Predicted result of the project about Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo da Vinci project project. Invention of water skiing
Title page
1. Introduction……………………………………………………..…….…….3
2 . Life of Leonardo Da Vinci……………………………………….……4-8
3. Universality in the work of Leonardo………………….……...…9-12
4. The art of the great master…………………………………..……..13-21
5. Lost masterpieces……………………………………………………………22-28
6. Conclusion……………………………………………………………..….29
7. Literature……….……………………………………………………………..…...30
Introduction
The Renaissance was rich in outstanding personalities. But Leonardo, born in the town of Vinci near Florence on April 15, 1452, stands out even against the general background of other famous people of the Renaissance.
This supergenius of the beginning of the Italian Renaissance is so strange that it causes scientists not just amazement, but almost awe, mixed with confusion. Even a general overview of his capabilities plunges researchers into shock: well, a person is not capable, even if he has seven spans in his forehead, be immediately a brilliant engineer, artist, sculptor, inventor, mechanic, chemist, philologist, scientist, seer, one of the best singers of his time, swimmer, creator of musical instruments, cantatas, equestrian, fencer, architect, fashion designer, etc. His external characteristics are also striking: Leonardo is tall, slender and so beautiful in face that he was called an “angel”, and at the same time superhumanly strong (with his right hand - being left-handed! - he could crush a horseshoe).
Leonardo da Vinci has been written about more than once. But the theme of his life and work, both as a scientist and as a man of art, is still relevant today.
The purpose of this work- tell us in detail about Leonardo da Vinci.
This goal is achieved by solving the following tasks:
- consider the biography of Leonardo da Vinci;
- talk about his activities as a scientist and inventor;
- describe his most famous works;
Life of Leonardo Da Vinci
(Slide 1)
“Observing my greedy attraction, I want to see a great variety of diverse and strange forms produced by skillful nature, wandering among the dark rocks, I approached the entrance to a large cave. For a moment I stood in front of her, amazed... I leaned forward to see what was happening there in the depths, but the great darkness prevented me. I stayed like that for some time. Suddenly two feelings awoke in me: fear and desire; fear of a menacing and dark cave, a desire to see if there is something wonderful in its depths.”
This is what Leonardo da Vinci writes about himself. Don't these lines capture the life path, mental aspiration, grandiose quests and artistic creativity of this man, one of the greatest geniuses of world history?
According to Vasari, he “with his appearance, revealing the highest beauty, returned clarity to every saddened soul.” But in everything we know about Leonardo’s life, there is no personal life itself: no family hearth, no happiness, no joy or grief from communicating with other people. There is no civic pathos either: the seething cauldron that was Italy at that time, torn apart by contradictions, does not burn Leonardo da Vinci, as if it did not disturb either his heart or thoughts. And yet, perhaps, there is no life more passionate, more fiery, than the life of this man.
(Slide 2)
Leonardo da Vinci was born in 1452. in the village of Anchiano, near the city of Vinci, at the foot of the Albanian mountains, halfway between Florence and Pisa.
A majestic landscape opens up in the places where his childhood passed: dark mountain ledges, lush green vineyards and foggy distances. Far behind the mountains is the sea, which is not visible from Anchiano. Lost place. But there are open spaces and heights nearby.
Leonardo was the illegitimate son of the notary Piero da Vinci, who was himself the grandson and great-grandson of notaries. His father apparently took care of his upbringing.
The exceptional talent of the future great master manifested itself very early. According to Vasari, already in childhood he was so successful in arithmetic that he put teachers in a difficult position with his questions. At the same time, Leonardo studied music, played the lyre beautifully and “divinely sang improvisations.” However, drawing and modeling most of all excited his imagination. His father took his drawings to his longtime friend Andrea Verrocchio. He was amazed and said that young Leonardo devoted himself entirely to painting. In 1466 Leonardo entered Verrocchio's Florentine workshop as an apprentice. We saw that he was destined to very soon eclipse the illustrious teacher.
Already the first Florentine period of Leonardo’s activity, after finishing his studies with Verrocchio, was marked by his attempts to demonstrate his talents in many fields: architectural drawings, a design for a canal connecting Pisa with Florence, drawings of mills, fulling machines and projectiles driven by the power of water.
(Slide 3)
According to contemporaries, Leonardo was handsome, proportionally built, graceful, with an attractive face. He dressed smartly, wearing a red cloak that reached to his knees, although long clothes were in fashion. His beautiful beard, curly and well combed, fell to the middle of his chest. He was charming in conversation and attracted people's hearts.
Even when he earned relatively little, he always kept horses, which he loved more than any other animal.
This happened already in the early period of Leonardo da Vinci’s activity. Florence at that time did not give him what he could count on. As we know, Lorenzo the Magnificent himself and his court valued Botticelli’s painting above all else. Leonardo's power and freedom confused them with its novelty. And his plans in urban planning and engineering seemed too bold and unrealistic. It seems that Lorenzo most appreciated the musician in Leonardo, truly enjoying his playing of the lyre.
And so Leonardo turns to another ruler - Louis Moreau, who rules Milan. Milan is at war with Venice at this time. And therefore Leonardo first of all tries to convince the Duke of Milan that he can be useful to him in military affairs.
(Slide 4)
Leonardo da Vinci served various sovereigns.
Thus, he pleased Ludovico Moro with a performance called “Paradise”, where the deities of the planets rotated in a huge circle depicting the sky, singing poetry.
And for the French king, whose coat of arms has lilies, he made a lion with a cunning mechanism. The lion moved, walked towards the king, suddenly his chest opened, and lilies fell from it at the king’s feet.
Leonardo also had to serve Caesar Borgia, a cunning politician, but a tyrant, a murderer, who, together with his father, Pope Alexander VI, shed a lot of blood in the hope of achieving power over all of Italy. Caesar ordered to provide all possible assistance to his “most glorious and most pleasant confidant, the architect and general engineer Leonardo da Vinci.” Leonardo built fortifications for him, dug canals, and decorated his palaces. He was in Caesar's retinue when he entered Singalia under the pretext of reconciliation with his rivals there. Records have been preserved of the days when he served this terrible man.
Leonardo's last patron was the French king Francis I. At his invitation, the already aging Leonardo became a true legislator at the French court, causing universal respectful admiration. According to Benvenuto Cellini, Francis I declared that “he would never believe that there was another person in the world who not only knew as much as Leonardo in sculpture, painting and architecture, but would also be, like him, the greatest philosopher "
Herzen said very well about the devotees of young science of the Renaissance, who, in the fight against the remnants of the Middle Ages, opened new horizons for the human mind:
“The main character of these great figures consists in a living, true feeling of cramped conditions, dissatisfaction in the vicious circle of contemporary life, in an all-consuming desire for truth, in some kind of gift of foresight.”
Every word here applies to Leonardo da Vinci. Some researchers of his life sometimes felt embarrassed. How could this genius offer his services to both his own homeland - Florence, and its worst enemies? How could he serve Caesar Borgia, one of the most cruel rulers of that time? There is no need to gloss over these facts, although the complexity and instability of the political structure of Italy at that time somehow explains such instability of Leonardo. But this same man, in words breathing with irresistible sincerity, himself defined the goals and opportunities that open up to those who are worthy of it:
“It is sooner to lose movement than to get tired... All labor cannot tire... Hands into which ducats and precious stones are poured like snow flakes will never tire of serving, but this service is only for the sake of benefit, and not for the sake of profit... ."
(Slide 5)
He knew that nature had made him a creator, a discoverer, destined to serve as a powerful lever for the process that we now call progress. But in order to fully demonstrate his capabilities, he had to provide the most favorable conditions for his activities in the time allotted to him for life. That is why he knocked on all doors, offered services to everyone who could help him in his great deeds, pleased both “his own,” the Italian tyrants, and foreign sovereigns; when it was necessary, he adjusted to their tastes, because in return he counted on support in his effective and “all-consuming pursuit of truth.”
Universality in Leonardo's work.
Leonardo da Vinci was a painter, sculptor and architect, singer and musician, improvised poet, art theorist, theater director and fabulist, philosopher and mathematician, engineer, mechanical inventor, harbinger of aeronautics, hydraulic engineer and fortifier, physicist and astronomer, anatomist and optician , biologist, geologist, zoologist and botanist. But this list does not exhaust his activities.
(Slide 6)
We know that he was constantly drawing and recording.
About seven thousand pages covered with notes or drawings by Leonardo have reached us.
One of the first researchers of these handwritten treasures noted in amazement: “Everything is here: physics, mathematics, astronomy, history, philosophy, novels, mechanics. In a word, it’s a miracle, but it’s written inside out, so devilishly that more than once I spent the whole morning trying to understand and copy two or three pages.”
The fact is that Leonardo wrote from right to left, so you need to read his works in a mirror. According to some testimonies, he was left-handed, according to others, he could use both hands equally. Be that as it may, such a letter of his further aggravates the aura of mystery with which he surrounded himself and which marked all his work.
(Slide 7)
He wrote not in Latin, like the most famous humanists, his contemporaries, who in their admiration of classical antiquity often lost touch with reality, but in a living, rich, figurative, sometimes common Italian language.
Yes, these manuscripts are a true miracle. With ingenious drawings, before which we, just like our contemporaries once, take our breath away with admiration, Leonardo da Vinci illustrated great thoughts, sharpest observations, deep providences that amaze us.
Leonardo guessed a lot that people who in the 19th century did not know. began to study his notes. He knew that the man would fly, and he himself, apparently, expected to fly from Monte Cecheri (Swan Mountain).
"The Ideal City" is one of the themes of many of Leonardo's drawings and writings. In such a city, he pointed out, the streets should be laid at different levels, and only on the lower ones would carts and other cargo carts travel, and the city would be cleared of sewage through underground passages laid from arch to arch.
His curiosity was boundless. He looked for the cause of every phenomenon, even an insignificant one, because even this could open up new vistas of knowledge.
What were the results of all these questions, observations of the most persistent search for cause and effect, a reasonable basis, i.e. patterns of phenomena?
(Slide 8)
Leonardo was the first to attempt to determine the intensity of light depending on distance. His notes contain the first guesses about the wave theory of light that arose in the human mind.
The remains of sea animals that he found, sometimes on high mountains, were for him proof of the movement of land and sea, and he was the first to categorically reject the biblical idea of the time of the existence of the world.
Leonardo dissected the corpses of people and animals, and his numerous anatomical studies amaze us with their accuracy and knowledge unparalleled in those times. He was the first to determine the number of vertebrae in the human sacrum. He wanted to know how life begins and how life ends, and he carried out experiments with frogs, from which he removed the head and heart and pierced the spinal cord. And some of his sketches record the beating of a pig’s heart, pierced with a long hairpin.
(Slide 9)
He was interested in the mobility of the human face, reflecting the mobility of the human soul, and he sought to study this mobility in detail. He wrote: “The one who laughs does not differ from the one who cries, neither with his eyes, nor with his mouth, nor with his cheeks, only with the eyebrows that join in the one who is crying and rise in the one who laughs.”
One day, having decided to portray laughing, he chose several people and, having become close to them, invited them to a feast with his friends. When they gathered, he sat down next to them and began to tell them the most ridiculous and funny things. Everyone laughed, and the artist himself watched what was happening to these people under the influence of his stories, and imprinted all this in his memory.
(Slide 10)
After the guests left, Leonardo da Vinci retired to the work room and reproduced them with such perfection that his drawing made the audience laugh no less than the living models laughed while listening to his stories.
