structural organization of the text, it teaches the reader to use the artistic codes embedded in a work of art in order to perceive it most effectively.

In the style of decoding, the concept of advancement is important. Promotion is an organization of context in which the most important semantic elements of a literary text are brought to the fore. “The function of promotion is the establishment of a hierarchy of meanings, fixing attention on the most important, enhancing emotionality and aesthetic effect, establishing meaningful connections between adjacent and distant elements belonging to the same or different levels, ensuring the coherence of the text and its memorability” [Arnold 1978: 23]. Strong text positions represent one type of promotion.

The title is the strongest of these positions, which is emphasized by its isolation from the main body of the text. Although the title is the first highlighted element of the text, it is not so much at the beginning as above, on top of the entire text - it “stands outside the temporal sequence of what is happening” [Petrovsky 1925: 90]. In the article “Morphology of the Short Story,” MA Petrovsky writes that the meaning of the title is “not the meaning of the beginning of the short story, but in relation to the short story as a whole. The relationship between the short story and its title is synecdochic: the title co-implies the content of the short story. Therefore, directly or indirectly, the title should indicate some significant point in the story" [ibid.].

The functionally fixed position of the title “above” and “before” the text makes it not just a semantic element added to the text, but a signal that allows one to develop comprehension of the text in a certain direction. Consequently, the title, in a condensed form, contains information about the communicative organization of the meaning of the entire work of art. As a result of the contact of the title with the text, a single new artistic statement is born.

For prose, the rule is that the title and text go towards each other. This is clearly manifested in the process of the author’s work on the text. Most documents show that as soon as a writer finds a title for his nascent work of art, then “such a phrase that originated within the text, once it has arisen, begins in turn to degenerate the textual fabric: the pre-title growth of the draft - almost always - is sharply different from the draft that has already found its title" [Krzhizhanovsky 1931: 23]. The text is constantly being reworked to correspond to the final title: the content of the text tends to the title as the limit of completeness. Even when the text is finished, the title and the text look for a more specific match: the title either acquires a subtitle or is modified.

The borderline status and functionally fixed position of the title give rise to direct and inverse connections between the title and the text. In this regard, it is interesting to consider the connection of the title with the categories of prospection and retrospection in the text.

There is always a reader who opens a particular book for the first time. For him, the title is the starting point of his appeal to the artistic world of the work. At first, the title still has little content, but the semantics contained in one or several words of the title gives the reader the first guideline by which the perception of the text as a whole will be organized. This means that the title is the first member of the direct, prospective connection between the title and the text. The further reading process explicitly or implicitly forces the reader to repeatedly turn to the title again: perception will look in it for the basis of the connection and correlation of subsequent parts of the text, its composition. “Step by step, the material is organized according to what is specified in the title. This is, as it were, a direct order of perception of the work and at the same time the first member of the “feedback”, the meaning and significance of which becomes clear when we close the book” [Gay 1967: 153].

Thus, the title turns out to be the center of the generation of multidirectional connections in a work of art, and compositional and semantic connections appear as centripetal in relation to the title. Numerous connections that the title acquires during the reading of the text degenerate the semantic structure of its perception. The meaning of the title structure increases: it is filled with the content of the entire work. The title becomes the form into which the content of the text as a whole is cast. “Thus, the name, being by its nature an expression of the category of prospection, at the same time has the properties of retrospection. This dual nature of the name reflects the property of each statement, which, based on the known, is directed into the unknown. In other words, the name is a phenomenon of a thematic and rhematic nature” [Galperin 1981: 134].

The titles of different works relate differently to the categories of prospection and retrospection and thereby create variable relationships between the literary text and its title. Direct and feedback connections in the text can have two forms of expression: explicit (explicit) and implicit (not receiving formal expression). The direction and type of formal expression determine the degree of closeness of the connection between the title and the text.

Titles such as “The Tale of How Ivan Ivanovich Quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich” (1834) by N.V. Gogol mainly activate direct relationships. The title presents the composition of the work in an expanded form for the reader: it contains the plot of the story (quarrel), as well as the similarities (same names) and dissimilarities (different patronymics) of the main characters. Direct connections dominate over reverse ones: the title is turned inside the text. A pronounced reverse perspective of connections is observed in question titles and proverb titles. The title-question (like “Who is to blame?” (1845) by A. I. Herzen) requires an answer that can only be given by reading the entire book. The very formulation of the question in the title is a kind of completion. The question that opens and summarizes the problem is thus addressed to the outside world; the question mark itself in the title is a call for open dialogue. Titles-proverbs aphoristically condense the content of the text following them and thereby, at the very beginning, close it into the figurative framework of phraseological unity. Thus, A. N. Ostrovsky’s replacement of the previous title of the play “Bankrupt” with the new “Our own people - we will be numbered!” (1850) (with an exclamation mark) is by no means accidental. After all, the author in the play reveals not the fact of the hero’s bankruptcy itself, but the mutual responsibility of “his people” who make up a single whole. At the beginning of the play, an artistic conclusion is given, to which the reader will come only at the end. Such titles are mostly associated with the main body implicitly.

The most obvious connection is found in the titles, which are directly and explicitly developed in the text of the work. The main way of expressing this connection is close and/or distant repetition in the text. “The linguistic element placed in the title is clearly perceived and remembered precisely because of the individuality and importance of the latter. Therefore, the appearance of this linguistic element in the text is easily correlated by the reader with its primary presentation and is recognized as a repetition” [Zmievskaya 1978: 51].

The maximum degree of explication of the connection between the title and the text is achieved when the repeating elements of the title are continuous or appear in strong positions: the beginning and end of the text. “The beginning of the text is the first, and the end is the last thing that the perceiver encounters and becomes familiar with. Perceiving them, he is on the border of text and non-text, that is, in a situation that maximally facilitates the capture and awareness of what is specific and characteristic of a given text” [Gindin 1978: 48]. Repetition, like strong text positions, is a type of emphasis. The appearance of a linguistic element in the strongest position of the text - the title, and its repetition in another strong position (beginning or end) of the text creates a double or multiple prominence of this element.

The beginning and the end are especially noticeable in small forms. This phenomenon allows word artists to often use the technique of framing a work of art with a title structure in lyrical poems, stories, and short stories. We find an interesting construction in this sense in the story “Bachman” by V. Nabokov. The writer's title, in conjunction with the initial and final lines, encloses the text and meaning of the entire work, enclosing it in a frame. But at the same time, it seems to resurrect the hero named by the title from the dead. So, in the first lines of the story we learn about Bachmann’s death: “Not so long ago the news flashed in the newspapers that in the Swiss town of Marival, in the orphanage of St. Angelica, died, forgotten by the world, the glorious pianist and composer Bachman". The story ends with the greeting “Hello, Bachman!”, although not uttered by one of the characters, but intended by him.

Among modern prose writers, V.F. Tendryakov mastered this technique perfectly. Here, for example, is the joyful frame of the story “Spring Changelings” (1973): “...And the clear, stable world began to play with Dyushka in changelings."- “A wonderful world surrounded Dyushka, beautiful and treacherous, loving to play changelings". Moreover, the last repetition of the word “shifters” is not equal to the first - it reveals new properties of “beautiful insidiousness.”

We find a more complex outline of the title theme in a larger form - the novel “Eclipse” (1976) by V. F. Tendryakov, where, in addition to the initial ones (July 4, 1974, partial lunar eclipse) and ending lines (" A total eclipse for me... Eclipses transient. Let there be someone who would not pass through them” [Tendryakov 1977: 219, 428]) the internal titles of the parts “Dawn”, “Morning”, “Day”, “Twilight”, “Darkness” also play a large role, reflecting intra-textual forms development of the main title. Here the frame repetition doubles the meaning of the novel's title word.

We find an unusual frame in the story “The Circle” by Nabokov, which begins with the lines: « Secondly, because a frantic longing for Russia broke out in him. Third finally, because he felt sorry for his then youth - and everything associated with it - anger, clumsiness, heat, - and dazzling green mornings, when in the grove one could go deaf from the willows" .

And it ends: « Firstly, because Tanya turned out to be as attractive, as invulnerable as she once was.” .

It is significant that the beginning of this text has a non-normative organization: the narrative is introduced as if from the middle, since the character is named with an anaphoric personal pronoun. At the end of the text, on the contrary, there is a similarity to the opening part with a continuation that turns us to the initial lines of the text. Consequently, Nabokov’s title “Circle” sets the circulation of both the text itself and the events described in it.

In large forms (such as a novel), the title word or phrase is often not immediately included in the fabric of the narrative, but appears at the plot-climax points of the literary text. The technique of distant repetition in this case not only organizes the semantic and compositional structure of the novel and highlights its most important nodes and connections, but also allows the words of the title to develop their metaphorical meaning in the semantic perspective of the text. In turn, the metaphorical possibilities of linguistic signs in the title give rise to the semantic and compositional duality of the entire work.

We encounter the use of this technique in I. A. Goncharov’s novel “The Cliff.” A study of the history of its creation suggests that the appearance of the title word at the culmination points of the text is explainable not only logically, but also historically. This phenomenon indicates the intratextual origin of the title.

The novel took a very long time to create (1849–1869). At first, the artist Raisky was at the center of the story, and the future novel had the code name “The Artist” (1849–1868). The story begins with Raisky. Almost the entire first part is dedicated to him. But while working on the text, Raisky is relegated to the background. Other heroes come to the fore, primarily Vera. And in 1868, Goncharov decides to name the novel after her. This title remains in the text - this is the title of the novel that Raisky was going to write. But in the process of working on the final parts of the novel (the fourth and fifth), a sharp change in plan occurs. It is associated with the discovery of the symbolic word “Cliff”, which is fixed as the title of the novel. Thanks to this word, the novel was completed. In accordance with the title word, the novel begins to be remade and shaped.

Let's trace the history of the word “cliff” through the text. The word first appears towards the end of the first part in the meaning ‘steep slope along the bank of a river, ravine’. There is also a mention of a sad legend associated with cliff, his bottom Raisky is the first to come to the cliff: he is beckoned “to cliff, from which there was a good view of the Volga and both its banks.” The second mention of the cliff is already in the second part of the novel. Marfenka’s attitude towards him is determined: “I don’t go with cliff, It’s scary there, it’s deaf!” For now, the repetition in the text is scattered, with hints.

The next time the repetition appears is in the fourth part. A contrast arises: “family nest” - “cliff”. Now already break connected with Vera, her meetings on bottom of the cliff with Mark. Here we encounter the verbal use of the root from which the word is derived break. Faith then is torn To cliff, then stops in front of him, then takes a step again towards cliff." Root repetition implements a new meaning of the word break- ‘the place where it breaks’. At the same time, the verbal meaning of the word is born and begins to dominate cliff, associated with an action or process. This occurs due to the accumulation of verbs in the text tear, tear. The characters' feelings "break through". Raisky notices in Vera the presence of the same love for Mark, “which is contained in him and was torn To her". "And passion vomits me,” says Vera. And in "zeal to some new truth" rushes to the bottom of the cliff. Two roots come into contact. Saturation occurs in the text of the verb tear, always correlated with rush up, and place cliff Distant repetitions of a word break become increasingly intimate at the climax of the novel. The final resolution into close repetitions comes towards the end of the final fifth movement. The closer to the end, the closer to the “cliff”.

Break appears before Vera as abyss, abyss, and she - “to the other side abyss when already came off forever, weakened, exhausted by the struggle, and burned the bridge behind her.” Contrasted top And bottom cliff Mark stays on day him, does not rush after Vera “from the bottom cliff to the height." Paradise remains at the top of the cliff, and “his whole novel ends cliff" He did not save Vera, “hanging over cliff at a dangerous moment." Helps her "get out of cliff"Tushin, despite the fact that "for the second time he slipped from his cliff happy hopes." He doesn't consider this break abyss" and carries Vera "through this cliff", throwing a “bridge across it” (parts V, VI).