But, studying man as an anatomist, as a philosopher, as an artist, how did Leonardo treat him? The most terrible forms of ugliness are depicted in his drawings with such amazing force that it sometimes seems: he rejoices in ugliness, triumphantly seeks it out in a person. And yet, how captivating are the images created by his brush! As if the first are just exercises in the great science of knowledge, and the second are the fruits of this knowledge in all its beauty.
In his notes, Leonardo gives a comprehensive answer to the question of how he treated people:
“And if there are among people who have good qualities and virtues, do not drive them away from you, give them honor, so that they do not need to flee to desert caves and other secluded places, fleeing from your machinations!”
The art of a great master.
The artistic heritage of Leonardo da Vinci is quantitatively small. It has been suggested that his interests in the natural sciences and engineering interfered with his prolificacy in the arts. However, an anonymous biographer, his contemporary, points out that Leonardo “had the most excellent ideas, but created few things in paint, because, as they say, he was never satisfied with himself.” This is also confirmed by Vasari, according to whom the obstacles lay in Leonardo’s very soul - “the greatest and most extraordinary... it precisely prompted him to seek superiority over perfection, so that every work of his was slowed down by an excess of desires.”
Among all the arts, and perhaps among all human affairs, Leonardo puts painting in first place. For, he points out, the painter is “the ruler of all kinds of people and all things.” This is irresistible evidence of the deep conviction of one of the greatest painters who ever lived in the greatness and all-conquering power of his art.
The world is known through the senses, and the eye is the master of the senses.
“The eye,” he writes, “is the eye of the human body, through which a person looks at his path and enjoys the beauty of the world. Thanks to him, the soul rejoices in its human prison; without him, this human prison is torture.”
On the king's birthday, a poet came and presented him with a poem praising his valor. The painter also came with a portrait of the king’s beloved. The king immediately turned from the book to the picture. The poet was offended: “Oh, king! Read, read! You will learn something much more important than this silent picture can give you! But the king answered him: “Be silent, poet! You don't know what you're saying! Painting serves a higher feeling than your art, which is intended for the blind. Give me something that I can see and not just hear.”
Between a painter and a poet, Leonardo also writes, there is the same difference as between bodies divided into parts and whole bodies, for the poet shows you the body part by part at different times, and the painter shows you the whole at one time.
What about the music? Again Leonardo's categorical answer:
“Music cannot be called anything other than the sister of painting, for it is the subject of hearing, the second sense after sight... But painting surpasses music and commands it, because it does not die immediately after its emergence, like unfortunate music.” .
But all this is not enough. Painting, the greatest of the arts, puts in the hands of those who truly master it, royal power over nature.
So, for Leonardo, painting is the highest act of human genius, the highest of the arts. This act also requires higher knowledge. And knowledge is given and verified by experience.
And so experience opens up new spaces for Leonardo, distances unexplored in painting before him. He believes that mathematics is the basis of knowledge. And each of his pictorial compositions smoothly fits into a geometric figure. But the visual perception of the world is not limited to geometry, it goes beyond it.
Looking into the abyss of time, which is the “destroyer of things,” he saw that everything changes, is transformed, that the eye perceives only what is born before it at a given moment, because in the next time it will already complete its inevitable and irreversible work.
And the instability and fluidity of the visible world was revealed to him. This discovery by Leonardo was of great importance for all subsequent painting. Before Leonardo, the outlines of objects acquired decisive importance in a painting. The line reigned in it, and therefore even among his greatest predecessors the picture sometimes seems like a painted drawing. Leonardo was the first to put an end to the inviolability, the self-sufficient power of the line. And he called this revolution in painting “the disappearance of outlines.” Light and shadows, he writes, must be sharply differentiated, because their boundaries are in most cases vague. Otherwise, the images will turn out awkward, devoid of charm, and wooden.
Leonardo’s “smoky chiaroscuro”, his famous “sfumato”, is a gentle half-light with a soft range of milky-silver, bluish tones, sometimes with greenish tints, in which the line itself becomes airy.
Oil paints were invented in the Netherlands, but the new possibilities they contained in the transmission of light and shadow, painterly nuances, and almost imperceptible transitions from tone to tone were first studied and fully explored by Leonardo.
The linearity and graphic rigidity characteristic of Florentine Quattrocento painting have disappeared. Chiaroscuro and “disappearing outlines” constitute, according to Leonardo, the most excellent thing in the science of painting. But his images are not fleeting. Their frame is strong, and they stand firmly on the ground. They are infinitely captivating, poetic, but no less meaningful and concrete.
(Slide 11)
« Madonna in the Grotto "(Paris, Louvre) - Leonardo's first fully mature work - affirms the triumph of new art.
Perfect coordination of all parts, creating a tightly welded whole. This is a whole, i.e. the combination of four figures, the outlines of which are wonderfully softened by chiaroscuro, forms a slender pyramid, growing smoothly and softly, in complete freedom, before us. By their looks and position, all the figures are inextricably united, and this unification is full of enchanting harmony, for even the gaze of an angel, addressed not to other figures, but to the viewer, seems to strengthen the single musical chord of the composition. This look and the smile that slightly illuminates the angel’s face are filled with a deep and mysterious meaning. Light and shadows create a unique mood in the picture. Our gaze is carried away into its depths, into the alluring openings among the dark rocks, under the shadow of which the figures created by Leonardo found shelter. And the secret, Leonard’s secret, shines through in their faces, and in the bluish crevices, and in the twilight of the overhanging rocks. And with what grace, with what soulful skill and with what love irises, violets, anemones, ferns, and all kinds of herbs are painted.(Slide 12)
“Don’t you see,” Leonardo taught the artist, “how many animals, trees, herbs, flowers there are, what a variety of mountainous and flat terrain, streams, rivers, cities...”
(Slide 13)
"The Last Supper" - Leonardo's greatest creation and one of the greatest works of painting of all time - has reached us in a dilapidated state.
He painted this composition on the wall of the refectory of the Milan monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie. Striving for the greatest colorful expressiveness in mural painting, he made unsuccessful experiments with paints and primers, which caused its rapid damage. And then rough restorations and... Bonaparte's soldiers completed the job. After the occupation of Milan by the French in 1796. The refectory was turned into a stable, the fumes of horse manure covered the painting with thick mold, and the soldiers entering the stable amused themselves by throwing bricks at the heads of Leonard’s figures.
Fate turned out to be cruel to many of the great master’s creations. And yet, how much time, how much inspired art and how much fiery love Leonardo invested in the creation of this masterpiece.
But, despite this, even in its dilapidated state, “The Last Supper” makes an indelible impression.
On the wall, as if overcoming it and taking the viewer into a world of harmony and majestic visions, the ancient gospel drama of betrayed trust unfolds. And this drama finds its resolution in a general impulse directed towards the main character - a husband with a sorrowful face who accepts what is happening as inevitable.
(Slide 14)
Christ just told his disciples, “One of you will betray me.” The traitor sits with others; the old masters depicted Judas sitting separately, but Leonardo revealed his gloomy isolation much more convincingly, shrouding his features in shadow.
Christ is submissive to his fate, filled with the consciousness of the sacrifice of his feat. His bowed head with downcast eyes and the gesture of his hands are infinitely beautiful and majestic. A lovely landscape opens through the window behind his figure. Christ is the center of the entire composition, of all the whirlpool of passions that rage around. His sadness and calmness seem to be eternal, natural - and this is the deep meaning of the drama shown.
Having seen Leonardo's Last Supper, the French king Louis XII admired it so much that only the fear of spoiling the great work of art prevented him from cutting out part of the wall of the Milan monastery to deliver the fresco to France.
(Slide 15)
"Saint John the Baptist"
The painting "St. John the Baptist" was conceived by the artist in the early 1500s, as evidenced by a sketch of an angel with a raised hand in the pose of John, pinned to a sheet dating from about 1504 (entered the Louvre in 1661). Leonardo began working on it during his second stay in Milan and continued work in Rome. Apparently, in the opinion of the master himself, the canvas was never finished; work on it continued even in Amboise. From the dark space of the picture, the figure of a young man with a raised hand and a cross pressed to his body looks at us in a light silhouette. Flowing curls softly shimmering in the dark frame this beautiful face with a mysteriously inviting smile and a fixed gaze of eyes outlined in dark shadows. The facial features clearly resemble Monna Lisa, giving it a somewhat ambiguous character. The figure wears blooming, sensually trembling forms, and only the cross, as if dissolved in the space of the picture, tells us that before us is John the Baptist.
(Slide 16)
"Portrait of Ginerva de Bercy"
This portrait is one of the earliest works on a secular theme, about which there are documents confirming the authorship of Leonardo da Vinci.
Ginerva de Bensi married at the age of 17 on January 15, 1474 to Luigi Niccolini, who was twice her age. The portrait was painted for this occasion.
A young woman sits in front of a juniper bush, which seems to surround her head like a wreath and undoubtedly dominates the portrait of Ginerva. Interesting pallor is not an artist’s technique, but, according to some sources, a sign of a sick constitution.
The word “ginepro” (in Italian - juniper) has nothing to do with either the woman’s surname or the surname of the person who commissioned the portrait. Juniper is more than a decorative accessory. Like some other plants, juniper was a symbol of female dignity (in this case, a symbol of the chastity of the newlywed).
The portrait, showing the influence of the Old Dutch Masters on the style and technique of painting nature, demonstrates the connection between female beauty and dignity.
It is assumed that the portrait was barbarically shortened by someone in the lower part, where the hands were.
There is a continuation on the back of the portrait, which is also a painting.
On the faux red marble, we see laurel, juniper and palm branches tied together in a garland with the words VIRTUTEM FORMA DECORAT: “Beauty adorns Dignity.”
The delicate silhouette of the face, palm branches (a traditional symbol of dignity), red marble, all highlight the connection between beauty, dignity, chastity and fidelity. The evergreen laurel indicates Ginevra's desire for poetry, which is known from the memoirs of contemporaries
But there is a version that the garland with the inscription is associated with Bernardo Bembo, then the Venetian ambassador to Florence, who ordered a portrait of the bride, and whose coat of arms included palm branches.
(Slide 17)
“Portrait of a Lady with an Ermine” (Cecilia Gallerani)
Cecilia, born in 1473 or 1474, was beautiful, knew Latin, was interested in philosophy, understood art, poetry, sang beautifully and played the harp. Relations with Louis Sforzo lasted from 1489 until his marriage to Beatrice d'Este in 1491.
On the one hand, ermine is a nod to Cecilia's last name, "Galleriani" - pronounced similar to the Greek word "galee" (ermine).
On the other hand, this small creature in Milan at that time was considered a symbol of purity, dignity and modesty, since, according to legend, it hated dirt and ate only once a day.
From the late 1480s, the ermine could also be read as an allusion to Louis Sforzo, who had an ermine in one of his coats of arms. Thus, Louis, in the form of a symbolic animal, is gently teased and gently caressed in Cecilia's arms.
The animal depicted is not an ermine, but a furo - an artificially bred breed. They have short white fur, they easily become tame and are very affectionate, which is why rich ladies loved to keep these expensive and rare animals.
(Slide18)
"Madonna of the Carnation"
Madonna del Garofano, or del Fiori (“with a carnation” or “with a flower”) was written in the early period of creativity, when there was still a strong influence of the works of the teacher Verrocchio and the works of the old Dutch masters, and is regarded as the first independent work. Authorship confirmed. Vasari notes a detail that struck him: “A decanter with flowers, filled with water. The sweating of the water on the surface was depicted in such a way that it seemed more alive.” The depiction of the Madonna and Child Jesus clearly shows devotion to the methods adopted in Verrocchio's workshop. Such Madonnas, intended for indoor use and private worship, were widespread in 15th century Florence.