Thus, the title “Break” is created by the text and itself creates the text, restructuring its understanding. End-to-end repetition generates not only the text, but also the subtext of the work. The cliff and the bottom of the cliff in their literal meaning serve as the place for the unfolding of the main collisions of the novel, the collision of various compositional lines. But the concentration of the conflicting feelings of the main characters in this “place” is so great that they break apart - break. Break ceases to exist simply as a designation of place, the verbal, metaphorical meaning begins to dominate in the word. The law of economy requires, without introducing new lexemes, to update their meaning whenever possible: and Goncharov, at the climax of the novel, did not separate the two meanings, the two planes of the word cliff, but united them. The combination of two meanings gave completeness to the whole plan: the author found the final title of the novel.

Analysis of the text of the novel “The Precipice” allows us to understand how the subtext of the work is born. According to T. I. Silman, “the subtext is based on at least a two-vertex structure, on a return to something that already existed in one form or another either in the work itself, or in the projection that is directed from the work to reality” [Silman 1969: 84]. Thus, in the text, “base situation” A and “repetition situation” B are distinguished: the meaning of segment B, reinforced by repetition, using the material given by the primary segment of text A, “develops at the corresponding point in the work that deep meaning, which is called subtext and can arise only on the basis of the material given at point A, taking into account those plot layers that lie in the plot space between point A and point B” [Silman 1969: 85]. Usually, in a large novel form, a whole sequence of fragments appears, which are connected by the repetition of different semantic components of one situation or idea (in this case, the idea of a “cliff” and its overcoming). Based on this correlation, new knowledge appears as a reorganization of previous knowledge, and the literal and subtextual meaning become in the “theme-rheme” relationship.

The depth of subtext is determined by the clash between the primary and secondary meaning of a word, statement or situation. “The repeated statement, gradually losing its direct meaning, which becomes only a sign reminiscent of some initial specific situation, is meanwhile enriched with additional meanings, concentrating in itself the whole variety of contextual connections, the whole plot-stylistic “halo”” [ibid.: 87]. In other words, subtext irradiation occurs: the internal connection restored between certain segments activates hidden connections between other segments in the text. This is why tropes are so often used to create subtext - metaphor, metonymy, irony.

Explicit repetition of the title in the text can be either multiple or single. Often, a single repetition, due to its singularity, is no less significant in the structure of the whole work than a multiple repetition, but it mainly belongs to small forms. A one-time repetition is most often implemented either at the very beginning (“Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District” (1865) by N. S. Leskov) or at the very end (“The Enchanted Wanderer” (1873) by N. S. Leskov) of the text. Thus, the words of the title “The Enchanted Wanderer” are repeated only in the last paragraph of the story. It is obvious that works of this kind are built on the “feedback” principle. Their titles “are hidden behind pages of text moving through the reader’s consciousness and only with its last words do they become understandable and necessary, acquiring the logical clarity that was previously<…>was not felt" [Krzhizhanovsky 1931: 23].

At first glance, it seems that the title and the text, linked implicitly, are characterized by a less close connection. However, such a conclusion often turns out to be illusory, since implicit relations apparently express a completely different level of connection than explicit ones. In the case of an implicit connection, the title is connected with the text only indirectly; its meaning can be symbolically encrypted. But still, it is connected directly with the text as a whole unit and interacts with it on an equal basis.

The observations of Yu. M. Lotman are useful in this regard. Defining at the semiotic level the relationship that arises between the text and its title, the scientist writes: “On the one hand, they can be considered as two independent texts located at different levels of the “text-metatext” hierarchy. On the other hand, they can be considered as two subtexts of a single text. The title can relate to the text it denotes on the basis of metaphor and metonymy. It can be realized using words of the primary language, translated into the rank of metatext, or using words of a metalanguage, etc. As a result, semantic currents arise between the title and the text it denotes, giving rise to a new message” [Lotman 1981a: 6–7].

With this consideration, explicit connections between the title and the text are realized with the help of words of the primary language, translated into the rank of metatext (that is, “text about the text”), and implicit ones - with the help of words of the metalanguage. Then the implicit connection acts as the most explicit form of hierarchical “metatext-text” relations.

The implicit form of connection between the title and the text can manifest itself in various ways. If there is a direct connection, the absence of explicit linguistic indicators of the development of the theme of the title in the text itself does not prevent the title from serving as the main “indicator” of the key theme of the work. This happens because the dominant influence of the title transfers the reader's perception to a deeper semantic level - a symbolic one. There is a symbolic, metalinguistic deployment of the title in the text, and the text acts as an expanded title metaphor.

Such, for example, is the relationship between the title “Spring Waters” (1871) and the story itself by I. S. Turgenev. The title combination is not explicitly repeated in the text. The only component where the words of the title are expressed verbally is the epigraph. Title and epigraph (from an old romance “Merry years, Happy days - Like spring waters they rushed by!”), related explicitly, determine the direction of the semantic development of the metaphor in the text: ‘movement of water’ - ‘movement of life, feelings’. Unfolding in a literary text, the title-metaphor through the semantic repetition of similar components of meaning generates a metaphorical field there.

“Spring Waters” is primarily correlated with the cheerful years of Sanin’s life, with that mighty flow, unstoppable waves which the hero was carried forward. Semantic repetition occurs at the climax of the story, at the peak of the hero’s feelings: “... from a sad shores of your sad single life plump he's in that one cheerful, ebullient, mighty stream - and grief is not enough for him, and he does not want to know where he is going will endure... It's not quiet anymore jets Uhland's romance, which recently lulled him... This strong, unstoppable waves! They flying And jumping forward - and he flies with them" .

Semantic repetitions at the beginning and end of the story are specified using the contrast method. The elderly hero remembers his life. "Not stormy waves covered<…>it seemed to him sea of life- no, he imagined it the sea is calmly smooth, motionless and transparent to the very bottom..." Life is still the same pouring from empty to empty, the same pounding of water". This is the beginning of the story. The end again turns us to the aged hero. Here the metaphor associated with the movement of water develops on a different plane: “He was afraid of that feeling of irresistible contempt for himself that<…>certainly will surge at him and will flood How like a wave other sensations..." The hero is overwhelmed by waves of memories, but these are not the same waves that are carried by the stream of “spring waters” - they drown him, carry him “to the bottom”. Bottom of the sea of life appears at the beginning: this is old age and death, which bring “all everyday illnesses.” The end of the story is not so gloomy. This darkness is removed by the title and composition of the story, the epilogue of which again turns us to the “spring waters” of love.

A different type of implicit relationship connects the polysemantic symbolic title “On the Eve” (1860) and another story by Turgenev. According to the author, the story is named after the time of its appearance. The full title shows that Russia was on the eve of the appearance of people like Insarov. Initially, the text had the title “Insarov,” but it did not suit Turgenev, since it did not answer the questions posed in it. “On the Eve” changed the concept of the work. The title appeared “on the eve” of the text, which allows only the unique position and functions of the title as a compositional unit of communication: it is generated by the content of what it presupposes, and therefore is unthinkable without it.

Obviously, with an implicit connection, the final closure of the text with the title occurs only when, as a result of the contact of the text with the title, semantic currents arise that give rise to a single new message. Implicity is inherent in any title to one degree or another. This is manifested in the fact that the main line of explicit connection between the title and the text always interacts with additional semantic lines at the level of implicit connection.

Let us now define the functions of the titles of a literary text. The function of a linguistic element in linguistic poetics is understood as its specific purpose, in addition to the role that this element plays in the transmission of direct subject-logical information. This additional purpose is clarified and established by the overall artistic system of the work.

The borderline status determines the dual nature of the title, which, in turn, gives rise to the dual nature of its functions. Accordingly, all functions of the title can be divided into external And internal. In this case, the reader’s position is considered external to the text, and the author’s position is internal. A distinctive feature of external functions is their communicative nature.

So, we highlight three external and three internal functions in the title of a literary text, correlating with each other:

external

1) representative;

2) connecting;

3) the function of organizing reader perception.

internal

1) nominative (nominative);

2) isolation and termination function;

3) text-forming.

Standing at number three, the interconnected external function of reader perception and the text-forming internal function work at three levels of organization of a literary text and each include three subfunctions: For) the function of organizing meaning - highlighting the semantic dominant and the hierarchy of artistic accents; 3b) function of compositional organization; 3c) function of stylistic and genre organization. In addition to general external and internal functions, each title, organizing reader perception, performs a specific aesthetic function in its specific work.

Let's consider external and internal functions in their interaction.

Title of the work of art - representative, that is, the representative and substitute of the text in the outside world. This is the representative function of the title: condensing the text within itself, the title conveys its artistic information. Nominative the function acts as the internal side of the representative function. The representative function is addressed to the reader; the naming function is carried out by the author of a work of art in accordance with the internal specifications of the text. The writer, naming the book, sets a certain task for the reader, asks him a riddle, which reading of the work helps to decipher.

When first acquainted with the work, the title implicitly - only due to its position - appears as a representative. As the text is read, as the reader dialogues with the author, the meaning of the title increases - it forms an artistic statement. In this new capacity, the title not only represents the text, but also designates it. Having passed through the text of a work of art, the title addresses the reader with its external side - the title in an explicit representative function. In this sense, it becomes not only a representative of the work, but also its substitute. Thus, “the name uniquely combines two functions - the function of nomination (explicit) and the function of predication (implicit)” [Galperin 1981: 133]. The naming function corresponds to the nomination category of the text, the representative function - predication. In this regard, titles consisting of the first and/or last names of the main character are interesting. From the point of view of the primary reading of the text, the representativeness of these titles is small compared to titles consisting of common nouns: proper names appear in the title in their direct nominative function. Initially, such a title does not have a significative meaning, but only directs us to search for the main character and focuses attention on the compositional lines associated with him. As such a work is read, and even more so with the growth of its popularity and public attention to it, the proper name given in the title gradually acquires the lexical meanings of its predicates. And already in this new quality, condensing the idea of the entire work into its “speaking name,” it acquires representative and other functions. The names and surnames appearing in the title acquire a certain semantics and usage, according to which they will be included in a certain literary paradigm (“Eugene Onegin” by A. S. Pushkin, “Rudin” by I. S. Turgenev, “Oblomov” by I. A. Goncharov; “Two Ivans, or the Passion for Litigation” (1825) by V. T. Narezhny and “The Tale of How Ivan Ivanovich Quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich” (1834) by N. V. Gogol). When a proper name is used for the second time in a title, as, for example, in allusive titles (“Russian Zhilblaz, or the Adventures of Prince Gavrila Simonovich Chistyakov” (1814) by V. T. Narezhny; “Russian Zhilblaz, or the Adventures of Ivan Vyzhigin” (1825) by F. V. Bulgarin, etc.), it already performs mainly a representative function, pulling with it the theme, plot, mood of its classical model, plus the whole mass of previous variations of this theme. In such titles the role of the connecting function is great.

Connection function the title acts as external to the internal isolation and termination functions. The first title establishes contact between the text and the reader and thus connects and correlates the work with other texts and artistic structures, introducing this title into the general system of cultural memory. “The book, like everything around it, is looking for opportunities to go on and beyond its cover into its outside” [Krzhizhanovsky 1931: 31]. It acquires this opportunity thanks to the connecting function of the title.

At the same time, the title highlights and separates its text from other texts, from the entire external world, and thereby provides the text with the necessary conditions for existence and functioning as an independent unit of communication: completeness and integrity. Isolation is a necessary condition for the existence of a prose text, since it is fiction. “The so-called fiction in art is a positive expression of isolation” [Bakhtin 1975: 60]. Demarcation is a necessary condition for creating the internal organization of a text, a system of its connections. Therefore, the title is an active participant in the formation of the internal structure of the work. When the author finds a title for his text (for example, Goncharov - “Cliff”), and the reader deciphers the author’s intention, the textual fabric of the work acquires the boundaries of its development. Closing the text with a title ensures unity and coherence of previously separate meanings. The title becomes the main constructive device for creating coherence between the elements of the text and integrating the text as a whole. The title, thus, becomes a form of formation and existence of the text as an integral unit, becomes a form that performs the function of isolation and completion in relation to the text as content.

But the concept of text integrity is relative. Isolation of a text or its inclusion in a certain unity depends on the communicative intention of the author. The boundaries of the text itself, like the boundaries of the title, are movable. The text is subject to constant processes of change: either the “transformation of text into context” occurs, that is, the significance of the boundaries of the text is emphasized, or “the transformation of context into text” - erasing external boundaries [Lotman 1981b: 5]. Therefore, the internal function of isolation and completion is in dialectical unity with the connecting external one.

The connecting function of the title can form texts that run through all Russian literature. This, for example, is the “Petersburg Text”. From the “genre-defining” subtitles of “The Bronze Horseman” (“Petersburg Tale”) by Pushkin (1833) and “The Double” (“Petersburg Poem”) (1846) by Dostoevsky, the epithet pops up in the titles of the collections “Petersburg Stories” (1835–1841) by Gogol, “ Physiology of St. Petersburg" and "Petersburg Collection" (1845–1846) edited by Nekrasov and applies to the works included in it; these works echo “Petersburg Peaks” (1845) by Y. Butkov and “Petersburg Slums” (1867) by V. Krestovsky, etc. In the 20th century, the same tradition continues - “Petersburg Poem” (1907) - Blok’s cycle, numerous "Petersburg" of the beginning of the century, including the novel by A. Bely (1914). “This specification “Petersburg” seems to set the cross-genre unity of numerous texts of Russian literature” [Toporov 1984: 17].

The connecting function clearly reveals itself when translating titles. Differences in national consciousness often lead to re-expression of the name, the creation of a new, different one. Without knowledge of national literature, the meaning of an allusive title or a title implicitly associated with the text sometimes remains unclear. In these cases, the translator takes on the functions of an intermediary between the original text and his translation, restoring broken connections and relationships. So, the title of the famous novel by Wen. Erofeev’s “Moscow - Petushki” was translated by Italian translators as “Mosca sulla vodka” (literally ‘Moscow through the prism of vodka’).

Further logic of the description leads us to consider functions of organizing perception And text-forming title functions. According to Yu. M. Lotman, the main function of a literary text is the generation of new meanings. The generation of new meanings largely occurs due to the interaction of the title with the main body of the text. Between the title and the text, a semantic and phase arises, which simultaneously expands the text in space and collects its content into the form of the title. Therefore, the title can be considered as a component of a work of art, generating the text and generated by the text.

The paradox is that it is possible to describe the text-forming function of the title at the level of the finished text only through the function of organizing reader perception.

We find an excellent analysis of this kind in L. S. Vygotsky in the book “Psychology of Art” [Vygotsky 1965: 191–213]. Vygotsky took I. A Bunin’s story “Easy Breathing” (1916) as a model. The poetics of this work is based on the interaction of the title with the compositional structure of the text. In “Easy Breathing,” the role of the beginning and end of the text is especially clear. The beginning and end of the real disposition are rearranged in the composition of the story. For what?

The content of the story is “everyday dregs,” the heavy prose of life. However, this is not the impression he gives. Bunin gives it the name “light breathing”. “The title is given to the story, of course... not in vain, it contains a disclosure of the most important theme, it outlines the dominant that determines the entire structure of the story... Every story... is, of course, a complex whole, made up of completely different elements, organized in different degrees, in different hierarchies of subordination and communication; and in this complex whole there is always a dominant and dominant element, which determines the construction of the rest of the story, the meaning and name of each of its parts. And such a dominant feature of our story is, of course, “light breathing”” [ibid.: 204]. This phrase appears only towards the very end of the story in the memories of a classy lady about a conversation she overheard about the meaning of female beauty. "The meaning of beauty is "easy breathing"- this is what the heroine thought, about whose tragic death we learn at the very beginning of the text. The whole catastrophe of her life "this light breath." Now "it's easy breathing again scattered in the world, in this cloudy sky, in this cold spring wind,” concludes Bunin. “These three words,” writes Vygotsky, “completely concretize and unite the whole idea of the story, which begins with a description of the cloudy sky and the cold spring wind” [ibid.: 204]. In poetics, such an ending is called pointe - ending on the dominant. The composition of the story “takes a leap from the grave to easy breathing." The author drew a complex, crooked composition in his story “to destroy its everyday dregs, to turn it into transparency” [ibid.: 200–201].

From the point of view of the organization of perception, the titles are unusual, which in a figurative form simultaneously convey both the semantic dominant of the work and the method of its compositional structure. Such titles are almost always cycle-forming. Thus, the prose poem “Forest Drops” by M. Prishvin breaks up into separate miniature droplets with independent titles, which flow together thanks to the collective title. From the “droplets” titles “Light of Droplets”, “Light Drops”, “Tears of Joy”, etc. and mini-texts, “Forest Drops” is born. And Prishvin’s novel “Kashcheev’s Chain” (1928–1954) breaks down into separate “links”, each of which the hero must overcome in order to remove the entire “Kashcheev’s Chain” of evil, ill will, doubt in the world and within himself.

Different functions are not equally represented in each specific title: each has its own distribution of functions. There is interaction and competition not only between external and internal functions, but also between functions of each type separately. The final version of the title depends on which functional trends the author has chosen as prevailing (internal or external, textual or metatextual).

Previously, we determined that in addition to the general functions inherent in all titles to a greater or lesser extent, each title, organizing the text and its perception by the reader, performs a particular aesthetic function in relation to your specific text. This aesthetic function cannot be successfully defined in isolation from the general functions of the title, and all the general functions of the title and their distribution are subordinated in the work to its specific aesthetic function.

The aesthetic function of the title is decisive in works of fiction, while in all other types of literature - newspaper journalistic, scientific, popular science, etc. - it acts as a secondary additional component. The dominance of the aesthetic function is explained by the fact that in a literary text not only the content of the message itself is important, but also the form of its artistic embodiment. The aesthetic function of the title grows out of the poetic function of language.

The aesthetic function of the title will take on various meanings depending on the theme, style and genre of the work, and its artistic task. Titles with a predominance of external functions will have one range of aesthetic function values, titles with a predominance of internal ones - another. A certain range of aesthetic function values will be characteristic of titles whose external and internal functions are in relative balance. Titles with a predominance of internal functions can take on the following functional aesthetic meanings:

1) symbolic(“Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol, “Scarlet Sails” (1923) by A. Green, “Ginseng. The Root of Life” (1933) by M. M. Prishvin);

2) allegorical(“Crucian carp-idealist”, “The wise minnow”, “Bear in the province” (1884–1886) by M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin);

3) artistic generalization and typification(“Hero of Our Time” (1840) by M. Yu. Lermontov; “Man in a Case” (1898) by A. P. Chekhov);

4) ironic(in the titles of A. Chekhov’s satirical stories “Mysterious Nature” (1883), “Defenceless Creature” (1887), etc.);

5) disappointed expectations(in the titles of M. Zoshchenko’s humorous stories “Poor Liza”, “The Sorrows of Young Werther” (1934–1935));

6) clues(we found such a meaning in its pure form only in the titles of poems);

7) zero(“Without a title” by A. Chekhov, A. Kuprin).

Titles with a predominance of external functions have the following range of functional meanings:

8) emotional impact(“Emilia, or the Sad Consequences of Reckless Love” (1806) by M. E. Izvekova);

10) shocking(in the titles of the futurists’ collections - “Sugar of the Kry”, “Heel of the Futurists. Stihi” (1913–1914)).

The range of aesthetic function values for titles with approximately equal distribution of external and internal functions is very wide. Titles in which one or another direction of function dominates can also take on these meanings. These are the following values:

11) allusive(“The Sorrows of Young Werther” by M. Zoshchenko, “Oh you, last love!..” (1984) by Y. Nagibin);

12) stylization(“Adventures of a fakir. A detailed history of the remarkable adventures, mistakes, clashes, thoughts, inventions of the famous fakir and dervish Ben Ali Bey, truthfully described by himself in 5 parts with the inclusion of essays about...” (1935) Vs. Ivanov);

13) parodies(“The Real Vyzhigin, a historical, moral and satirical novel of the 19th century by F. Kosichkin” (1831) by A. Pushkin, “A message to Ivan Vyzhigin from S.P. Prostakov, or Fragments of my stormy life” (1829) by I. Trukhachev - parodies of novels by F. Bulgarin);

14) "fantastic" attitude tasks- unreal - real” in a literary text(“The Dream of a Funny Man” (1877) by F. Dostoevsky, “Notes of a Madman” (1834) by N. Gogol; subtitles - fantasy novel (story), dream, fairy tale, etc.);

15) emphasized documentation(“Physiology of St. Petersburg”, edited by N.A. Nekrasov; “Not on the lists” (1974) by B. Vasilyeva, “TASS is authorized to declare...” by Y. Semenov);

16) aphoristic-summarizing(in title-questions like “What to do?” (1863) by N. G. Chernyshevsky, title-proverbs like “Poverty is not a vice” (1854) by A. N. Ostrovsky);

17) expressions of subjective modality(explicit modality - “Yes, guilty!” (1925) by S. Semenov, “We must endure” (2008) by O. Zhdan; implicit modality - “Easy Breathing” by I. Bunin, “Cruelty” by P. Nilin); author Kikhney Lyubov Gennadievna

CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF A WORK OF ART

From the book Fundamentals of Literary Studies. Analysis of a work of art [tutorial] author Esalnek Asiya Yanovna

Ways and methods of analyzing a work of art The problem of scientific analysis of a work of art is one of the most complex and theoretically poorly developed problems. The methodology of analysis is closely related to the methodology of literary criticism. Lately, more and more often

From the book Technologies and Methods of Teaching Literature author Philology Team of authors --

Chapter 1. Philosophy of the “word” and the Phenomenon of a work of art in articles and “program” poems by O.

From the book Literature 5th grade. A textbook-reader for schools with in-depth study of literature. Part 1 author Team of authors

Ways to analyze a work of art Which path is most productive in examining a work of art and mastering the principles of its analysis? When choosing a methodology for such consideration, the first thing to keep in mind: in the vast world of literary works

From the book Literature 5th grade. A textbook-reader for schools with in-depth study of literature. Part 2 author Team of authors

CHAPTER 5 Methods, techniques and technologies for studying a work of art in a modern school 5.1. Methods and techniques for studying a work of art Based on the totality of scientific methods of knowledge of literature, adapting them to one’s goals and objectives, creatively

From the book Literature 6th grade. A textbook-reader for schools with in-depth study of literature. Part 2 author Team of authors

5.1. Methods and techniques for studying a work of art Based on the totality of scientific methods of knowledge of literature, adapting them to one’s goals and objectives, creatively transforming the searches of methodologists of the past, modern methods of studying literature in school

From the author's book

5.3. Formation of the spiritual world of a schoolchild in the process of analyzing a work of art (using the example of K.D. Balmont’s poem “Ocean”) Methodists have noticed that the accessibility of understanding a work at a naive-realistic level is quite illusory, since the meaning

From the author's book

5.3. Studying the theory of literature as the basis for analyzing a work of art Plan for mastering the topic Information of a theoretical and literary nature in school curricula (principles of inclusion in the school curriculum, correlation with the text of the work being studied,

From the author's book

Reading laboratory How to learn to read the text of a work of fiction You may be surprised that I am starting a conversation with you, a fifth grader, about how to learn to read: you already know how to do this. This is true. You can read fiction

From the author's book

Reading laboratory How to retell an episode of a work of art A part of a work of art that is relatively independent, talks about a specific event, incident, and is connected in meaning to the content of the work in

From the author's book

What is lyricism and the features of the artistic world of a lyrical work When you listen to a fairy tale or read a short story, you imagine both the place where the events take place and the characters of the work, no matter how fantastic they may be. But there are works

From the author's book

Reading laboratory How to learn to characterize a character in a work of fiction? The school year will end soon. You've learned a lot during this time. You now know how to read works of fiction, and most importantly, you love reading them. You already

From the author's book

Reading laboratory How to learn to retell the plot of a work of art You have been given the task of retelling the work. Specify the task, because you can retell both the plot and the plot. These are different types of retelling. If you talk briefly about

From the author's book

In the artist's workshop, words The language of a work of art The language of a literary work is a truly inexhaustible topic. As a first step towards mastering it, I suggest you leaf through one small article written back in 1918. It's called

The door tosses and turns on its hooks, and the sloth on its bed.