In addition to describing Mary's loving relationship with the child, Leonardo also includes symbols of generally accepted elements of the Christian faith:
In an inexperienced gesture, the Holy Child reaches out his hands to a red carnation, a symbol of the Passion of Christ, indicating the innocence of the child and an allusion to the future Crucifixion awaiting the Savior. A crystal vase with flowers is a sign of Mary’s purity and virginity.
At the same time, motifs such as the carnation and crystal vase, the fall of the fabric on the Madonna's lap, with its intense coloring, which require great skill on the part of the artist, allowed Leonardo to show his talent.
(Slide 20)
"Leda and the Swan" (copy of Caesar de Samo)
Written sources report that the original painting was lost and burned during the Inquisition. However, sketches by Leonardo da Vinci and many copies have survived.
Leda is the daughter of Festius, king of Aetolia, sister of Althea, wife of the king of Sparta Tyndareus, from whom she had daughters Clytemnestra, Timandra, Philonoia and a son, Castor. According to the canonical myth, Zeus, captivated by the beauty of Leda, appeared to her in the form of a swan while she was bathing in the Eurotas River, and from this union Polydeuces and Helen were born to Leda (at the same time as Castor and Clytemnestra).
(Slide 21)
The swan (Zeus) stands with his neck stretched out and holding the young woman with one wing. Leda turns away from her lover. Her eyes are lowered, she hugs the swan with both hands. The sight of the female naked body, her pose and the amazing plasticity of her rounded forms, are reminiscent of classical statues of Venus and, therefore, of love. Both in Leonardo’s sketches and in copies we see numerous reeds. When ripe, the seeds disperse far and wide both onto the ground and into the water, and the reeds actively grow. This is a symbol of reproduction in nature.
Lost Masterpieces
However, the Gascon marksmen of the same Louis XII, having captured Milan, mercilessly dealt with another great creation of Leonardo: for fun they shot a giant clay model of an equestrian statue of the Duke of Milan Francesco Sforza, father of Ludovico Moro. This statue was never cast in bronze, which was required for the cannons. But her model also amazed her contemporaries.
Another great creation of Leonardo, “The Battle of Anghiari,” which he worked on later, returned to Florence, also perished.
He and another High Renaissance genius, Michelangelo Bounarrotti, were commissioned to decorate the Hall of the Council of Five Hundred in the Palace of the Signoria with battle scenes in honor of the victories once won by the Florentines.
The cardboards of both aroused the delight of their contemporaries and were recognized by experts as “a school for the whole world.” But Michelangelo's cardboard, glorifying the fulfillment of military duty, seemed to the Florentines to be more in line with the patriotic task. Leonardo was fascinated by completely different motives. But they did not complete their implementation either. His new, too bold experiments with paints again did not give the desired result, and, seeing that the fresco began to crumble, he himself quit work. Leonardo's cardboard also did not reach us. But, fortunately, in the next century Rubens, admiring this battle scene, reproduced its central part.
This is a tangle of human and horse bodies intertwined in a fierce fight. The deadly elements of war in all the horror of merciless mutual destruction - this is what the great artist wanted to capture in this picture. The inventor of the most terrible instruments “for causing harm,” he dreamed of showing in painting the “chain reaction” of death that the will of a person, seized by that extreme cruelty that Leonardo calls in his notes “animal madness,” can generate.
But, overcoming blood and dust, his genius creates a world of harmony, where evil seems to drown forever in beauty.
"La Gioconda"
“I managed to create a truly divine picture.” This is what Leonardo da Vinci said about the portrait of a woman, which, together with The Last Supper, is considered the crowning achievement of his work.
He worked on this relatively small portrait for four years.
Here is what Vasari writes about this work:
“Leonardo undertook to make a portrait of Mona Lisa, his wife, for Francesco del Giocondo... Since Mona Lisa was very beautiful, Leonardo resorted to the following technique: while painting the portrait, he invited musicians who played the lyre and sang, and jesters who constantly kept her in a cheerful mood.” All this so that melancholy does not distort her features.
At the beginning of this century, a crazy Italian stole this treasure from the famous Square Hall of the Paris Louvre in order to return it to Italy and there to admire it alone every day - and this loss was perceived as a real tragedy for art. And what rejoicing was caused by the return of the La Gioconda to the Louvre!
This picture and its fame are obviously of the same age. After all, Vasari already wrote about the Mona Lisa:
“The eyes have that shine and that moisture that is constantly observed in a living person... The nose with its beautiful holes, pink and tender, seems alive. The mouth... appears not as a combination of different colors, but as real flesh... The smile is so pleasant that, looking at this portrait, you experience a more divine than human pleasure... This portrait was recognized as an amazing work, for life itself cannot be different."
Leonardo believed that painting “contains all forms, both existing and non-existing in nature.” He wrote that “painting is a creation created by fantasy.” But in his great imagination, in creating something that does not exist in nature, he proceeded from concrete reality. He started from reality in order to complete the work of nature. His painting does not imitate nature, but transforms it; it is based not on abstract fantasy or aesthetic canons established once and for all by someone, but on the same nature.
In the assessment that Vasari gives to La Gioconda, there is a significant gradation filled with deep meaning: everything is exactly like in reality, but looking at this reality, you experience some new highest pleasure, and it seems that life itself cannot be different. In other words: reality that acquires a certain new quality in beauty, more perfect than that which usually reaches our consciousness, beauty that is the creation of an artist who completes the work of nature. And, enjoying this beauty, you perceive the visible world in a new way, so that you believe: it should no longer, cannot be different.
This is the magic of the great realistic art of the High Renaissance. It is not for nothing that Leonardo worked for so long on La Gioconda in a tireless quest to achieve “perfection over perfection,” and it seems that he achieved this.
It is impossible to imagine a composition simpler and clearer, more complete and harmonious. The contours have not disappeared, but are again wonderfully softened by the half-light. The folded hands serve as a pedestal for the image, and the exciting gaze is sharpened by the general calmness of the entire figure. The fantastic lunar landscape is not accidental: the smooth curves among the high rocks echo the fingers in their measured musical chord, and with the folds of the robe, and with the light cape on the shoulder of Mona Lisa. Everything lives and trembles in her figure, she is authentic, like life itself. And on her face there is barely a smile, which rivets the viewer with a force that is truly unstoppable. This smile is especially striking in contrast to the dispassionate, seemingly searching gaze directed at the viewer. In them we see wisdom, cunning, and arrogance, knowledge of some secret, as if the experience of all previous millennia of human existence. This is not a joyful smile calling for happiness. This is that mysterious smile that shines through Leonardo’s entire worldview, in the fear and desire that he experienced before entering the deep cave that beckons him among the high rocks. And it seems to us as if this smile spreads throughout the whole picture, enveloping the whole body of this woman and her high forehead, her robe and the lunar landscape, slightly penetrating the brownish fabric of the dress with golden tints and the smoky emerald haze of the sky and rocks.
This woman, with a smile playing imperiously on her motionless face, seems to know, remember or have a presentiment of something that is still inaccessible to us. She does not seem to us either beautiful, or loving, or merciful. But, looking at her, we fall under her power.
Leonardo's students and followers tried many times to repeat the smile of Gioconda, so the reflection of this smile is, as it were, a distinctive feature of all painting, which is based on the “Leonardian principle.” But just a reflection.
Leonard's smile, at the same time wise, sly, mocking and alluring, often becomes, even among the best of his followers, sugary, cutesy, sometimes refined, sometimes even charming, but completely devoid of the unique significance that the great wizard of painting endowed it with.
But in the images of Leonardo himself it will play more than once, and still with the same irresistible force, although sometimes taking on a different shade.
No reliable sculptures of Leonardo da Vinci have survived at all. But we have a huge number of his drawings. These are either separate sheets representing completed graphic works, or most often sketches alternating with his notes. Leonardo not only drew designs for all kinds of mechanisms, but also captured on paper what his sharp, penetrating eye of an artist and sage revealed to him in the world. He, perhaps, can be considered perhaps the most powerful, sharpest draftsman in all the art of the Italian Renaissance, and already in his time many, apparently, understood this.
“...He made drawings on paper,” writes Vasari, “with such virtuosity and so beautifully that there was no artist who could equal him... With hand-drawing, he was able to convey his ideas so beautifully that he won with his themes and embarrassed the most proud talents with his ideas... He made models and drawings that showed the ability to easily tear down mountains and drill them with passages from one surface to another... He wasted precious time on depicting a complex plexus of laces so that everything it appears continuous from one end to the other and forms a closed whole.”
This last remark by Vasari is especially interesting. Perhaps people of the 16th century. they believed that the famous artist was wasting his precious time in vain on such exercises. But in this drawing, where a continuous interweaving is introduced into the strict framework of the order he intended, and in those where he depicted some kind of whirlwinds or a flood with raging waves, himself, thoughtfully contemplating these whirlwinds and this whirlpool, he tried to decide whether or not to pose questions that, perhaps, are not more important in the world: the fluidity of time, eternal motion, the forces of nature in their formidable emancipation and hopes of subordinating these forces to human will.
He drew from life or created images born of his imagination: rearing horses, fierce fights and the face of Christ, full of meekness and sadness; wondrous female heads and creepy caricatures of people with bulging lips or monstrously overgrown noses; features and gestures of those condemned before execution or corpses on the gallows; fantastic bloodthirsty beasts and human bodies of the most beautiful proportions; sketches of hands, in his rendering as expressive as faces; trees close up, in which every petal is carefully painted, and trees in the distance, where only their general outlines are visible through the haze. And he drew himself.
Leonardo achieved true fame and universal recognition by completing a clay model of the equestrian statue of Francesco Sforza, i.e. when he was already forty years old. But even after this, orders did not fall on him, and he still had to persistently solicit the use of his art and knowledge.
Vasari writes:
“Among his models and drawings was one by means of which he explained to many intelligent citizens then at the head of Florence his plan to raise the Florentine church of San Giovanni. It was necessary to build a staircase under it without destroying the church. And he accompanied his idea with such convincing arguments that this matter really seemed possible, although, when parting with it, everyone was internally aware of the impossibility of such an undertaking.
This is one of the reasons for Leonardo’s failure to find possible ways to apply his knowledge: the grandeur of his plans, which frightened even the most enlightened contemporaries, the grandeur that delighted them, but only as a brilliant fantasy, as a game of the mind.
Leonardo's main rival was Michelangelo, and the latter was victorious in their competition. At the same time, Michelangelo tried to prick Leonardo, to make him feel as painfully as possible that he, Michelangelo, was superior to him in real, generally recognized achievements.
Conclusion
By the age of sixty-five, Leonardo's strength began to fail. He had difficulty moving his right hand. However, he continued to work, organizing magnificent festivities for the court, and designed the connection of the Loire and Saone with a large canal.
“Taking into account the certainty of death, but the uncertainty of its hour,” Leonardo drew up a will on April 23, 1518, precisely ordering all the details of his funeral. He died at the castle of Cloux, near Amboise, on May 2, 1519, at the age of sixty-seven.
All his manuscripts went to his heirs in his will and were scattered. Their scientific study began more than three centuries after the death of Leonardo. Much of what they concluded could not be understood by his contemporaries, and therefore we have a clearer idea than they do of the comprehensive genius of this man.