(Book Pr. 26.14)

[About life in prison, on chains.] Nobody came to me, except mice and cockroaches...

(“The Life of Archpriest Avvakum”)

[To Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich]: Poor, poor tsar! What have you done to yourself?

(“The Life of Archpriest Avvakum”)

I'm much more stupid.

So, the human being is worthless.

(“The Life of Archpriest Avvakum”)

That you treated me, this rumor is probably false, - I am alive.

(D. Khvostov)

He, tenacious in the world, was a kind man, and only behind him was all the vice that throughout his life he had neither conscience nor honor.

(F. Amin, “News from Hell”)

The cattle wore that fur coat,

And the cattle still carry them.

(A.77. Sumarokov, “Sable Fur Coat”, after: Khodakova 1969)

Our doctor pours countless drops into the mouths of the sick, but it doesn’t do any good.

(M.A. Kheraskov, “Epigram”, after: Khodakova 1969)

Doctor - often differs from the word enemy by changing the letter g to %

Marriage is a memorial service for love;

The pit is a place where diligent healers hide the fruits of their art;

Lh! - a plug for weak poets and cold lovers;

The sword is hanging courage, which sometimes clings to walking cowardice.

(Ya.B. Knyazhnin, “Excerpt from an explanatory dictionary”)

The healer is the quartermaster of eternity.

(“Experience of a material Russian dictionary”, XVIII century)

Oh, how great he is in the field!

He is cunning and quick and firm in battle;

Hb trembled as he stretched out only his hands towards him with a bayonet.

(G. R. Derzhavin, “On Bagration”)

I was bitten by a small winged snake,

Which is called a bee among people.

(G.RDerzhavin," example from: Nikitina - Vasilyeva 1996)

“Derzhavin has an ode “The Key” dedicated to Kheraskov. Vyazemsky writes, quoting her:

Sacred Grebenevsky key!

The singer of the immortal Rossiyada You gave water to the poetry...

- “The best epigram on Kheraskov. The water of poetry, speaking about Kheraskov’s poetry, is an amazingly true and funny expression! [Tynyanov 1993:372].

Kai is skilled in mitology without example,

I have experienced both Bacchus and Venus.

(“Anonymous epigram of the 18th century*)

Everyone says: he is Walter Scott,

But I, a poet, am not a hypocrite.

I agree: he's just a beast,

But I don’t believe that he is Walter Scott.

(“Lyceum epigrams”)

Poet, I won’t be a hypocrite,

You want to be known as a Russian Beranger,

I know that you are, I know that you are

But Beranger? No, I can't believe it!

(S. Sobolevsky, according to: Luk 1977).

I was showing off;

Now I have become dust.

(N. M. Karamzin, “The Tombstone of a Charlatan”, after: Khodakova 1969),

Sorry, modest sofas,

Witnesses of immodest scenes.

(N.M. Karamzin, “Correction”)

Triolet Lizete “Lizete is a miracle in this world,” Sighing, I said to myself, “Lizete has no beauty like her;

Lizeta is a miracle in the white world;

My mind matured in spring color.”

When did anger recognize her...

“Lizeta is a miracle in the white world!” - I sighed and told myself.

(N.M. Karamzin)

I was not silent... about the Ministry of Education or Eclipse.

(N.M. Karamzin, “Opinion of a Russian citizen”)

“Is it you, Khvostov? - having gone in to him,

I screamed. - Should you be here?

You're a fool - not crazy

There’s no way you can get away!”

(A.F. Voeikov, “Madhouse”)

[On A.A.Koltsov-Mosalsky]:

Under this stone lies skinny Mosalsky.

He was all in weakness - now he is in power.

(D.V. Davydov)

You have climbed onto your horse, Baron, but a person on foot is not a companion to a horseman.

(A.A. Beetuzhsv "Marlinsky) "Revel Tournament", Sh)

The snake bit Markel.

He died? - No, the snake, on the contrary, died.

(B.JI.Pushkin, after: Luk 1977)

The real Virgo will finally taste the day of bliss

The hour will strike and...

Virgo will sit...

(A. Pushkin (? X by: Kruchenykh 1924)

A.S. Khvostov’s response to A.V. Khrapovntsky’s message, playing on the same beginning of their last names - the letter x (“dick”):

From a smart dick To a mediocre dick A message has arrived.

I'm happy beyond measure.

(“Raut”, I/, 255, after: Gasparov 2001)

To the publisher of a magazine with the epigraph “God is with us”

In what ways does he differ from his reader?

He writes: “God is with us!”, He says: “God is with him.”

(A. Illichsvsky)

Friends and treasure

One wise man said, although not in verse:

“Find friends - you will find a treasure in friends.”

I will repeat the same in reverse words:

“If you find a treasure, you will find friends yourself.”

(A. Illichevsky)

They announced to me that I had to live here for three more days, because the “opportunity” from Ekatsrinograd had not yet arrived and, therefore, could not go back. What an opportunity!.. But a bad pun is no consolation for a Russian person.

(MLermontov, “Hero of Our Time”, IV, according to karma BAS).

No matter how unpleasant it may be sometimes to have a nose, it is still more tolerable than to be without a nose at all.

(Almanac “Pictures of Light”, 1836 based on: Vinogradov V.V., “Naturalistic grotesque”)

(F. Tyutchev, according to: Russian lit. anecdote)

He is completely immersed in the bliss of his family life and cannot get out of it. He is like a fly stuck in honey.

Agrafena Kondratyevna. What is your name, father? I forget everything.

Rispolozhensky. Sysoy Psoich, mother Agrafena Kondratievna.

Agrafena Kondratyevna. How is it so: Psovich, silver? What is this like? (...) And Psovich, so Psovich; Well: it’s nothing, and it can be worse, they took it - amber. (...) So what kind of story did you, Sysoy Psovich, want to tell?

Rispolozhensky. There lived an old man, a venerable old man... Well, mother, I forgot where, but only on the side so... uninhabited.

(A.N. Ostrovsky, “Our people - we will be numbered!”)

Grigory, servant [reports to Turusina, the charitable lady about the coming strangers]: Madam, a strange man has come. The wandering people have come, sir.

Madam, the ugly one has arrived.

Turusin. Gregory, shame on you! Which one is ugly? Holy fool. Tell him to feed him. (A.N. Ostrovsky, “Simplicity is enough for every wise man”)

[About the actor Vasiliev in the role of Ivan the Terrible]: Vasiliev in “Grozny” could make you laugh,

But it is unlikely to give rise to serious judgments: he may be dirty and overweight Ivan,

But it’s hard for him to be formidable.

(P.A. Karatytn, “Backstage Epigrams”)

[About the prompter Serebryakov, who had eight children]: A great man looks out of a small hole!

Although there is no soul in itself, it feeds eight souls!

(P.A. Karatygin, according to: Rus, lit, anecdote) Kochergin. Yes, from that dry game of billiards my forehead is still wet.

(N. Nekrasov, “Actor”)

And it’s boring, and sad, and there’s no one to play cards with in a moment of pocket adversity.

Wife? but what's the point of beating your wife - After all, you'll give it to her for expenses!

(N. Nekrasov)

Without deceit and ardently Respect your native land:

Proudly courage with a bottle - Don’t give in an inch...

[N. Nekrasov, - a hint at the penchant of the parodied author for alcohol.]

He is our eighth miracle - He has an enviable disposition.

Incorruptible - like Judas,

Brave and honest - like Falstaff.

(N. Nekrasov,)

[Reasonings of a gourmet]: - A good pancake will make your eyes pop out. But I’ll look at the gentlemen... How timid they are when it comes to pancakes: they’ll eat four of them and now they’ll leave...

(I. Gorbunov, “Broad Maslenitsa”)

[About the conservative writer VLSkochensky]:

The voluntary prisoner of Stagnation did not touch anyone’s heart:

Sovremennik passes by

Barely looking at him;

The "bee" puts a sting into him,

The crutch enters “Disabled”

And “Time” makes a menacing noise like a scythe of ringing metal

"Gudok" is going to sound,

The “whistle” whistles restlessly - And in vain it looks for support And timidly looks to the east.

[The names of newspapers and magazines of the 60s of the 19th century are played out]

(V. Kurochkin, “The sad knight of pitch darkness...”)

I'll calm you down completely

Old men covered with gray hairs,

In order to warm their cold blood with Fet, ballet, pate.

(V. Kurochkin, after: Chernyaeva 1957)

I love to look at the stars - But not those in the heavenly world;

I prefer those that shine on an official's uniform.

These Sirius and Mars are funny and strange to me;

I prefer Stanislava,

Both Vladimir and Anna.

(P. Weinberg, “A Look at Nature”)

Everyone who is stupid or mean is probably betrayed to the throne, Everyone who is honest, smart is probably betrayed to court.

(M. Mikhailov based on: Luk 1977)

Who is Pobedonostsev?

For priests - Obedonostsev,

For the people - Bedonostsev,

For the stomach - Edonostsev...

For the Tsar, he is the evil Donostsev...

(L. Trefolev, “Actual Privy Councilor Konstantin Petrovich Pobedonostsev”)

[The poet Ivan Myatlev, wanting to protect himself from the loss of the hat, put poems inside the hat written on her behalf]:

I am Myatleva Ivana,

Not yours, idiot.

Look for yours first!

Yours, I have tea, thinner cabbage soup.

(based on: V. Novikov, “The Book of Parody”)

Bored by passion, languishing

Gorgeous! At your feet I burn with you, O storehouse of all my torments and joys!

I want and will serve you with all the balance of my strength,

Just lend me with your hand the entire sum of your charms!

(I. Myatyaev, “Declaration of love by an official of a loan bank”)

So, Lord, make it easier for the one who has endured a lot,

Who in this life, except figs,

I haven't eaten any other fruits yet.

(N. Loman, “Before Milyutin’s shops”)

[About the poet Nikolai L Oman, who in the 1860s collaborated with Iskra under the strange pseudonym Gn)t]:

You are little spoiled by fate - Sometimes it’s Bent, sometimes it’s Broken.

(P. Stepanov)

Once the architect came into contact with the bird house...

So what? their brainchild mixed two natures:

The son of an architect, he attempted to build;

A descendant of a poultry woman, he built only chickens.

(A.K. Tolstoy)

A. Klolstoy wrote humorous poems that echo* Pushkin’s “Tsarskoye Selo Statue”:

Having dropped the bowl of water, the maiden broke it on the cliff.

The virgin sits sadly, idle holding a shard.

Miracle! The water will not dry up, pouring out from the broken urn:

The maiden sits eternally sad over the eternal stream.

I don't see a miracle here. Lieutenant General

Zakharzhevsky,

Having drilled the bottom of that urn, he ran water through it.

Skitsky case Who killed? It's hidden,

Where were they killed? how?

A lot of time was wasted on the topic.

The one who boldly explains this will kill the beaver...

Oh, murderous thing...

I'm completely killed!

(Jury. “Word.” Benedict)

I walk, he says, not in a uniform, but in a tailcoat,

What do I need their Crete, or Thrace?

I have, he says, a heroic mustache and waist,

And a warm kingdom - its name is Italy.

(N.P. Ogarev, “The Eastern Question in Panorama”)

[Yanov] in a business paper, talking about some

Miscellanea

deceased official, wrote that “the deceased had a restless disposition.

(I.A. Goncharov, “Memoirs”, II, 6)

Falaley saw a carriage filled with ladies and Foma Fomich.

(F. Dostoevsky, “The village of Stepanchikovo and its inhabitants”)

[Semyon Semenych's story about a terrible incident]:

Finally, having finally swallowed, the crocodile absorbed all of my educated friend, and this time without a trace. On the surface of the crocodile one could notice how Ivan Matveich with all his forms walked through its interior.

(F Dostoevsky, “Crocodile, an extraordinary event, or passage in Passage”)

A boy entered the room, tangled in snot.

(F Dostoevsky?)

Our grammarians were very mistaken when they classified the words kindness, tenderness and condescension as feminine, and anger, madness and caprice as masculine and neuter.

(From the almanac “Cepheus”, after: Odintsov 1982)

[Address to a poet who wants to describe the difficulties of life]:

How does Gol, Gol, Gol live in our capital?