LITERATURE
1. Alpatov M.V. Artistic problems of the Italian Renaissance M. 1976.
2. Vasari G. Lives of the most famous painters, sculptors and architects.
3. Whipper B.R. Italian Renaissance. Lecture course. M. 1977.
4. Dzhivelegov A.N. Leonardo da Vinci. M., 1967.
5. Dmitrieva N.A. A Brief History of Art. Issue 2.M. 1990.
6. Ilyina T.V. History of arts. Western European Art: Textbook ed. 2. M. 1993.
7. Losev A.F. Renaissance aesthetics. M.1978.
8. Small history of art: Art of the Middle Ages. M.1975.
9. Rotenberg E.I. Art of Italy. Central Italy during the High Renaissance 1974.
Regional competition of research and design works
"Young Explorer"
Nomination "Technique"
Research project on the topic:
The project was completed by a 10th grade student:
Utkina Snezhanna.
Project leader: physics teacher
Bulatova Nina Sergeevna
Sukhobezvodnoe village
Introduction……………………………………………………………3
Main part…………………………………………………….. ..5
1. The genius of Leonardo da Vinci…………………………………………….5
1.1.Biography…………………………………………………………….. .5
1.2.Painting………………………………………………………...8
1.3.Inventor.……………………………………………………………..12
1.4.Scientist……………………………………………………….15
2. Power of mind and brilliant scientific foresight.
2.1. Classification of projects by time……………………….18
Conclusion………………………………………………………..21
Literature………………………………………………………..23
Abstracts………………………………………………………………………………….24Review………………………………………………………25
VII. Appendix..……………………………………………………......26
I. Introduction
In the Norwegian town of As in 2001, a 100-meter pedestrian bridge was opened, created according to the design of Leonardo da Vinci. This was the first time in 500 years when the architectural project of the Master, who was far ahead of his time, received a real embodiment (Appendix No. 1)It was just recently! Naturally, the question arises: why? Why build a bridge in a modern city based on a 15th century design? This fact interested me. Who is Leonardo da Vinci?
A master way ahead of his time! I decided to find out how far in time a person can realize himself.
The question arises: “How could this man of the Renaissance know that this is the entire future of our humanity, without whose existence the world is impossible?”
My goal is not to find out where such genius comes from, but only to look through time, along with the inventions of the Master.
Purpose My research is to establish how Leonardo da Vinci's inventions were used and modernized in different eras.
During research I want to solve problems:
Study the biography of Leonardo da Vinci.
Study the master's inventions.
Classify inventions by time of application.
Subject of study: inventions of Leonardo da Vinci.
Facilities
Collection of theoretical material.
Studying the material.
Analysis.
Classification of inventions.
General analysis, i.e. drawing up a conclusion.
Hypothesis : a man of genius is a genius at all times, his inventions belong to both the past, present and future of humanity.
The result research will be:
1. Information about the inventions of Leonardo da Vinci, which reached
Our days and their subsequent classification.
At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. In Italy, a culture emerged that was later called the Renaissance culture. It was based on a new idea of man - beautiful both spiritually and physically, free, endowed with reason, creative abilities and virtues, turning him into the true crown of the universe.
II. Main part
The genius of Leonardo da Vinci.
1.1.Biography
Italian painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, technician, scientist, mathematician, anatomist, botanist, musician, philosopher of the High Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci was born on April 15, 1452 in the town of Vinci, near Florence.
His father, the lord, Messer Piero da Vinci, was a wealthy notary, just like the four previous generations of his ancestors. When Leonardo was born, he was about 25 years old. Piero da Vinci died at the age of 77 (in 1504), during his life he had four wives and was the father of ten sons and two daughters (the last child was born when he was 75 years old). Almost nothing is known about Leonardo’s mother: in his biographies, a certain “young peasant woman” Katerina is most often mentioned. During the Renaissance, illegitimate children were often treated the same as children born in a legal wedlock. Leonardo was immediately recognized as his father, but after his birth he was sent with his mother to the village of Anchiano.
At the age of 4 he was taken to his father's family, where he received his primary education: reading, writing, mathematics, Latin. Leonardo was left-handed and wrote from right to left, turning the letters so that the text was easier to read with the help of a mirror, but if the letter was addressed to someone, he wrote traditionally. When Piero was over 30, he moved to Florence and established his business there. To find work for his son, his father brought him to Florence. Being illegitimate, Leonardo could not become a lawyer or doctor, and his father decided to make him an artist. At that time, artists, considered artisans and not belonging to the elite, stood slightly above tailors, but in Florence they had much more respect for painters than in other city-states.
Leonardo's talent as an artist was recognized by his teacher and the public when the young artist was barely twenty years old: Verrocchio received an order to paint a picture "The Baptism of Christ" The minor figures were to be painted by the artist's students. Leonardo took the risk of painting the figure of his angel and the landscape with newly discovered oil paints. According to legend, after seeing the work of his student, Verrocchio said that “he has been surpassed and from now on only Leonardo will paint all the faces.”
He masters several drawing techniques: Italian pencil, silver pencil, sanguine, pen. In 1472 Leonardo was accepted into the guild of painters - the Guild of St. Luke, but remained to live in Verrocchio's house. He opened his own workshop in Florence between 1476 and 1478. On April 8, 1476, following a denunciation, Leonardo da Vinci was accused of being a gardener and arrested along with three friends. At that time in Florence, sadomea was a crime, and the capital punishment was burning at the stake. Judging by the records of that time, many doubted Leonardo’s guilt; neither an accuser nor witnesses were ever found. It was probably helped to avoid a harsh sentence by the fact that among those arrested was the son of one of the nobles of Florence: there was a trial, but the offenders were released after a short flogging.
In 1482, having received an invitation to the court of the ruler of Milan, Ludovico Sforza, Leonardo da Vinci unexpectedly left Florence. Lodovico Sforza was considered the most hated tyrant in Italy, but Leonardo decided that Sforza would be a better patron for him than the Medici, who ruled in Florence and disliked Leonardo. Initially, the Duke took him on as the organizer of court holidays, for which Leonardo came up with not only masks and costumes, but also mechanical “miracles.” Magnificent holidays worked to increase the glory of Duke Lodovico. For a salary less than that of a court dwarf, in the Duke's castle Leonardo served as a military engineer, hydraulic engineer, court artist, and later as an architect and engineer. At the same time, Leonardo “worked for himself,” working in several areas of science and technology at the same time, but he was not paid for most of the work, since Sforza did not pay any attention to his inventions.
Leonardo da Vinci was commissioned to found an art academy in Milan. For teaching, he compiled treatises on painting, light, shadows, movement, theory and practice, perspective, movements of the human body, proportions of the human body. The Lombard school, consisting of Leonardo's students, appeared in Milan. In 1495, at the request of Ludovico Sforza, Leonardo began to paint his Last Supper" on the wall of the refectory of the Dominican monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan.
After the fall of Lodovic Sforza, Leonardo da Vinci left Milan. Over the years he lived in Venice (1499, 1500), Florence (1500-1502, 1503-1506, 1507), Mantua (1500), Milan (1506, 1507-1513), Rome (1513-1516). In 1516 (1517) he accepted the invitation of Francis I and left for Paris. Leonardo da Vinci did not like to sleep for long periods of time and was a vegetarian. According to some evidence, Leonardo da Vinci was beautifully built, had enormous physical strength, and had good knowledge of chivalry, horse riding, dancing, and fencing. In mathematics he was attracted only by what can be seen, so for him it, first of all, consisted of geometry and the laws of proportion. Leonardo da Vinci tried to determine the coefficients of sliding friction, studied the resistance of materials, studied hydraulics, and modeling. The areas that were interesting to Leonardo da Vinci included acoustics, anatomy, astronomy, aeronautics, botany, geology, hydraulics, cartography, mathematics, mechanics, optics, weapons design, civil and military engineering, and city planning. Leonardo da Vinci died on May 2, 1519 at the Castle of Cloux near Amboise (Touraine, France).
1.2.Painting.
“The artist who paints as the eye sees,
without the participation of the mind, resembles a mirror,
which reflects any task put before
him the object without knowing it"
Leonardo da Vinci.
In the debate between the arts, Leonardo da Vinci gave the first place to painting, understanding it as a universal language capable of embodying all the diverse manifestations of intelligence in nature; his artistic activity turned out to be inextricably linked with scientific activities. In essence, Leonardo da Vinci represents the only example of his kind of a great artist for whom art was not the main business of life. First works:
"Annunciation" 1472.
A drawing of the Arno Valley by Leonardo, with a mirror inscription on which reads: “St. Mary in the Snows, August 5, 1473,” is the first work of the Renaissance entirely devoted to landscape - a small sketch of a river valley visible from the gorge; on one side there is a castle, on the other there is a wooded hillside.
This sketch, made with quick strokes of the pen, testifies to the artist's constant interest in atmospheric phenomena, about which da Vinci later wrote extensively in his notes. Landscape depicted from a high vantage point overlooking the floodplain was a common device in Florentine art in the 1460s (although it always served only as a background to the paintings). A silver pencil drawing of an ancient warrior in profile (mid-1470s, British Museum) demonstrates Leonardo's full maturity as a draftsman; it skillfully combines weak, flaccid and tense, elastic lines and attention to surfaces gradually modeled by light and shadow, creating a living, vibrant image.
Combining the development of new means of artistic language with theoretical generalizations, Leonardo da Vinci created an image of a person that meets the humanistic ideals of the High Renaissance.
Recording the results of countless observations in sketches, sketches and full-scale studios (Italian pencil, silver pencil, sanguine, pen and other techniques), Leonardo achieves rare acuity in conveying facial expressions (sometimes resorting to grotesque and caricature), and the structure and movements of the human body leads in perfect harmony with the dramaturgy of the composition.
By 1503 - 1505 refers to the creation of a masterpiece of a great master - a painting Gioconda or Mona Lisa,
in which he embodied the sublime ideal of eternal femininity and human charm; An important element of the composition was the cosmically vast landscape, melting into a cold blue haze.
The late works of Leonardo da Vinci include projects for a monument to Marshal Trivulzio (1508-1512),
The altar image “St. Anne and Mary with the Christ Child” (circa 1507-1510, Louvre, Paris), completing the master’s search for light-air perspective and harmonious pyramidal composition,
AND
“John the Baptist” (circa 1513-1517, Louvre), where the somewhat sweet ambiguity of the image indicates the growing crisis moments in the artist’s work.
In a series of drawings depicting a universal catastrophe (the so-called “Flood” cycle, Italian pencil and pen, circa 1514-1516, Royal Library, Windsor), thoughts about the insignificance of man before the power of the elements are combined with rationalistic ideas about the cyclical nature of natural processes. The most important source for studying the views of Leonardo da Vinci are his notebooks and manuscripts (about 7 thousand sheets), excerpts from which were included in the “Treatise on Painting”, compiled after the death of the master by his student F. Melzi and which had a huge influence on European theoretical thought and artistic practice.
If in his youth Leonardo da Vinci paid primary attention to painting, then over time this ratio changed in favor of science. It is difficult to find areas of knowledge and technology that would not be enriched by his major discoveries and bold ideas. Nothing gives such a vivid impression of the extraordinary versatility of the genius of Leonardo da Vinci as the many thousands of pages of his manuscripts. The notes contained in them, combined with countless drawings that give Leonardo da Vinci’s thoughts plastic materiality, cover all of existence, all areas of knowledge, being, as it were, the clearest evidence of the discovery of the world that the Renaissance brought with it. In these results of his tireless spiritual work, the diversity of life itself is clearly felt, in the knowledge of which artistic and rational principles appear in Leonardo da Vinci's works in indissoluble unity.