Where there is a deep layer of dirt, dirt, dirt

Where labor, labor, labor is hard to the point of exhaustion.

- “Stop! - Muse interrupted, - it will penetrate

In this song a host of important persons,

And he’ll just shout to you:

Tsitsi tsits! chick!

Better sing, brother, about the lovely Maidens, maidens, maidens.

Turn to the moon, to nature,

Sing the joys of your youth - After all, Fet, Fet, Fet sings in this way.”

(V. Bogdanov)

A coppersmith once said, while forging a basin,

To his wife, sad:

“I’ll give my son a task,

And I will disperse the melancholy."

(Ya. Kozlofsky)

But do you know what the difference is between the mistake of our brother [a man] and the mistake of a woman? Do not know? Here's what: a man can, for example, say that two and two are not four, but five or three and a half; and the woman will say that twice is two - a stearin candle.

(I. Turgenev, “Rudin”, II)

So, you have again delayed your arrival, my dear Annenkov. I’m only afraid that you, putting everything off and putting it off (what a strange word), will not come to us at all.

(I. Turgenev - I.V. Annenkov)

[Retelling of "La Traviata"]:

With all that, I love you very much! Here’s my portrait as a souvenir, and by the way, I’m supposed to die...

(I. Gorbunov, “La Traviata. A Merchant’s Tale”)

Winter! Peisanin, ecstasy,

Renovates the highway

And the horse, snow refluxing,

Jaguar does an essay.

(G.E., gave birth to I. Severyanin)

Blanchite veil solutidite In the obscura of the blue sea...

What is he scratching in the land of longitude,

What did you drop in your native land?

(Mixtix. Lermontov's poems. Imitation of new poets)

The hot sun beats down on Kafra, Kafrikha and Kafrika.

The drill lies behind the stone.

This is Africa.

(“Chukokkala”. Fyodor Sologub)

Might is not yet right, as stated in Roman law. .

[Roman - about the kidnapped Sabine women]:

They all scratch like cats! I have been in a hundred battles: I have been beaten with swords, sticks, stones, walls and gates, but never have I felt so bad.

(L. Andreev, “Beautiful Sabine Women”, I)

Wampuka (crying):

I cry for the dead man buried in the sands here,

I cry for my father who was killed untimely!..

(M. Volkonsky, “African Princess”)

These perfumes can drive even the Eiffel Tower crazy. They have an irresistible effect on men.

(N. Evreiiov, “Kitchen of Laughter”)

Troglodytes. To disgrace a civil servant like that!.. He served his Fatherland faithfully... he rose to the point of hemorrhoids...

(N. Evreiiov, “Kitchen of Laughter”)

[Some of the parodies of A. Akhmatova’s poems I put on my right hand / The glove on my left hand]:

She just shuddered: - Darling! Cute!

Oh, my Lord, help me!

And with her right hand she pulled the galosh off her left leg.

(S. Malakhov)

The lips freeze in a silent smile.

Dream or reality? Christ help!

On the right foot by mistake,

She put the shoe on her left foot.

(V. Sorgenfrey)

But now, having succumbed to male violence,

I mourn deeply!..

I put a mantilla on my pale legs,

And on the shoulders - tights...

(Don Aminado)

Then in silence I drew an ornament on the sweet bust,

And Alla bent down to me:

“Do you have a big temperament?”

(Sasha Cherny, “Beautiful Joseph”)

The portly bull bellowed in bewilderment: “The yoke... Labor in the sweat of the muzzle... Oh Eden...”

(Sasha Cherny, after: Eskova N.A., “About the language game”)

Why am I here, not there?

And so drunk

That you can’t even swim Along the furious waves,

O white Valaam,

To your dried mushrooms,

The dawn is crimson-scarlet,

To your seemingly tailless jackals.

(In. Annensky, parody of Balmont)

It’s immediately obvious that he’s impudent,

It’s immediately obvious that he’s a beast.

But - graceful,

But - polite,

But never too much

(I. Severyanin!)

Mohammed's successors were called "caliphs". They happened for an hour or for a longer period.

(O. Dymov, “The Middle Ages”)

They [the Germans] dressed in animal skins, loved to drink beer, and in peacetime, for the most part, did not fight.

(O. Dymov, “Middle Ages”) When a city appeared in the distance, the crusaders asked:

Listen, is this Jerusalem?

No? Are there any Jews in it?

Is it possible to kill them?

Yes, do your favor.

(O. Dymov, “The Middle Ages”)

Henry went to the pope's office. In the bitter winter, in the blizzard and cold, we had to cross the Alps - because the pope’s office was on the other side of the Alps.

(O. Dymov, “The Middle Ages”)

Chandeliers are burning in the sky,

And below there is darkness.

Did you go to him or didn’t you?

Tell me yourself!

But don't tease the hyena of suspicion,

Mice of melancholy!

Otherwise, look how the vengeful leopards sharpen their fangs!

And don’t call the owl of prudence this night!

The donkeys of patience and the elephants of hesitation fled away.

She gave birth to a crocodile of her own destiny. You are here yourself. .

Let the chandeliers burn in the sky, - There is darkness in the grave.

(Vl. Solovyov, a parody of decadents and symbolists who did not disdain zoological metaphors, all sorts of patience donkeys)

Here's a girl with gazelle eyes

Marries an American...

Why did Columbus discover America?

(N. Gumilyov)

Technology news. Yesterday three drunken mechanics came off the assembly line of the Semenovsky Automobile Plant.

(L. Izmailov)

At a meeting of Satyricon employees, someone dropped a watch under the table... Red (K. MAntipov) seriously gives rhyming advice:

Now the oohs and ahs are unnecessary.

But even a fool knows:

It is possible to stand on the clock,

But you shouldn't step on them.

[Peter Potemkin, a “satirical” poet, scrawled on the wall in the Vienna restaurant]:

There are two girls in Vienna.

Veni, vidi, vici.

(Yu. Annenkov, “Diary of my meetings”)

Mayakovsky

relies

(G.Kareisha, parody of V.Mayakovsky)

Will / under / Mayakovsky do.

Tugging at my wet panties with my little hands,

Not the gate / my / stopudo body!

Do it / for / yourself!

(M. Volpin, parody of V. Mayakovsky)

No, sorry! Our duty was and is to bring the country to a constituent assembly!

The janitor, who was sitting at the gate and heard these heated words, sadly shook his head:

What have they really brought you to, you sons of bitches!

(I. Bunin, “Cursed Days”) And the commandant, the bastard, lounged in an easy chair and lashed out with his tongue...

We headed to the port.

Don't clap. With your foot on the boat - the cook for the whistle, with your paw into the boiler... Well, well. Let's drain two tanks so that the belly is cracking.

(Artem Vesely)

He went out to the blackamoor. The bourgeois is channeling.

And on the belly - golden bamber.

Musyu what time is it? I easily fit between the horns!! and amba!

(I. Selvinsky)

The girl sang Schubert, the girl sang Schumann...

Why does she make noise?

When you can’t open your mouth even in a fur coat.

(I. Selvinsky, parody of A. Blok)

Estate at night, Genghis Khan!

Make noise, blue birches.

Dawn of the night, dawn of dawn!

And the sky is blue, Mozart!

(V. Khlebnikov)

The camel is gloomy, taciturn,

Stands, lips curled in mockery.

(V. Khlebnikov, “Hadji-Tarkhan”)

Towards the occupation of Palestine by the British

Soyneka zhyneira Lipitarosa kuba Veida leide Tsyube

Tuka knocka wey Oyok kyok Eb Heptsup Up Pi

(I. Terentyev)

Everyone fell silent. And in dead silence Tears were knocking on dirty plates.

(“Chukokkala”. E. Schwartz)

Korney Chukovsky

Roots! Why do you need to feed?

You will live your life rooted;

Kornet, kornet, always kornet - the unfortunate fate of Korney!

[Gorodetsky continues the play on surnames and first names, begun earlier by forming the verb fiddlesret (to collect manuscripts and portraits of famous people) from the surname Fiedler.]

(“Chukokkala”. S. Gorodetsky)

[Address by V. Kazin to the poet A. Kruchenykh]:

It is difficult for us to overcome the steep pressure of NEP. But they are cooler

Well, isn't it true, Kruchenykh,

It was impossible for us to escape.

(“Literary shushu(t)ki”. V. Kozin)

Impromptu by V. Kazin to impromptu by P. Oreshin about Zhits P. Oreshin: You, my dear Zhits,

Not a face, but many faces.

V. Kazin: What nonsense, there are so many faces - Only Zhits is two-faced!

(“Literary shushu(t)ki”)

Even though you are Belshazzar,

Even though you are Nebuchadnezzar,

But you're a fool, sir,

It's in your ear, sir!

(“Literary shushu(t)ki”. M. Svetlov, S. Kirsanov)

Excerpts from parodies included in the collection “Parnassus Standing on End. About goats, dogs and Waverleys"

The bookseller is your muse, I see, faithful;

Pampers and pleases you,

And, like an exemplary wife,

She gives birth to poems tirelessly.

(“Conversation between a bookseller and a poet”)

Alone in the depths of the pine forests, the old woman is a decrepit vein,

And I had a gray goat as a friend of my harsh days.

(“A.S. Pushkin”)

The stench came from the goat.

A smelly, burning stench. The old woman said: “Uh, good. I love".

(“Alexey Remizov”)

The old woman creaked, the cart seemed to cough, cough cough cough.

I perfectly caught all the old woman’s sins.

("Vladimir Mayakovsky")

What do you think is in the forest? Wolves, oh, what wolves! Gray, scary, with teeth. Do they have pity for the kid? Well, yes, they ate it.”

("Semyon Yushkevich")

Waverley

Waverley went for a swim, leaving Dorothea at home,

He takes a couple of bubbles with him, not knowing how to swim.

And he dived as quickly as he could, he dived straight in with his head, but his head was heavier than his legs, it remained under the water.

The wife, having learned about that misfortune, wanted to make sure,

But when she saw her darling’s feet in the pond, she turned to stone.

Centuries have passed; and the pond has died down, and the alleys are overgrown with grass, but a pair of legs and the frame of poor Dorothea still stick out there.

The king of all kings of the earth, the ruler of the Opening, is solemnly coming to the sacred Merida.

The king did not know how to swim. And the Lady Isis gives him a couple of bubbles...

("Valery Bryusov)

There, every evening at the appointed hour, among the disturbing alleys, with her body seized by bubbles, Waverley goes to swim...

("Alexander Blok")

Everything is the same as before: the sky is purple, the same grass on the same earth, and I myself have not become new, but Waverley has left me...

("Apia Akhmatova")

You have become moldy, like some kind of Balakleya, oh, so that you will be torn apart, so that!

But I’d rather shout about Waverley and how he drowned.

("Vladimir Mayakovsky")

If you ask me: “How are you?”, I have to answer: “Wow!.. All to the financial department.”

(“Chukokkala”. Cm. Nadezhdin)

One day I returned home and found my family in a panic. Convulsive calls to the emergency room. Shurik drank the ink.

Did you really drink the ink? - I asked.

Shurik triumphantly showed me the purple one

It's stupid, if you drink ink, you have to snack on blotter...

(M. Svetlov, after: Luk 1977)

[Conversation between Mikhail Svetlov and the janitor of the House of Writers]:

Watchman: - Member of the house?

Svetlov: - No, with me.

Mikhail Svetlov to a random interlocutor in a cafe, who began to call him Misha:

Well, what a ceremony! Just call me: Mikhail Arkadyevich.

You grab the first glass, the second one grabs you.

(V. Kataev, “Golden Childhood”)

[Excerpt from the work of the writer Niagarov]: Mitka was on watch. The watch was generally lousy, however, painted with fresh oil paint, it made a pleasant impression. Dead swell whistled through the gears of the middle compass. A large beautiful rhumb shone in the sun with copper parts. Mitka, this old sea wolf, poko- 24 V. 3. Sannikov

pulled out the bowsprit in his teeth and cheerfully shouted: “Kubrick!”

(V. Kataev, “My Friend Niagarov”)

“Why don’t you make a positive girl a metro worker?” - “Unfortunately, it’s impossible. She’s already at my university.” - “Sorry for the indiscreet question: what university?” - “Medicine. He’s studying to become a doctor.”

(V. Kataev, “Paradox”)

(Yu. Tynyanov, “Wax Person”)

Pushkin left the ode “Liberty”,

And Gogol gave us the “Nose”

Turgenev wrote “Enough”

And Mayakovsky: “Okay, sir.”

(Yu. Tynyanov)

[Note from V. Kaverin to K. Chukovsky at the II All-Union Congress of Writers]:

Thank you, dear Korney Ivanovich, for the wonderful performance that graced our All-Union second who-who-will-eat!

("Chukkokala")

One of Gorky's visitors in the last years of his life asked him how he would define the time he lived in Soviet Russia?

Maxim Gorky replied:

As bitter as possible.

(Yu. Annenkov, “Diary of my meetings”)

Gained his wits and died of insanity!

(“Literary shushu(t)ki”. Yu. Olesha)

The cat flopped like raw dough.

(Yu. Olesha, “Three Fat Men”, 1)

“He lives by me, like a worm by an apple” (words of Yu. Olesha, said by him about one parodist) [Rus. lit. XX century: 357].

I sit and groan...

Am I the one? Isn't that the one?

The sun smears ocher on all my details...

(Literary shushu(t)ki. Yu. Olesha)

It's scary to live in this world:

It lacks comfort.

The lion roars in the darkness of the night,

The cat howls on the trumpet

The bourgeois beetle and the worker beetle are dying in the class struggle.

(N. Oleynikov)

It's unpleasant to drown in the ocean for some reason.

Fishes swim in your pocket

The path ahead is unclear.

(N. Oleynikov)

Straight bald men sit like a shot from a gun.

(N. Zabolotsky, “Wedding”)

One day when- The kids were-

They stung into the hut.

“It’s floating, look,

Dead man to you! - They told my father.

(Mustynin, par. on S. Kirsanov)

Dear old man Was furiously great,

The goal of such an old man is Great and wide!

(N. Aseev, “Anniversary joke (about L. Tolstoy)”)

The bones have been thrown off the pillows,

Get them under the shower quickly!

(“Literary shushu(t)ki”. N. Aseev)

Met the tactful, good neighbor's horse face to face.

(V. Inber, “About a boy with freckles”, after: Eskova N.A., “About the language game”)

From here, from the village of “Small Workdays,” he once left to serve in the army.

(S. Livshin)

O lord! - Khoja Nasreddin answered. - O light of our region, and its sun, and its moon, and giver of happiness and joy to everything living in our region, listen to your despicable slave, unworthy even to rub the threshold of your palace with his beard. O wise Emir, O wisest of the wise, O wise with the wisdom of the wise, O wise Emir above the wise!..

(L. Soloviev, “The Tale of Khoja Nasreddin”)

Clad in the robe of diligence and armed with the staff of patience, we visited all these places.

(L. Solovyov, “The Enchanted Prince.” Introduction)

Guljan sighed, a tear hung on her eyelashes. Khoja Nasreddin understood: the clay of her heart was softened, it was time to turn the potter's wheel of her cunning and sculpt the pot of her plan.

(L. Solovyov, “The Enchanted Prince”, 3)

The shepherd, of course, told the shopkeeper about this; he immediately closed his shop and, dancing with impatience, ran to the teahouse with a hot news nut in his mouth, burning his tongue and gums.

(L. Solovyov, “The Enchanted Prince”, 25)

The woman sued Nasreddin, claiming that her child was Nasreddin’s. Nasrudin vehemently denied this. Finally the judge asked him: “Tell me just one thing: did you sleep with this woman?” Nasreddin replied: “Why, your honor, you didn’t even sleep a wink.”

Stakanovets. [Wm. Stakhanovite.]

Well done, huh? In half a day. No lift, no lift.

Six of them, girls, were traveling in a closed compartment, Leningrad students from practice. On the table they have butter and fuya, raincoats swinging on hooks, suitcases in covers...

(A. Solzhenitsyn, “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich”)

[About Khlebnikov's poems]:

As for the meaning - He actually disappeared somewhere.

Caution is good

You just need to be careful with her.

(K. Simonov, after: Zemskaya 1959)

Oh, Vera’s, oh, Inber’s, what cheeks, what foreheads, I would still look at her, I would still look at her 6.

(K. Simonov?)

[Entry in “Chukokkala” regarding the speeches at the congress of writers Fyodor Gladkov and Mikhail Sholokhov]: At first the congress went rather smoothly, and then it went a little rough.

Damn you.

Yes, our devils All devils A hundred times devils.

(A. Tvardovsky, “Vasily Terkin”)

And more than once on the usual path,

Along the roads, in the dust of columns,

I was partially distracted

And partially exterminated.

(A. Tvardovsky, “Vasily Terkin”) [The well-known cliche of the war years is played out: Opposite was partially exterminated, partially scattered.]

Let's not go too far, let's break through

We will be alive - we will not die,

The time will come, we'll come back,

What we gave, we will return everything.

(A. Tvardovsky, “Vasily Terkin”)

Your Chekhov [story about Chekhov by V. Konetsky], a bore, ... filled with doubt. I don’t have my own view on this gloomy representative of light literature.

(IO.Kazakov - V.Kopetsky, 23/1X4959)

In ten days I wrote an essay about Zakopane and a story. The story is short, but nasty.

(Yu. Kazakov - V. Kopetsky, March 18, 1962).

I find a curly-haired girl above middle age at the secretary’s table.

(L. Leonov, “Russian Forest”, 10; after: Zemskaya 1959).

Ardalyon Pankratievich (beet nose, dull eyes) entered the room and (in a sour voice):

Mother, bring me a glass.

Ardalyon's maidens became alarmed, nodded their bodies, and engaged in politeness and conversion:

Pourquois, Vater, are you drinking vodka early in the morning?

Tsits, mare! I'll give you the whip! (This is the elder Stepanida, the wide-assed woman.)

Roared. Drank. Scratched under my arms.

(A. Fleet, parody of A. Tolstoy, after: Novikov 1989)

He was sitting in the fifth corner.

How do you feel? - I asked.

“No way,” he said.

Well, anyway, what is it like? - I asked.

“No way,” he said, “I don’t care...

(V. Golyavkin, after: Novikov 1989)

[About the “Rules for using the elevator”]: It was forbidden for everyone, without exception, to play pranks, sleep and jump.

[Deputy Director for ACh]:

Our slogan is: an elevator for everyone. Regardless of faces. The elevator must withstand a direct hit into the cabin by the most untrained academician.

(A. and B. Strugatsky, “The Tale of the Troika”)

The door swung open, moved by an imperious hand, and the Troika appeared in full force - all four of them.

(A. and B. Strugatsky, “The Tale of the Troika”)

[From the notes of a schoolchild]: Fate wanted me to be born into a family of an engineering and technical worker, at the very beginning of the second half of our century. Our parents managed to give their children a good education: Kostya is a student, and I am also studying.

(A. Aleksip, “A Very Scary Story”)

The director looked at me for a long time and suddenly said: “In my opinion, you will make an extraordinary scoundrel.” And here is my role.

(A. Vampgiyuv, “Success”)

The locomotive and the conductor howled at the same time.

(N.V. Dumbazde, after: Beregovskaya 1984)

It has been noticed that a nursing mother's breasts are usually located in front. In view of this, it is recommended to do this on the blouse in the appropriate place of the fastener. By unfastening the latter, milk access to the consumer is facilitated.

(N. Ilyina, a parody of “helpful advice” in women’s magazines, after: Novikov 1989)

From the everyday life of translators

Looking at the clear firmament,

He touched his friend's shirtfront:

How's your new translation?

In order! Sent to the savings book.

(S. Vasiliev)

Two questions, two answers (Grigory Ryklin)

Well, how do you like Ryklin?

Well, let's read...

Do you laugh afterwards?

After? Yes!

After Ryklin we have tea

We always read Chekhov.

(S. Vasiliev)

[On the activities of the spy Portia Whiskey in the USSR]:

Portia Whiskey carried out subversive work among the creative intelligentsia in bed. In the intervals between kisses, she managed to suggest a dubious rhyme to the young poet, persuade an artist to write not in oil, but with margarine, a composer - to compose music only in the key of “E minor”.

(S. Vasilyev, “What do you want?”; a parody of V. Kochetov’s novel “What do you want?”)

After lunch we have a dead hour... or two.

There is extortion, discrediting the already high rank of the Soviet waiter.

(S. Altov, “Peace be to your house”)

However, the Serapion Brothers are not brothers at all: they have different fathers, and this is not a school or direction: what kind of direction is it when some rule to the east, and others to the west?

(Yu. Zamyatiya, according to: Yu. Annenkov, “Diary of my meetings”)

The tragedy of one epic He loves big calibers,

And he himself is no larger than a hummingbird.

(S. Shvetsov)

The right remedy

There are a lot of defects in the atelier,

He would disappear entirely, however,

If only every marriage maker would dress himself in his own marriage.

(S. Shvetsov)

Everyone is surprised by strange customs,

Wild methods of our criticism:

She feeds some with porridge and manna,

Others - birch porridge!

(S. Shvetsov)

Ideal Writer

Everything about his works captivated us:

Paper, handwriting and ink!

(S. Shvetsov)

He led - He led with his hand:

"We are the minds,

And you - alas!

(SSmirnov)

The Mouse admitted:

~ I love you, Krupa, - To you

won't get overgrown

my path!

(With Smirnov)

A roach climbs out of the skin:

I used to

In! - was!..

(S. Smirnov)

And it’s not that in Brazil it’s “made”,

And it’s written on the sticker below”

What, they say, is “made” in the USSR, in the marinade,

In Leningrad, one ruble four kopecks!

(A. Galich, “About how Klim Petrovich rebelled...”)

“History of the city of Foolov in new and modern times”

Editor: - Give you writers free rein, you will probably write such nasty things that the statehood could collapse. After all, what kind of people are you: you strive to spit in every pot...

[Commissioner Strunkin]: - Those who were nothing will become everything - this is our program.

At these words, the Foolovites became thoughtful, because they knew many fellow citizens who would have remained nothing, who if they suddenly became everything, then God forbid.

What kind of prince are you that you can’t say a word? Or do you have high-ranking relatives?

My relatives are average, ordinary...

Vl. Volin in a feuilleton entitled “And someone with six wings” (“Lit. newspaper”, 1983) writes, as in a book of poems by A. Blok about Russian nature, published

published by the publishing house "Children's Literature", in the poem "Summer Evening" the "seditious" word angel was replaced by someone:

The pipe sang on the bridge,

And the apple trees are in bloom,

And someone raised one green star high...

“Here, for example, is “Demon”, adapted for kids:

"Sad someone, a spirit of exile,

I flew over the sinful earth...”

Pushkin's "Prophet" for preschoolers:

“And a six-winged someone appeared to me at a crossroads...”

(Vl. Volin, after: Kuzmina 1989)

No, no, doctor, I would rather die than agree to an operation.

Don't worry, madam, one does not exclude the other.

(B. Vasilyev, “Whose are you, old man?”)

Comrade Colonel! Comrade General ordered to live long!

Follow orders!

(A. Kovalev)

When there is game around, you become wild.

(A. Segedyuk)

The tricolor Russian flag fluttered from the bow of the Anna Karenina.

The graceful stern of the Anna Karenina swayed in the waves.

(I. Vinogradsky)

[Former republics of the former USSR introduce their own money]:

in Latvia - lats, in Lithuania - litas, in Mordovia - ... no, not what you thought, but faces.

(I. Vinogradsky)

Residents of Krivoy Rog and St. Petersburg are Krivorozhians and Krivorozhians, St. Petersburgers and St. Petersburgers.

(I. Vinogradsky)

The people walking by were frail, cold, and irey.

(Sasha Sokolov, “Rosewood”)

The instrument will certainly be thrown open, out of tune, or broken like Rakhmanov. Don't avoid the services of an adjuster, but use them. Quickly bring it to your memory, or even immediately into the living room, this is an incredibly excited character. Often he is a student of all kinds of educational institutions, but more often he is a potential student. Leaving the nobles, he slammed the door and became a commoner. In love, insufficient. Consumptive and chaotic.