The look of a sage, whose features, both clear and stern, Leonardo captured in
Self-portrait
, - an artist who, deeper than others, was able to explore the secrets and laws of the world and human feelings and express them in the sublime language of art and painting.
1.3.Inventor
In engineering structures, Leonardo da Vinci looked for the key to the secrets of the universe, so he likened individual parts of a mechanism to internal organs. To understand the operation of the entire device, you need to find out how each of its parts worked. Leonardo came to the discovery of the ball bearing, several types of gears, and a roller chain. He created sketches of a submarine, a parachute, a hang glider, metallurgical furnaces, and a printing press. Leonardo sought to make human labor easier. Bearings
Leonardo are modern and anticipate many of today's technical solutions. Note that ball bearings were already used in classical antiquity. Leonardo noted that “3 bearings under the spindle are better than 4, because when moving the spindle comes into contact with all 3 bearings, while with 4 there is a danger that one of them will not be used and this will create additional friction force.” . The model is valid.
WITH 
the project was related to the problem of a person being under water diving suit Leonardo. The suit was made of waterproof leather. It was supposed to have a large chest pocket, which was filled with air to increase volume, making it easier for the diver to rise to the surface. Leonardo's diver was equipped with a flexible breathing tube.
A genius's dream. Since time immemorial, man has dreamed of flying. Leonardo also dreamed of rising to the sky. He began to watch the movement of birds, trying to get closer to the great mystery of nature.
The master believed that the human mind was capable of creating a mechanism whose operation would be based on the principles of bird flight. He developed a whole series of drawings of the aircraft. According to the inventor, the device lifts a person into the air using the wings that the pilot sets in motion. In his search for the optimal wing shape, he eventually settled on the bat wing.
Leonardo's mistake. Leonardo's attempts to create a flying machine with a flapping wing were doomed to failure. Apparently, the scientist realized that a person does not have enough strength to hold himself in the air. Nature suggested to Leonardo a fundamentally different method, similar to the soaring of birds. The result of reflection was the project of a controlled parachute. But Leonardo did not continue his search in this direction. In his research, he came close to discovering the laws of aerodynamics. Only adherence to the idea of a flapping wing prevented the scientist from creating a device capable of lifting it into the air.
The scientist conducted a study of the glider's balance in order to determine the bird's center of gravity. There are no drawings of this glider, but it is known that it must have been built from lightweight materials: bamboo and fabric with fastenings and guy lines made of raw silk or special leather. A tall structure made of reeds in the shape of a cylinder or parallelepiped was apparently pulled out by straps from the very wide (about 10 m wide) wings of this glider. In this design, the pilot was located much lower than the wings, which created the balance of the device.
As a scientist and engineer, Leonardo da Vinci enriched almost all areas of knowledge of that time with insightful observations and guesses, considering his notes and drawings as sketches for a giant natural philosophical encyclopedia. He was a prominent representative of the new, experimentally based natural science.
Leonardo paid special attention to mechanics, calling it “the paradise of mathematical sciences” and seeing in it the key to the secrets of the universe; he tried to determine the coefficients of sliding friction, studied the resistance of materials, and was passionate about hydraulics. Numerous hydrotechnical experiments were expressed in innovative designs of canals and irrigation systems. Leonardo's passion for modeling led him to astounding technical foresights that were far ahead of his era: such are sketches of designs for metallurgical furnaces and rolling mills, weaving machines, printing, woodworking and other machines, a submarine and a tank, as well as designs for flying machines developed after a thorough study of the flight of birds and parachute
Scientist
Since Leonardo's works are diaries, the entries in them are unique. These are a kind of dialogues with an imaginary interlocutor, dialogues in which Leonardo defends his opinion, citing strong evidence; The manuscripts also contain instructions from the author to himself and reasoning that can be directly related to philosophy.
Leonardo valued experience highly, as he practically learned everything on his own, studied books and tested his theories in practice." …every instrument must be made from experience.” Leonardo did not recognize “speculative” theories. He placed mathematics as the basis for everything, including knowledge itself: “...not a single human research can be called a true science if it has not gone through mathematical proof.”
Optics: The observations collected by Leonardo da Vinci on the study of the influence of transparent and translucent bodies on the color of objects, reflected in his painting, led to the establishment of the principles of aerial perspective in art. The universality of optical laws was associated for him with the idea of the homogeneity of the Universe. He was close to creating a heliocentric system, considering the Earth to be “a point in the universe.” He studied the structure of the human eye, making guesses about the nature of binocular vision.
Anatomy, botany, paleontology: in anatomical studies, summarizing the results of autopsies of corpses, in detailed drawings he laid the foundations of modern scientific illustration. Studying the functions of organs, he considered the body as an example of “natural mechanics”. He was the first to describe a number of bones and nerves, paying special attention to the problems of embryology and comparative anatomy, trying to introduce the experimental method into biology.
Having established botany as an independent discipline, he gave classical descriptions of leaf arrangement, helio- and geotropism, root pressure and the movement of plant juices. He was one of the founders of paleontology, believing that fossils found on mountain tops refute the idea of a “global flood.”
Leonardo da Vinci studied the anatomy and physiology of humans and animals. He wrote such works as: “On the flight and movement of bodies in the air”, “On light, vision and the eye”.
Leonardo considered anatomical sketches to be the basis for studying the structure of the human body. In his notes, Leonardo indicates the number of dissections he performed, the conditions in which he had to work, and the need for mastery of drawing, knowledge of geometry, perspective, and the need to be diligent: “And if you say that it is better to study anatomy than to consider such drawings, you would be right if all these things shown in such drawings could be observed on one body, in which you, with all your mind, will see nothing and have no idea about anything, except perhaps a few few veins, for the sake of which I, for a correct and complete understanding of them, dissected more than ten corpses, destroying all other members, down to the smallest particles, destroying all the meat located around these veins, without filling them with blood, except for the imperceptible outpouring from rupture of hair vessels; and one corpse was not enough for such a long time, so it was necessary to work successively on a whole series of them in order to obtain complete knowledge, which I repeated twice in order to observe the differences. And even if you had a love for the object, you would perhaps be recoiled by disgust, and even if it were not recoiled, then perhaps the fear of being at night in the company of such cut into pieces, tattered, terrible people would prevent you. the appearance of the dead; and even if this would not interfere with you, perhaps you will lack the precision of drawing necessary in such images. And if you mastered drawing, you would not yet have knowledge of perspective, and even if drawing were accompanied by knowledge of the latter, you would also need a system of geometric proofs and a method for calculating the strength and strength of muscles.” It should be mentioned here that many of the qualities that Leonardo da Vinci mentioned were, first of all, inherent in himself.
Studying the structure of the human body, Leonardo attached great importance to comparative anatomy - “A description of man, which includes those of a similar species to him, such as the baboon, the monkey and many others. Compose a separate treatise describing the movements of four-legged animals, among which is man, who also walks on four legs in childhood.... Draw here the legs of a bear and a monkey and other animals, with how they differ from the legs of a person, and also place the legs of some bird. Describe the features of the insides of the human race, monkeys and the like... use this description for a treatise.” But, according to researchers, Leonardo da Vinci made a mistake characteristic of his time, finding too much that seemed to be exactly the same in animals and humans.
Leonardo tried to understand and imagine that there are feelings that allow a person to perceive the world around him: “... five senses: sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell... The soul, apparently, is in the judging part, and the judging part is invisible in that place where all feelings converge and which is called the common feeling...”
In Leonardo's drawings, he pays great attention to the joints of the vertebrae - further confirmation of his desire to study human motor functions. The accurate representation of the structure of the spine is striking - comparable to the data from CT and MRI studies. Leonardo was the first to determine the exact number of vertebrae, and the first to most accurately reproduce the shape of the spinal column. The cervical spine is depicted separately, the first cervical vertebra is the atlas, the second is the axial vertebra and the third. The spinal cord is schematically represented, as well as one of the nerves of the caudal group.
2. Power of mind and brilliant scientific inventions.
1. Classification of projects by time
His only invention that received recognition during his lifetime was a wheel lock for a pistol (started with a key). At the beginning, the wheeled pistol was not very widespread, but by the middle of the 16th century it had gained popularity among the nobles, especially among the cavalry, which was even reflected in the design of the armor, namely: Maximilian armor for the sake of firing pistols began to be made with gloves instead of mittens.
| Projects by Leonardo da Vinci | Their modern use |
 | From antiquity he borrowed a covered staircase on a mobile wheeled platform. Approaching the wall with the help of ropes, it was possible to lower the bridge. |
| Lifebuoy | N.A Mytnik in the 15th and 16th centuries century opened a life preserver. |
 Diving suit | Nicolo Fontana opened a new page in the history of diving in the 17th century century. |
 Wooden car | Henry Ford created the first car with a four-stroke engine in the 20th century. |
 Aircraft | Juan de la Cierva is a Spanish inventor who in 1922 created a gyroplane, a heavier-than-air aircraft. |
 Sluice gate | Leonardo's invention of the "Canal with Locks" dates back to the period of his work in Lombardy. The water level when the ship entered the water could be controlled by opening or closing the gate." |
| | Gleb Kotelnikov discovered the parachute at the beginning of the 20th century. |
 Bridge |  In Norway, in 2001, an architectural project by Leonardo da Vinci was implemented, which lovers of the great master have already nicknamed “the Mona Lisa of bridges.” |
 Submarine | The first operational model of a submarine was created in 1620 for King James of England by the Dutch engineer Cornelius van Drebbel (1572-1633) |
 Excavator | In 1917, Eugene Clark from the USA invented the first front-end loader. |
 Hydroscope | The hydroscope is an instrument invented by Alberti. According to Leonardo, the device was used to “find out the quality and density of the air and when it would rain.” |
III.Conclusion
ABOUT 
Vinci, you are one in everything:
You have defeated the ancient captivity.
What serpentine wisdom.
Your terrible face is captured!
Already, like us, diverse,
You are great with daring doubts,
You are in the deepest temptations.
Everything that is dual has penetrated.
And you have icons in the darkness.
With the smile of the Sphinx they look into the distance
Semi-pagan wives, -
And their sadness is not without sin.
Prophet, or demon, or magician,
Keeping the true riddle,
O Leonardo, you are the harbinger.
Another unknown day.
Look, you sick children
Sick and dark centuries.
In the darkness of future centuries
He is incomprehensible and harsh, -
Fearless to all earthly passions,
It will remain like this forever -
God-despising, autocratic,
God-like man.
Freedom is the main gift of nature.
Leonardo da Vinci.
The greatest scientist of his time, Leonardo da Vinci enriched almost all areas of knowledge with insightful observations and guesses. But how surprised a genius would be if he knew that many of his inventions are in use even 555 years after his birth.
Oddly enough, only one invention of da Vinci received recognition during his lifetime - a wheel lock for a pistol that was wound with a key.
In 2002, one of the inventions of the great Leonardo da Vinci was also recreated in the UK: in the skies over Surrey, a prototype of a modern hang glider, assembled exactly according to his drawings, was successfully tested.
Test flights from the Surrey hills were carried out by two-time world hang gliding champion Judy Liden. She managed to lift da Vinci’s “proto-hang glider” to a maximum height of 10 m and stay in the air for 17 seconds. This was enough to prove that the device actually worked.
The list of Leonardo's inventions is far from complete; the most famous ones are simply considered. And to this day, many facets of this man, infinitely gifted by God, remain a mystery.
He lived ahead of his time, and if even a small part of what he invented had been brought to life, then the history of Europe, and perhaps the world, would have been different: already in the 15th century we would have been driving cars and crossing the seas in submarines.