(Sasha Sokolov, “Rosewood”)

And the gramophone played across the river,

And it smelled like turnips, like a lifetime ago.

(Sasha Sokolov, “Between a Dog and a Wolf”)

[Conversation between the beloved leader of the Ogogondia dictatorship and the people]:

Well, what did you do: “Bravo, bravo”? So you can become arrogant. And I'm the same as everyone else. Equal among Equals!

Long live the Equal among Equals! One hundred thousand years of life to the Equal One! Glory to the Equal One!

(V. Bakhnov, “How the sun went out...”)

Citizen Sidorov was sentenced to 15 days for desecrating the silence with songs of Soviet composers after 11 pm.

(L. Izmailov)

Here's one that came up recently:

Listen, could you borrow a three-ruble note?

“I could,” I say. And I go my own way.

Where are you going? - asks.

To the bakery, I answer.

“I need three rubles,” he says.

“Me too,” I say.

So you can't borrow it, can you? - asks.

Why? “I can,” I answer.

So why don't you lend? - asks.

“So you’re not asking,” I answer.

(M. Zubkov)

Our director, no matter how overwhelmed with work he is, always manages to ruin it.

Lord, when will you pass this incomprehensible geometry of yours? [vm. descriptive] (after: Gridina 1996).

Stagnant years. Calls on factory posters: Let's do it - we'll exceed it... We'll catch up - we'll overtake... We'll do it - we'll redo it... We'll achieve it - we'll beat it...

(Panteleimon Koryakin)

[Poems of an aspiring poet]: Fly, dove of peace! Fly, dove of peace!

No feather or fluff to you!

(E. Yevtushenko)

They say ex-president This is the former president.

They say he's an ex-champion

This is a former champion.

And it turns out that express means - former press.

And it turns out that the extract means the former tract.

And it turns out that the expert is a certain former Perth.

And it turns out that ecstasy is just an old basin.

(V. Rich, “Philological Poems”, after: Zemskaya 1992)

Even a very good sharpness should be like a syringe: disposable.

(L. Likhodeev)

To Caesar - what is Caesar's, and to the mechanic - what is mechanic's.

(Vl. Vladin)

Evg. Sazonov is a soul lover and cannibalist.

(Vl. Vladin)

[N. Ilyina is angry with her husband, Professor A.A. Reformatsky for his “poorness”]: “Enough. Stop doing that. Typical Foma Opiskin!” Or: “Well, fomism-opiscism begins again!”

(N. Ilyina, “Reformatsky”)

Radioactive neighbors.

(N. Eskova)

Your own piece of paper is closer to the point.

[Vm.: Your shirt is closer to your body.]

(V. Melamed, according to: Novikov 1989)

Outback

It’s good for those whom the regional committee takes care of!

(V. Berestov)

Tourist impressions

Life is hard for people in the West:

Everything is bought, everything is sold!

(V. Berestov)

There cannot be a reliable connection,

As long as there are rations and rations.

(V. Orlov)

I went to the pie shop: “Give me and my friend some meat, cabbage, jam and onions.”

And a foreigner named Bill was next to us and surprised everyone:

“Give me,” he said, please, with a bow,

With meat, with cabbage, with jam and with a friend..."

(A. Kushner, after: Beregovskaya 1984)

Retirement age is cool!

I was given an order for my services...

And if the ladies give it, it’s only in the face.

(V. Lagunov)

He needs to be taken out of the Institute with a hot broom. [Contamination from: hot iron + dirty broom]

(L. Krysin)

Shchikhlebalka - bast shoe (from the phraseological unit Laptem cabbage soup to slurp [“to be extremely uneducated, ignorant”].

(“Stupid Etymological Dictionary”, after: Gridina 1996)

The legendary goat owner with sadistic habits - Sidor [cf. to tear the phraseme like Sidorov's goat].

(after: Gridina 1996)

He suffered from a mania of persecution... of others.

(Yu. Shanin)

And for a long time I will be so kind and this...

(V. Vishnevsky)

Oh, take the real estate off the chair!..

(V. Vishnevsky)

Can you keep your mouth shut if your teeth are already on the shelf?

(A. Bakiev)

The piglet laid an egg,

He took it down to his neighbor

Mother hen.

(Clear, after: Beregovskaya 1984)

(A. Kryzhanovsky)

Let's rent an apartment, jeans, a muskrat hat.

(A. Kryzhanovsky, “Three Bachelors”)

Just a little more, Lenin will indeed be more alive than all the living.

(A. Trushkin)

Man... What have you achieved? He realized that it was time to save him from the environment. Can you swim in the ponds? It is forbidden. Can you take a deep breath? It's possible, but doctors don't recommend it.

(A. Trushkin)

They say: “Live as you want.”

We say: “Live as you want.”

(A. Trushkin)

From an address to the people: “COMRADES!..”

(V. Sumbatpov)

Talent, don't get carried away!

(K. Eliseev [according to: Novikov 1989: 249])

[To an opponent, during a scientific argument]:

You and I have not a disagreement, but a difference of eyes!

(A. A. Reformatsky)

My wife went to the Chagall exhibition.

(A.A. Reformatsky)

Is there any wine, father-in-law?

Naturally,

(A.A. Reformatsky)

Changes in surnames: Smerdyuchenko (Serdyuchenko), Bestyzhev-Ryumkin (Bestuzhev-Ryumin), Podlyanasy (Polyansky).

(AL.Rbformatshiy)

The fallen Paul Signac was bitten on the shoulder by a dog.

Bite and bruise - Thought Signac,

Quite a shame, though.

(O. Sedakova, “Limerick”)

One of Lesage's heroes Became nastier and nastier;

When finally

The scoundrel slapped him.

Lesage felt relieved.

(O. Sedakova, “Limerick”)

The end is the crown of the body.

(V.Laeupov)

Chronometer.

(V. Lagunov)

Formalist

I worshiped Martha in March,

And in May I fell in love with Maya.

In July he gave himself to Yulia,

They were replaced by August and Augusta.

There Oktyabrina crossed my long path in October...

Phew, it all seems like a coincidence...

You can rest until March!..

(VLagunov)

Dogcalypse (from: dog + apocalypse)

(A. Voznesensky)

It was January, or February, some damn Zimar.

(A. Voznesensky, Song of a travesty from the play “Anti-Worlds”)

There are no women - there are anti-men,

Anti-machines roar in the forests.

(A. Voznesensky, “Anti-Worlds”) [Cf. parody of these poems by Voznesensky by parodist A. Ivanov:

We are constantly gnawed by fear and a compelling argument excites us:

What if suddenly Antivoznesepsky also lives in the anti-worlds?]

All reputations are tarnished.

Triple bed.

(A. Voznesensky, “Ode to Gossips”)

What is that knocking in the next room?

This is my sister turning 30 years old.

I have lived so long that I still remember decent people.

(F. Ranevskaya)

The entire Soviet people know me as an exceptionally decent, honest and modest person...

(Gtdar Aliyev (President of Azerbaijan), from the river 1992).

[About K.I. Babitsky, who was one of the first to use the mathematical concept of a graph in linguistics]: Before this guy, there was no real graph in linguistics.

[Paraphrasing of Lenin’s famous statement about Leo Tolstoy: “Before this count there was no real man in literature.”]

(A. Zholkovsky)

While you are healing, you will cripple.

(S. Kuzmina)

Shoe store: "Spanish Boot".

(S. Kuzmina).

Everyone wears advanced shirts, quilted jackets and boots.

(after: Beregovskaya 1984)

[About the satirist M. Zhvanetsky]:

What kind of satirist is he? He is a satyr, satirish!

(Alla Pugacheva)

Girl, do you want to go to the dacha or have your head torn off?

(Film “Foundling”)

One of the most important components of the text is its title. Being outside the main part of the text, it occupies absolutely strong position in it. This first a sign of a work from which acquaintance with the text begins. The title activates the reader's perception and directs his attention to what will be stated next. The title is “the compressed, undisclosed content of the text. It can be metaphorically depicted as a twisted spring revealing its capabilities V deployment process."

The title introduces the reader to the world of the work. It expresses in condensed form the main theme of the text, defines its most important plot line or indicates its main conflict. These are, for example, the titles of the stories and novels by I. S. Turgenev “First Love”, “Fathers and Sons”, “New”.

The title can name the main character of the work (“Eugene Onegin”, “Oblomov”, “Anna Karenina”, “Ivanov”) or highlight the end-to-end image of the text. Thus, in A. Platonov’s story “The Pit” it is the word foundation pit serves as the form of a key image that organizes the entire text: in the foundation pit, people decided to “plant... the eternal, stone root of indestructible architecture” - “a common proletarian building, into which the working people of the whole earth will enter for an eternal just settlement.” The “building” of the future turns out to be a terrible utopia, devouring its builders. At the end of the story, the motifs of death and the “hellish abyss” are directly related to the image of the pit: ...all the poor and average men worked with such zeal in life, as if they wanted to be saved forever in abyss pit." The foundation pit becomes a symbol of a destructive utopia, alienating man from nature and “living life” and depersonalizing him. The general meaning of this title is revealed gradually in the text, while the semantics of the word “pit” is expanded and enriched.

The title of the text can indicate the time and place of action and thereby participate in the creation of the artistic time and space of the work, see, for example, titles such as “Poltava” by A.S. Pushkin, “After the Ball” by L.N. Tolstoy, “In the Ravine” by A.P. Chekhov, “The Gorge” by I.A. Bunin, “Petersburg” by A. Bely, “St. Nicholas" by B. Zaitsev, "In Autumn" by V.M. Shukshina. Finally, the title of a work may contain a direct definition of its genre or indirectly indicate it, causing the reader to associate with a specific literary genus or genre: “Letters of a Russian Traveler” by N.M. Karamzin, “The History of a City” by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.

The title may be associated with the subject-speech organization of the work. In this case, it highlights either the narrative plan or the character plan. Thus, the titles of texts can include individual words or detailed remarks from characters and express their assessments. This technique is typical, for example, for the stories of V.M. Shukshina (“Cut it off”, “Strong man”, “My son-in-law stole firewood from the car”, “Stalled”, “Pardon me, madam”, etc.). In this case, the assessment expressed in the title may not coincide with the author’s position. In the story by V.M. Shukshin’s “Weird”, for example, the “oddities” of the hero, causing misunderstanding of others, from the author’s point of view, testify to the hero’s originality, the richness of his imagination, poetic view of the world, and the desire to overcome the power of the standard and facelessness in any situation.

The title is directly addressed to the recipient of the text. It is no coincidence that some titles of works are interrogative or motivating sentences: “Who is to blame?” A.I. Herzen, “What to do?” N.G. Chernyshevsky, “For what?” L.N. Tolstoy, “Live and Remember” by V. Rasputin.

Thus, the title of a work of art realizes various intentions. It, firstly, correlates the text itself with its artistic world: the main characters, the time of action, the main spatial coordinates, etc.: “Gu- - sowing" A.P. Chekhov, “Hadji Murat” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Spring in Fialta” by V.V. Nabokov, “Youth” by B.K. Zaitseva. Secondly, the title expresses the author’s vision of the depicted situations, events, etc., realizes his plan as integrity, see, for example, titles such as “Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky, “Ordinary History” by I.A. Goncharova. The title of the literary text in this case is nothing more than first interpretation works, and the interpretation offered by the author himself. Thirdly, the title establishes contact with the addressee of the text and implies his creative empathy and assessment.

In the event that the first intention dominates, the title of the work most often represents the name of the character, the nomination of the event or its circumstances (time, place). In the second case, the title is usually evaluative; finally, “the dominance of the receptive intention of naming reveals targeting titles to the perceiving consciousness; such a name problematizes the work, it seeks an adequate reader interpretation.” An example of such a title is the name of the Roma in N.S. Leskova “Nowhere” or “Gift” by V.V. Nabokov.

There is a special relationship between the title and the text: when opening a work, the title requires a mandatory return to it after reading the entire text; the main meaning of the title is always derived from a comparison with the work that has already been read in full. “Just as the ovary unfolds gradually in the process of growth - with multiplying and long sheets, so the title only gradually, sheet by sheet, opens the book: the book is the title expanded to the end, while the title is a book compressed to the volume of two or three words.”

The title is in a peculiar theme-rhematic relationship with the text. Initially, “the title is the theme of the artistic message... The text, in relation to the title, is always in second place and most often is a rheme. As you read a literary text, the title construction absorbs the content of the entire work of art... The title, passing through the text, becomes the rheme of the entire work of art... Function nominations(naming) the text is gradually transformed into a function predication(assigning a characteristic) to the text.”

Let us turn, for example, to the title of one of B.K. Zaitsev’s stories “Atlantis” (1927). The work is largely autobiographical: it tells the story of the future writer’s last year of study at the Kaluga Real School and lovingly depicts the life of old Kaluga. Word Atlantis it is never used in the text - it is used only as its first frame sign; at the end of the story - in the last sentence of the text, i.e. in his strong position- a generalizing metaphor appears, correlating with the title: Through excitement, excitement, there was life ahead, to go through it, it prepared both joys and sorrows. Behind are Voskresenskaya and Alexandra Karlovna, and the wheel, and Capa, and the theater, and the streets with the vision that illuminated them for the first time- everything sank into the depths of the light seas. The text, thus, is characterized by a kind of ring composition: the title, as the semantic dominant of the work, correlates with its final metaphor, likening the past to the world going into the depths of the waters. As a result, the title “Atlantis” acquires the character of a rheme and, in relation to the text, performs the function of predication: the feature it highlights applies to everything depicted. The situations and realities described in it are compared with the flooded great civilization. “Into the depths of the seas” goes not only the years of the hero’s youth, but also quiet Kaluga with its patriarchal life, and old Russia, the memory of which the narrator preserves: So everything flows, passes: hours, love, spring, the small life of small people... Russia, again, always Russia!

The title of the story, thus, expresses the author’s assessment of what is depicted and condenses the content of the work. Its predicative nature also affects the semantics of its other elements: only taking into account the symbolic meaning of the title in the context of the whole is the polysemy of a repeating adjective determined last and lexical units with the semantics “sink”, “go under water”.

By organizing the reader's perception, the title creates expectation effect. Indicative, for example, is the attitude of a number of critics in the 70s of the 19th century. to the story by I.S. Turgenev “Spring Waters”: “Judging by its title “Spring Waters”, others assumed that Mr. Turgenev again touched upon the still not completely resolved and clarified issue of the younger generation. They thought that with the name “Spring Waters” Mr. Turgenev wanted to designate the overflow of young forces that had not yet settled into the shores...” The title of the story could cause the effect of “deceived expectations,” but the epigraph that follows it:

Happy years

Happy Days -

Like spring waters

They rushed by! -

clarifies the meaning of the title and directs the recipient’s perception of the text. As you get acquainted with the story, not only the meanings expressed in it are updated in the title, but also the meanings associated with the deployment of images in the text, for example: “first love”, “ardor of feelings”.

The title of the work of art serves "actualizer" almost all text categories." Yes, category information content manifests itself in the already noted nominative function of the title, which names the text and accordingly contains information about its theme, characters, time of action, etc. Category completeness“finds its expression in the delimiting (limiting) function of the title, which separates one completed text from another.” Category modalities is manifested in the ability of the title to express different types of assessments and convey a subjective attitude towards what is depicted in the work. Thus, in Bunin’s already mentioned story “The Raven,” the trope placed in the title position rated: in the character called the raven, the “dark”, gloomy beginning is emphasized, and the narrator’s assessment (the story is characterized by a first-person narration) coincides with the author’s. The title of the text can also act as an actualizer of its connectivity. In the same story “The Raven,” the word-symbol in the title is repeated several times in the text, while the end-to-end image varies; the repetition is associated with the reversibility of the tropes. Comparison is replaced by metaphor, metaphor by metaphorical epithet, epithet by metamorphosis.

Finally, the title is closely related to text categories prospections And retrospections. It, as already noted, 1 directs the reader’s attention, “predicts” the possible development of the theme (plot): for example, for a reader familiar with the traditional symbolism of the image of a raven, the title of Bunin’s story already contains the meanings “dark”, “gloomy”, “sinister” . The return of the text recipient to the title after reading the work determines the connection of the title with the category of retrospection. Enriched with new meanings, the title in the aspect of retrospection is perceived as a generalizing “rheme” sign; the primary interpretation of the text interacts with the reader’s interpretation; a complete work, taking into account all its connections. Thus, in the context of the entire title, “The Raven” symbolizes not only the “dark”, gloomy beginning that separates the heroes, but also merciless fate.

The choice of a successful title is the result of the author’s intense creative work, during which the titles of the text may change. So, F.M. Dostoevsky, while working on the novel “Crime and Punishment,” abandoned the original title “Drunk.” - nenkie”, choosing a title that more clearly reflects the philosophical issues of the work. The title of the epic novel “War and Peace” was preceded by the titles “Three Times”, “From 1805 to 1814”, “War”, “All’s Well That Ends Well”, which were later rejected by L.N. Tolstoy.

Titles of works are historically variable. The history of literature is characterized by a transition from verbose, often double titles, containing explanations and “hints” for the reader, to short, meaningful titles that require special activity in the perception of the text, cf., for example, the titles of works of the 18th - early 19th centuries. and XIX-XX centuries: “Jung’s Lament, or Night Reflections on Life, Death, etc.”, “Russian Werther, a half-fair story, an original work by M.S., a young sensitive man who unfortunately spontaneously ended his life” - “Shot”, “Gift”.

In the literature of the 19th-20th centuries. The titles are structurally diverse. They are usually expressed:

1) in one word, mainly a noun in the nominative case or other case forms: “Left-handed” N.S. Leskova, “Player” F.M. Dostoevsky, “Village” by I.A. Bunin, “On Stumps” by I.S. Shmeleva and others; Words of other parts of speech are less common: “We” by E. Zamyatin, “Never” by Z. Gippius;

2) a coordinating combination of words: “Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev, “Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky, “Mother and Katya” by B. Zaitsev, “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov;

3) with a subordinating phrase: “Caucasian captive” L.N. Tolstoy, “Mr. from San Francisco” by I.A. Bunin, “Nanny from Moscow” by I.S. Shmeleva and others;

4) the sentence: “Truth is good, but happiness is better” A.N. Ostrovsky, “Apple Trees are Blooming” by Z. Gippius, “The Strong Move On” by V.M. Shukshina, “I will catch up with you in heaven” by R. Pogodin.

The more concise the title, the more semantically capacious it is. Since the title is intended not only to establish contact with the reader, but also to arouse his interest and have an emotional impact on him, the title of the text can use the expressive capabilities of linguistic means of different levels. Thus, many titles represent tropes, include sound repetitions, new formations, unusual grammatical forms (“Itanesies”, “Country of Nets” by S. Krzhizhanovsky), transform the names of already known works (“There was love without joy”, “Woe from Wit”, “The Living Corpse”, “Before Sunrise” by M. Zoshchenko), use synonymous and antonymic connections of words, etc.

The title of the text is usually ambiguous. The word placed in the title position, as already noted, gradually expands the scope of its meaning as the text unfolds. Figuratively - According to one of the researchers, it, like a magnet, attracts all possible meanings of a word and unites them. Let us turn, for example, to the title of the poem by N.V. Gogol "Dead Souls". This key phrase takes on not one, but at least three meanings in the text of the work.

Firstly, “dead souls” is a clichéd expression of the official, business, bureaucratic style, denoting dead serfs. Secondly, “dead souls” is a metaphorical designation for “sky-smokers” - people living a vulgar, vain, soulless life, whose very existence is already becoming non-existence. Thirdly, “dead souls” is an oxymoron: if the word “soul” denotes the indestructible immortal core of personality, then its combination with the word “dead” is illogical. At the same time, this oxymoron defines the opposition and dialectical connection in the artistic world of the poem between two main principles: living (high, light, spiritual) and dead. “The special complexity of Gogol’s concept lies not in the fact that “behind dead souls there are living souls” (A. I. Herzen) ... but in the opposite: the living cannot be sought outside the dead, it is hidden in it as a possibility, as an implied ideal - remember the soul of Sobakevich hiding “somewhere behind the mountains” or the soul of the prosecutor, discovered only after death.”

However, the title not only “collects” the various meanings of words scattered throughout the text, but also refers to other works and establishes connections with them. Thus, many titles are quotative (“How good, how fresh the roses were” by I.S. Turgenev, “The Summer of the Lord” by I.S. Shmelev, “Werther has already been written” by V.P. Kataev, etc.) or included in their composition is the name of a character in another work, thereby opening a dialogue with him (“King Lear of the Steppes” by I.S. Turgenev, “Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk” by N.S. Leskov, etc.).

In the meaning of the title they always combine specificity And generalization (generalization). Its specificity is based on the obligatory connection of the title with a specific situation presented in the text, the generalizing power of the title is on the constant enrichment of its meanings by all elements of the text as a whole. The title, attached to a specific character or to a specific situation, acquires a generalizing character as the text unfolds and often becomes a sign of the typical. This property of the title is especially pronounced in cases where the title of the work is a proper name. Many surnames and names in this case become truly telling; see, for example, a title such as “Oblomov.”

Thus, the most important properties of the title are its ambiguity, dynamism, connection with the entire content of the text, the interaction of specificity and generalization in it.

The title relates to the text of the work in different ways. It may be absent from the text itself, in which case it appears as if “from the outside.” However, more often the title is repeated several times in the work. So, for example, the title of the story by A.P. Chekhov's "Ionych" refers to the last chapter of the work and reflects the already completed degradation of the hero, a sign of which at the lexical level of the text is the transition from the main means of designating the hero in the story - the surname Startsev - to familiar form Ionych.

In T. Tolstoy’s story “The Circle,” the title is supported in the text by repetitions of various types. The beginning of the story is already connected with the image of the circle: ...The world is closed, and he is closed to Vasily Mikhailovich. Subsequently, this image is ironically reduced and “everyday” (I’ll still go for a walk and do circle), then included in a series, a series of tropes (in the middle of the urban tangle, in a tight skein lanes... etc.), it is combined with images that have cosmic and existential symbolism (see, for example: He simply fumbled around in the darkness and grabbed the usual wheel of fate and, intercepting the rim with both hands, in an arc, in a circle, would eventually reach himself- on the other side), This is emphasized by the refrain: ...The sun and the moon keep running and running, catching up with each other,- The black horse below snores and beats hoof, ready to gallop... in a circle, in a circle, in a circle. IN As a result, the title “Circle” takes on the character of a generalizing metaphor, which can be interpreted as a “circle of fate” and as the hero’s isolation on himself, his inability to go beyond the limits of his own I.

In V.V. Nabokov’s story with the same title “Circle,” the image of a circle is updated by the use of words that include the word “circle” not only as differential, but also as peripheral or associative, see, for example: The piles reflected in the water like harmonics, curling and developing...; Spinning, the linden flyer slowly fell onto the tablecloth; ...Here, as if connected by rings of linden shadow, people of the latter's analysis. The same function is performed by lexical and grammatical means with the meaning of repetition. The circle symbolizes the special composition of the story; the narrative in it also has a circular structure. The story opens with a logical-syntactic anomaly: Secondly: because a frantic longing for Russia broke out in him. Thirdly, and finally, because he felt sorry for his then youth - and everything connected with it. The beginning of this syntactic construction completes the text: And he was unconcerned- cool for several reasons. Firstly, because Tanya turned out to be just as attractive, as invulnerable as she once was. This circular structure of the text forces the reader to return again to the beginning of the story and connect the “broken” complex syntactic whole, correlate causes and consequences. As a result, the title “Circle” is not only enriched with new meanings and is perceived as the compositional dominant of the work, but also serves as a symbol of the development of reader reception.

Let's complete a number of general tasks, and then turn to the analysis of the role of the title in a specific text - the story by F.M. Dostoevsky "The Meek"

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Introduction

The role of the title in the work