Leonardo really was an “inventor,” that is, an engineer, and, perhaps, those who called him the greatest engineer that history has known were right. Historians of technology count hundreds of Leonardo's inventions, scattered throughout his notebooks in the form of drawings, sometimes with short expressive remarks, but often without a single word of explanation, as if the inventor's rapid flight of imagination did not allow him to stop at verbal explanations.
Often, drawings are repeated, already described devices are modified and improved, and sometimes this happens after many years, which indicates the serious attitude of the designer, and not the fickle whims of the artist.
But, as often happens, recognition of geniuses comes centuries later: many of his inventions were expanded and modernized, and are now used in everyday life
IV.Literature
Universal encyclopedia for youth. Civilizations. Comp. A. M. Tsirulnikov. – M., 2000.
General history of art as retold by Yuri Gerchuk: Italian art at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries
Kirilin V.A. “Pages of the history of science and technology” - M: Nauka, 1986.
Golin G.M., Folonovich S.R. “Classics of physical science” (from ancient times to the beginning of the twentieth century); Reference manual, M: Higher School, 1989
“Big Electronic Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius” disc No. 10, 2005
V. Theses
1. Leonardo da Vinci is a great scientist, a brilliant and professional representative of the Renaissance period. Almost all areas of science are provided precisely by his work and observations: mechanics, hydraulics, metallurgical furnaces, wood processing machines, machines capable of weaving fabrics, machines capable of printing texts (Leonardo da Vinci was already able to make sketches of these projects) and much more.
2. At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. In Italy, a culture emerged that was later called the Renaissance culture. It was based on a new idea of man - beautiful both spiritually and physically, free, endowed with reason, creative abilities and virtues, turning him into the true crown of the universe.
3. In the debate between the arts, Leonardo da Vinci gave the first place to painting, understanding it as a universal language capable of embodying all the diverse manifestations of intelligence in nature; his artistic activity turned out to be inextricably linked with scientific activities. In essence, Leonardo da Vinci represents the only example of his kind of a great artist for whom art was not the main business of life.
4. In engineering structures, Leonardo da Vinci looked for the key to the secrets of the universe, so he likened individual parts of a mechanism to internal organs. To understand the operation of the entire device, you need to find out how each of its parts worked. Leonardo came to the discovery of the ball bearing, several types of gears, and a roller chain. He created sketches of a submarine, a parachute, a hang glider, metallurgical furnaces, and a printing press. Leonardo sought to make human labor easier.
5. Leonardo's works are diaries or workbooks. The master did not have time to completely transform and systematize his manuscripts. All Leonardo's notes are accompanied by brilliant drawings. These are a kind of dialogues with an imaginary interlocutor, dialogues in which Leonardo defends his opinion, citing strong evidence; The manuscripts also contain instructions from the author to himself and reasoning that can be directly related to philosophy.
6. Leonardo really was an “inventor,” that is, an engineer, and, perhaps, those who called him the greatest engineer that history has known were right. But, as often happens, recognition of geniuses comes centuries later: many of his inventions were expanded and modernized, and are now used in everyday life
VI.Review
The author singled out only his inventions and looked at how they came to life and at what time. During the research process, various sources of information were used, including the original works of Leonardo da Vinci (in translation).
As a result of the analysis of the texts, a conclusion was made about the truth of many of the scientist’s judgments and conclusions in various fields of physical science and technology, and the correctness of various projects. This is confirmed by information about the use of Leonardo’s inventions many centuries later.
The project can be used for extracurricular activities in subjects
Natural cycle.
Appendix No. 1
Pictures of Leonardo da Vinci's inventions
D 
wooden "Car"
Manuscript L, folio 66 r.
A drawing that can be dated to between 1502 and 1503.
Galata Bridge
This model was made from a sketch from a very small drawing by Leonardo da Vinci, included in the Leicester manuscript. The bridge has a single span, approximately 240 meters in length, 23 meters in width, with a peak height of 40 meters above water level. A unique feature is the double support structure at the base of the bridge, shaped like the tail of a sparrow. The design for this bridge was presented by Leonardo in 1502 to the Ottoman Sultan Bayazet II. Leonardo proposed to build such a bridge in Istanbul across the Bosphorus Strait. Its length would be 240 meters, and it would be the largest bridge of its time.
The essence of the project is that the bridge deck is supported by three arc-spans resting on the ground. Leonardo was so confident in his project that he offered to lead the construction himself, although in case of failure he could, according to Turkish customs, lose his life. However, the Sultan did not dare to implement the project.
An architectural project by Leonardo da Vinci has been implemented in Norway, which lovers of the great master have already nicknamed “the Mona Lisa of bridges.”
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Project goal: To tell about the greatest scientist of his time, Leonardo da Vinci, who enriched almost all areas of knowledge with insightful observations and guesses. Present inventions that characterize him as an outstanding engineer of his time. Project objectives: To get acquainted with the greatest scientist Leonardo da Vinci; Learn about the inventions of Leonardo da Vinci; Collect material on the topic; Analyze the collected information; Create an educational presentation “Leonardo da Vinci - Inventor” for school students; Prepare the material; Participate in a lesson using a presentation.
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Medicine At the end of the Middle Ages in Italy, a star rose that illuminated the entire subsequent development of European civilization. Painter, engineer, mechanic, carpenter, musician, mathematician, pathologist, inventor - this is not a complete list of facets of a universal genius. Archaeologist, meteorologist, astronomer, architect... All this is Leonardo da Vinci. He was called a sorcerer, a servant of the devil, an Italian Faust and a divine spirit. He was ahead of his time by several centuries. Surrounded by legends during his lifetime, the great Leonardo is a symbol of the limitless aspirations of the human mind. Leonardo da Vinci
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Leonardo da Vinci was born on April 15, 1452 in the picturesque Tuscan town of Vinci. The town of Vinci near Florence The house where Leonardo lived as a child. Tomb of Leonardo da Vinci in the Chapel of St. Hubert Leonardo did not have a surname in the modern sense; "da Vinci" simply means "(originally) from the town of Vinci." His full name is Italian. Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci, that is, “Leonardo, son of Mr. Piero from Vinci.”
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Leonardo had many friends and students. He had his own workshop in Florence. In 1481, da Vinci completed the first large order in his life - the altar image “Adoration of the Magi” for a monastery located near Florence. In 1482, Leonardo, being, according to Vasari, a very talented musician, created a silver lyre in the shape of a horse's head. Verrochio's workshop "Adoration of the Magi"
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Milan, La Scala Monument to Leonardo da Vinci On La Scala in 1872, a monument to Leonardo da Vinci was erected. The work of the sculptor Pietro Magni. The monument is a pedestal on which Leonardo da Vinci stands. Below Leonardo da Vinci are four of his students.
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Da Vinci was a famous figure of his time, but real fame came many centuries after his death. Only at the end of the 19th century were the scientist’s theoretical notes published for the first time. They contained descriptions of strange and mysterious devices for their time. Leonardo da Vinci left behind approximately 13,000 pages of various manuscripts - notes, diaries, drawings, treatises, canons, “codes”. During the Renaissance, da Vinci could hardly count on the quick implementation of all his inventions. The main obstacle to their implementation was the insufficient technical level. But in the 20th century, almost all the devices described in his works became a reality. This suggests that the “Italian Faust” was not only a talented inventor, but also a person who was able to anticipate technological progress. Of course, this was facilitated by Leonardo's deep knowledge.
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The scientist systematized his developments, creating so-called “codes” - books containing records about certain aspects of science and technology. Leonardo da Vinci was left-handed and wrote “mirror” - that is, from right to left, although sometimes, for example, for correspondence with officials, he used the usual writing style. Rumors circulated around such an oddity of the master. One of the researchers of his work stated that Leonardo deliberately wrote “in reverse” so that his notes would not be accessible to the ignorant.. His notes contained everything from medicine, history and biology to mechanics, drawings, careful calculations of structures, drawings and poems . Leonardo's autograph
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Last Supper. 1495-1497. Painting on the wall. Santa Maria della Grazie, Milan. “La Gioconda” (“Mona Lisa” 1503 Louvre, Paris) Our contemporaries know Leonardo primarily as an artist. However, da Vinci himself, at different periods of his life, considered himself primarily an engineer or scientist. He did not devote much time to fine art and worked rather slowly. Therefore, Leonardo’s artistic heritage is not large in quantity, and a number of his works have been lost or severely damaged. However, his contribution to world artistic culture is extremely important even against the background of the cohort of geniuses that the Italian Renaissance produced. Portrait of a musician
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“I want to create miracles” Leonardo da Vinci is one of the most multifaceted personalities in the history of the Italian Renaissance. He was able to glorify himself as a great artist and predictor, but what is most striking is his amazing inventions. Leonardo was interested in the development of military-technical equipment. One of the truly brilliant ideas was the development of an iron chariot in the form of inverted saucers armed with cannons. He was the first to propose installing batteries of firearms on armored ships, invented a helicopter, a bicycle, a glider, a parachute, a tank, a machine gun, poison gases, a smoke screen for troops, and a magnifying glass (100 years before Galileo!). Da Vinci invented textile machines, powerful cranes, systems for draining swamps through pipes, and arched bridges. Inventions Inventions
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Bridge in the Norwegian city of As, built according to the drawings of Leonardo da Vinci. “I know how to build very light and strong bridges, suitable for transportation during attack and retreat, protected from fire and shells,” wrote Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo da Vinci's Revolving Bridge is a portable, lightweight bridge that was designed to allow an army to cross a river and then quickly tow it. The bridge consists of one span and is attached to the bank with a vertical hinge, which allows it to rotate.
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NAVAL COMBAT EQUIPMENT Double skinning of the ship's hull was proposed to ensure greater unsinkability and invulnerability of ships during naval battles. UNDERWATER MINE To destroy enemy ships, an underwater mine is screwed into the bottom of the ship by the submarine crew or diver. For the first time such a mine was used during the war in the United States (1860s), and saboteur divers appeared only during the Second World War. SUBMARINE "I know many means suitable for offensive and defensive maneuvers at sea and protecting ships..."
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WATER MECHANISMS AND DEVICES Flippers The scientist developed a design for webbed gloves, which over time turned into the well-known flippers. These were gloves made of fabric in the shape of an outstretched bird's paw. Such webbed gloves significantly increased swimming speed. The most necessary item when rescuing a drowning person is a lifebuoy. This invention of Leonardo has reached our time practically unchanged. Leonardo da Vinci was involved in everything that somehow touched water.
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Water wheel DRAG Leonardo has many designs for devices for raising water. Their purpose could be different. . These include fountains, water pipes and irrigation devices. With the help of such a water wheel with bowls, water was scooped up from the lower container and poured into the upper one. To clean the canals and deepen the bottom, Leonardo invented a dredge, which was installed on a raft fixed between two boats. The scooping unit was equipped with four blades. The blades were driven by a handle. The silt collected from the bottom had to be placed on a raft secured between two boats. By moving the drum rotation axis vertically, it was possible to adjust the depth of the work performed. When the wheel turned, the cable tied to the shore was wound onto the drum, and the dredge moved
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Leonardo loved water: he developed diving instructions, invented and described a breathing apparatus for scuba diving. A soft diving suit was invented by Leonardo for underwater work, or more precisely, for anchoring a ship. According to Leonardo's plan, divers were supposed to go underwater for these purposes. Da Vinci's divers could breathe using an underwater bell filled with air and wore masks with glass holes through which they could see underwater.
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Throughout his life, Leonardo da Vinci was literally obsessed with the idea of flight. No technical invention evokes such awe and admiration as a flying car. That is why special attention has always been focused on da Vinci’s flying machines. The inventor always dreamed of the idea of aeronautics. One of the very first (and most famous) sketches on this topic is a diagram of a device that in our time is considered to be a prototype of a helicopter. AIRCRAFT VERTICAL AIRCRAFT
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Leonardo soon lost interest in propeller-driven aircraft and turned his attention to the flight mechanism. Birds became the source of inspiration for the scientist. Leonardo tried to create a wing for an aircraft in the image and likeness of bird wings. To begin with, calculations were made that showed that the length of a duck's wing (in yards) is numerically equal to the square root of its weight. Based on this, Leonardo established that to lift a flying machine with a man (136 kg) into the air, wings similar to those of a bird and having a length of 12 meters are needed. A wing that, according to Leonardo's calculations, with a quick pressure on the lever, could lift its heavy stand from the ground with a wave.
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The world's first drawing of an airship with a controlled tail and a streamlined fuselage. 1486-1490. While working on the aircraft, Leonardo made a very interesting drawing from the point of view of modern aviation. It depicts a flying ship - exactly a ship, with seats for passengers, as well as a system of levers that control the wings and tail. The hang glider of the great Leonardo da Vinci... One of the inventions of the great Leonardo has come to life in Great Britain...
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The hang glider, conceived by Leonardo da Vinci over 500 years ago, is capable of flight. While da Vinci's parachute would have allowed a man to jump off a cliff and stay alive, an ornithopter would have allowed him to float in the air above the ground.
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Attempts to reproduce the wing created by nature did not lead to success - and Leonardo turned to gliding flight, i.e. began developing another flying machine, which was somewhat similar to a modern parachute. He developed a design for a glider that was attached to a person's back so that the latter could balance in flight. The main, widest part of the wings was motionless, but their ends could bend with the help of cables and change the direction of flight. The drawing of the device, which Leonardo himself described as follows, turned out to be prophetic: “If you have enough linen fabric sewn into a pyramid with a base of 12 yards (about 7 m 20 cm), then you can jump from any height without any harm to your body.” . The master made this recording between 1483 and 1486. Only a few hundred years later this drawing was transformed and such a device was called a “parachute” (from the Greek para - “against” and the French “chute” - fall). It is interesting that the idea of creating a parachute by Leonardo da Vinci was brought to its logical conclusion only by the Russian inventor Kotelnikov, who in 1911 created the first backpack rescue parachute attached to the pilot’s back.
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SIEGE AND DEFENSE COMBAT TECHNOLOGY Leonardo da Vinci developed many simple, but at the same time effective military devices for the defense and siege of fortresses. ASSAULT LADDERS DEVICE FOR REPULSING LADDERS CUTTING ROTATING BLADES TO DEFEAT ATTACKERS MACHINE FOR THROWING BOMBES CATAPULT Tower for storming a castle
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Horse chariot for offensive warfare with scythes. Leonardo made this illustration of a war machine for his Treatise on War. These are war chariots equipped with scythes for cutting the leg tendons of enemy horses and soldiers, since the scythes were at the top and bottom, they literally mowed down everyone. It is a kind of chariot with rotating scythes to destroy the enemy in battle.
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FIREARMS Cannon RAPID FIRE CROSSBOW GIANT CROSSBOW Leonardo da Vinci develops catapults and fortress crossbows that operate due to the elasticity of wooden or steel springs. At the same time, he creates guns that are loaded not from the muzzle, but from the breech, multi-barreled salvo fire artillery, explosive bombs filled with buckshot, elongated projectiles equipped with a stabilizer and a powder accelerator. Leonardo paid great attention to the design of automatic firearms. MACHINE GUN PEELED CANNONBALLS
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MULTI-CHARGED COMBAT VEHICLES One of the scientist’s most exciting ideas was... a tank. This structure had a rounded shape and looked like a turtle, bristling with tools on all sides. The inventor hoped to solve the problem of movement with the help of horses. However, this idea was quickly abandoned: in a confined space the animals could become uncontrollable. Instead, the “engine” of such a tank would have to be eight people who would turn levers connected to the wheels, and thus move the combat vehicle forward. Another crew member had to be at the top of the device and indicate the direction of movement. Interestingly, the design of the armored vehicle allowed it to move only forward.
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Bearings The idea, as many believe, was first born during the Roman Empire, but historians believe that it was in da Vinci’s notebooks that the first sketches of a bearing appeared.
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Car When digitizing the “car,” a brake invented by Leonardo was discovered - automotive experts believe that the invention of the brake for automobile progress turned out to be almost more important than the creation of an internal combustion engine. Among all the “earthly” discoveries of Leonardo, one should name... the car. The master paid main attention to the engine and chassis, so the design of the “body” did not reach us. The self-propelled carriage had three wheels and was driven by a winding spring mechanism. The two rear wheels were independent of each other, and their rotation was carried out by a complex system of gears. In addition to the front wheel, there was another one - a small, rotating one, which was placed on a wooden lever. It is assumed that this idea was born to Leonardo back in 1478. But only in 1752, a self-taught Russian mechanic and peasant Leonty Shamshurenkov was able to assemble a “self-running stroller” driven by the power of two people.
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The first bicycle in history The first technical drawings of a bicycle belong to Leonardo da Vinci. The Meiningen Chronicle of 1447 tells of a moving device driven by a driver.
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Rolling mill The figure shows a machine for producing sheet metal by rolling metal between main rollers.
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Clock mechanisms Medicine Leonardo created variants of watches and improved their design: for example, watches with weights are the predecessors of watches wound by a spring. However, they required too much vertical space to pull the weights. The scientist came up with a pulley system that regulates the lowering of the weights and reduces the required vertical space. Leonardo also solved the problem of compensating for the energy loss that occurs when the spring unwinds: first, using a lead screw - a spindle that slowly winds the spring; then he created unusual mechanisms, stronger and more stable than the spindle.
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Spotlight Glasses The study of binocular vision led Leonardo da Vinci to create around 1500. stereoscope, he invented a number of lighting devices, including lamp glass, and dreamed of creating a telescope from spectacle lenses. Leonardo da Vinci made many discoveries in optics.
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Leonardo approached the study of anatomy like a true naturalist - this is how we evaluate him today. However, the work of this brilliant man, who could have received many of the laurels that Vesalius received, remained unfinished and resembled a gigantic skeleton. Nevertheless, Leonardo, who paved the way for modern science, also deserves a place of honor among anatomists - researchers of the human body.
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The first drawing of a humanoid robot was made by Leonardo da Vinci in 1495 and was based on anatomical studies recorded in Vitruvian Man. “The Vitruvian Man is a drawing made by Leonardo Da Vinci around 1490-1492, as an illustration for a book dedicated to the works of Vitruvius. It depicts the figure of a naked man in two superimposed positions: with his arms spread to the sides, describing a circle and a square. The drawing and text are sometimes called canonical proportions. When examining the drawing, you will notice that the combination of arms and legs actually makes up four different poses. A pose with arms spread to the sides and legs not spread fits into a square (“Square of the Ancients”). On the other hand, a pose with arms and legs spread out to the sides fits into a circle. And, although when changing poses, it seems that the center of the figure is moving, in fact, the navel of the figure, which is its real center, remains motionless. If we tie a human figure - the most perfect creation of the universe - with a belt and then measure the distance from the belt to the feet, then this value will relate to the distance from the same belt to the top of the head, just as the entire height of a person relates to the length from the waist to the feet...” Indeed, in nature and the human body there are many proportional relationships close to what Leonardo da Vinci called the “golden ratio”. In any work of art, several unequal parts, but close to the golden ratio, give the impression of the development of forms, their dynamics, proportional complement to each other
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It is believed that in 1495 Leonardo da Vinci first formulated the idea of a “mechanical man,” in other words, a robot. According to the master's plan, this device was supposed to be a mannequin dressed in knight's armor and capable of reproducing several human movements. Leonardo da Vinci's notes, found in the 1950s, contained detailed drawings of a mechanical knight capable of sitting, extending his arms, moving his head and opening his visor. Da Vinci's robot has not survived, and no one knows exactly what he was capable of. .
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Leonardo da Vinci is an Italian artist (painter, sculptor, architect) and scientist (anatomist, naturalist), inventor, writer, one of the largest representatives of the art of the High Renaissance, a vivid example of a “universal man.” He literally changed people's perceptions in all aspects of life. He truly deserves to be called a GENIUS. The greatest figure of his era! Leonardo da Vinci
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So who exactly was Leonardo da Vinci? This is probably the biggest mystery. Although Leonardo da Vinci is generally considered one of the geniuses of the Renaissance, this is not even remotely true. He is unique! Neither before nor after him in history did there exist a similar person who was a genius in all areas! Some researchers are inclined to consider him a time traveler who arrived in the Renaissance from the distant future. Others consider Leonardo a messenger of a developed extraterrestrial civilization, and still others consider him an inhabitant of a parallel world that is more developed than ours. In any case, Leonardo da Vinci knew too well the worldly affairs and the future that awaits humanity to be an ordinary person. “Born to Fly” left us drawings and superbly calculated designs that are still relevant today! Hundreds of years passed before people could bring Leonardo da Vinci's ideas to life.
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“Glory in the hands of labor” Leonardo da Vinci is a genius whose inventions belong undividedly to both the past, present and future of humanity. He lived ahead of his time, and if even a small part of what he invented had been brought to life, then the history of Europe, and perhaps the world, would have been different: already in the 15th century we would have driven cars and crossed the seas by submarines. Leonardo da Vinci enriched almost all areas of knowledge with insightful observations and guesses. But how surprised a genius would be if he found out that many of his inventions are used even centuries after his birth.
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http://vinci.ru/ http://abitura.com/not_only/hystorical_physics/Vinchi.htm http://www.terredelrinascimento.it/immagini/gallery/vinci/aerea.jpg http://gizmod.ru/ 2007/05/24/izobretenija_velikogo_leonardo_da_vinchi/ http://www.zitata.com/da_vinci.shtml http://nauka03.ru/istoriya-anatomii/leonardo-da-vinchi.html List of used literature
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Italian engineer, technician, scientist, mathematician, anatomist, botanist, musician,painter, sculptor, architect,High Renaissance philosopher Leonardo da Vinci was born on April 15 1452 year in the town of Vinci, near Florence. The father, the lord, Messer Piero da Vinci, was a wealthy notary, as were four previous generations of his ancestors. Piero da Vinci died at 77 years old (in 1504 g.), had four wives during his life and was the father of ten sons and two daughters (his last child was born when he was 75 years old). Almost nothing is known about Leonardo’s mother: in his biographies, a certain “young peasant woman” Katerina is most often mentioned.
During the Renaissance, illegitimate children were often treated the same as children born in a legal wedlock. Leonardo was immediately recognized as his father, but after his birth he was sent with his mother to the village of Anchiano. At the age of 4, he was taken to his father’s family, where he received his primary education: reading, writing, mathematics, Latin. One of the features of Leonardo da Vinci is his handwriting: Leonardo was left-handed and wrote from right to left, turning the letters so that the text was easier to read with the help of a mirror, but if the letter was addressed to someone, he wrote traditionally. When Piero was over 30, he moved to Florence and established his business there. To find work for his son, his father brought him to Florence.
Being illegitimate, Leonardo could not become a lawyer or doctor, and his father decided to make him an artist. At that time, artists, considered artisans and not belonging to the elite, stood slightly above tailors, but in Florence they had much more respect for painters than in other city-states.
IN 1467 -1472 Leonardo studied with Andrea del Verrocchio - one of the leading artists of that period - sculptor, bronze caster, jeweler, organizer of festivities, one of the representatives of the Tuscan school of painting. Leonardo's talent as an artist was recognized by his teacher and the public when the young artist was barely twenty years old: Verrocchio received an order to paint the painting "The Baptism of Christ" (Uffizi Gallery, Florence), and the minor figures were to be painted by the artist's students. For painting at that time, tempera paints were used - egg yolk, water, grape vinegar and colored pigment - and in most cases the paintings turned out dull. Leonardo took the risk of painting the figure of his angel and the landscape with newly discovered oil paints. According to legend, after seeing the work of his student, Verrocchio said that “he has been surpassed and from now on only Leonardo will paint all the faces.” He masters several drawing techniques: Italian pencil, silver pencil, sanguine, pen.
IN 1472 Leonardo was accepted into the guild of painters - the Guild of St. Luke, but remained to live in Verrocchio's house. He opened his own workshop in Florence between 1476 And 1478 for years. April 8 1476 Based on a denunciation, Leonardo da Vinci was accused of being a sadist and arrested along with three friends. At that time in Florence, sadomea was a crime, and the capital punishment was burning at the stake. Judging by the records of that time, many doubted Leonardo’s guilt; neither an accuser nor witnesses were ever found. It was probably helped to avoid a harsh sentence by the fact that among those arrested was the son of one of the nobles of Florence: there was a trial, but the offenders were released after a short flogging. IN 1482 Having received an invitation to the court of the ruler of Milan, Ludovico Sforza, Leonardo da Vinci unexpectedly left Florence. Lodovico Sforza was considered the most hated tyrant in Italy, but Leonardo decided that Sforza would be a better patron for him than the Medici, who ruled in Florence and did not like Leonardo. Initially, the Duke took him on as the organizer of court holidays, for which Leonardo came up with not only masks and costumes, but also mechanical “miracles.” Magnificent holidays worked to increase the glory of Duke Lodovico. For a salary less than that of a court dwarf, in the Duke's castle Leonardo served as a military engineer, hydraulic engineer, court artist, and later as an architect and engineer. At the same time, Leonardo “worked for himself,” working in several areas of science and technology at the same time, but he was not paid for most of the work, since Sforza did not pay any attention to his inventions.
IN 1484 -1485 years, about 50 thousand residents of Milan died from the plague. Leonardo da Vinci, who believed that the reason for this was the overpopulation of the city and the dirt that reigned in the narrow streets, suggested that the Duke build a new city. According to Leonardo's plan, the city was to consist of 10 districts of 30 thousand inhabitants each, each district was to have its own sewer system, the width of the narrowest streets was to be equal to the average height of a horse (a few centuries later, the Council of State of London recognized the proportions proposed by Leonardo as ideal and gave the order to follow them when laying out new streets). The design of the city, like many other technical ideas of Leonardo, was rejected by the Duke. Leonardo da Vinci was commissioned to found an art academy in Milan. For teaching, he compiled treatises on painting, light, shadows, movement, theory and practice, perspective, movements of the human body, proportions of the human body. The Lombard school, consisting of Leonardo's students, appeared in Milan. IN 1495 year, at the request of Lodovico Sforza, Leonardo began painting his “Last Supper” on the wall of the refectory of the Dominican monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan. July 22 1490 Leonardo settled young Giacomo Caprotti in his house (later he began to call the boy Salai - “Demon”). No matter what the young man did, Leonardo forgave him everything. The relationship with Salai was the most constant in the life of Leonardo da Vinci, who had no family (he did not want a wife or children), and after his death Salai inherited many of Leonardo’s paintings. After the fall of Lodovic Sforza, Leonardo da Vinci left Milan.
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"Madonna Litta" 1478 -1482 , Hermitage, St. Petersburg)
Over the years he lived in Venice ( 1499 , 1500 ), in Florence ( 1500 -1502 , 1503 -1506 , 1507 ), Mantua ( 1500 ), Milan ( 1506 , 1507 -1513 ), Rome ( 1513 -1516 ). IN 1516 (1517 ) accepted the invitation of Francis I and left for Paris. Leonardo da Vinci did not like to sleep for long periods of time and was a vegetarian. According to some evidence, Leonardo da Vinci was beautifully built, had enormous physical strength, and had good knowledge of chivalry, horse riding, dancing, and fencing. In mathematics he was attracted only by what can be seen, so for him it primarily consisted of geometry and the laws of proportion.
Leonardo da Vinci tried to determine the coefficients of sliding friction, studied the resistance of materials, studied hydraulics, and modeling. The areas that were interesting to Leonardo da Vinci included acoustics, anatomy, astronomy, aeronautics, botany, geology, hydraulics, cartography, mathematics, mechanics, optics, weapons design, civil and military engineering, and city planning. Leonardo da Vinci died on May 2 1519 at the Castle of Cloux near Amboise (Touraine, France).
Among the works of Leonardo da Vinci are paintings, frescoes, drawings, anatomical drawings, which laid the foundation for the emergence of scientific illustration, works of architecture, projects of technical structures, notebooks and manuscripts (about 7 thousand sheets), “Treatise on Painting” (Leonardo began writing a treatise still in Milan at the request of Sforza, who wanted to know which art is more noble - sculpture or painting; the final version was compiled after the death of Leonardo da Vinci by his student F. Melzi).
Painting, drawing:
Leonardo da Vinci created only about twelve completed paintings during his life
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Architecture and urban planning:
options for an “ideal city”; a project of two-level city roads: the upper level for pedestrians, the lower for carriage traffic, both levels were supposed to be connected by spiral staircases with recreation areas; options for a central-domed temple.
Medicine, biology, botany:
Leonardo da Vinci is considered by many to be the founder of scientific botany
- Creation of a system of anatomical drawings that are also used in modern medical training. Leonardo da Vinci's system included showing an object in four views, including cross-sectional images of organs and bodies; all the drawings were so clear and convincing that no one could any longer deny the importance of drawing in the teaching of medicine.
- Invention of the method of anatomy of the eye
- The first description of the "laws of vision". Leonardo knew that visual images on the cornea of the eye are projected upside down, and he tested this using the camera obscura he invented.
- First description of the right ventricular valve of the heart that bears his name
- The invention of a technique for drilling small holes in the skull of the deceased and filling the brain cavities with molten wax in order to obtain castings
- Invention of glass models of internal organs
- The first description of the laws of phyllotaxy governing the arrangement of leaves on the stem
- First description of the laws of heliotropism and geotropism, which describe the influence of the sun and gravity on plants
- The discovery of the possibility of determining the age of plants by studying the structure of their stems, and the age of trees by studying annual rings
Mechanics, optics:
- Metallurgical furnace projects
- Rolling mill projects
- Printing machine projects. Sheets of paper normally loaded into printing presses by hand were loaded automatically
- Woodworking machine projects
- Weaving Projects
- File making machine
- Metal Screw Making Machine
- Rope Making Machine
- A machine that punched holes in blanks and minted coins
- Submarine project
- Project of a "tank" - a structure driven by eight soldiers inside and equipped with twenty cannons
- Steam gun project - architronito. There was a rapid release of steam in the gun, provided by a valve mounted in the barrel. The steam could send a bullet 800 meters away.
- Aircraft and parachute projects
- Projects for canals and irrigation systems, project for connecting Florence and Pisa through a canal.
- Project of a mechanical spit for cooking meat. A kind of propeller was attached to the spit, which was supposed to rotate under the influence of streams of heated air coming upward from the fire. A rotor was attached to a series of drives with a long rope; the forces were transmitted to the spit using belts or metal spokes. The hotter the oven heated up, the faster the spit rotated, which protected the meat from burning.
- Instrument for measuring light intensity. The photometer drawn by Leonardo is no less practical than the one proposed by the American scientist Benjamin Rumfoord three centuries later.
- Project of ski-like shoes for walking on water
- Webbed Swimming Gloves
- Rotating exhaust hood for chimneys
- Rotary mills for the production of thin, uniform sheet metal
- Project of portable collapsible houses
- Grinding machines
- Oil lamp with a glass sphere filled with water to enhance the brightness of the light
- Scattered formulations of the principle of inertia, which for many years was called Leonardo's principle (later formulated as the law of inertia - Newton's first law): “Nothing can move by itself, movement is caused by the influence of something else. This other is force,” “motion tends to be conserved, or rather, moving bodies continue to move as long as the force of the mover (initial impulse) continues to act in them.”
The great Florentine is the most undisputed genius of mankind. Leonardo created in the 15th century, but his works have not only survived to this day, the miracle is that they also develop as if on their own. The author breathed such a life-giving impulse into seemingly inanimate objects! How?
1. Leonardo encrypted a lot so that his ideas would be revealed gradually, as humanity “matured” to them. The inventor wrote with his left hand and in incredibly small letters, and even from right to left. But this was not enough - he turned all the letters over in a mirror image. He spoke in riddles, made metaphorical prophecies, and loved to make puzzles. Leonardo did not sign his works, but they have identification marks. For example, if you look closely at the paintings, you can find a symbolic bird taking off. There are apparently many such signs, which is why one or another of his brainchildren is suddenly discovered centuries later. As was the case with Benoit’s Madonna, who for a long time was carried along by traveling actors as a home icon.
2. Leonardo invented the principle of scattering (or sfumato). The objects on his canvases have no clear boundaries: everything, like in life, is blurry, penetrates one into another, which means it breathes, lives, awakens imagination. The Italian advised practicing such distraction by looking at stains on the walls, ashes, clouds or dirt caused by dampness. He specially fumigate the room where he worked with smoke in order to look for images in clubs. Thanks to the sfumato effect, the flickering smile of Gioconda appeared, when, depending on the focus of the view, it seems to the viewer that the heroine of the picture is either smiling tenderly or grinning predatorily. The second miracle of the Mona Lisa is that it is “alive.” Over the centuries, her smile changes, the corners of her lips rise higher. In the same way, the Master mixed the knowledge of different sciences, so his inventions find more and more applications over time. From the treatise on light and shadow come the beginnings of the sciences of penetrating force, oscillatory motion, and wave propagation. All of his 120 books have been scattered (sfumato) throughout the world and are gradually being revealed to humanity.
3. Leonardo preferred the method of analogy to all others. The approximate nature of an analogy is an advantage over the precision of a syllogism, when a third inevitably follows from two conclusions. But one thing. But the more bizarre the analogy, the further the conclusions from it extend. Take for example the famous illustration of the Master, proving the proportionality of the human body. With arms outstretched and legs spread, the human figure fits into a circle. And with closed legs and raised arms - in a square, while forming a cross. This “mill” gave impetus to a number of diverse thoughts. The Florentine was the only one who came up with designs for churches where the altar is placed in the middle (the human navel), and the worshipers are evenly distributed around. This church plan in the form of an octahedron served as another invention of the genius - the ball bearing.
4. Leonardo liked to use the rule of contrapposto - opposition of opposites. Contrapposto creates movement. When making a sculpture of a giant horse in Corte Vecchio, the artist placed the horse’s legs in contrapposto, which created the illusion of a special free movement. Everyone who saw the statue involuntarily changed their gait to a more relaxed one.
5. Leonardo was never in a hurry to finish a work, because incompleteness is an essential quality of life. Finishing means killing! The slowness of the creator was the talk of the town; he could make two or three strokes and leave the city for many days, for example, to improve the valleys of Lombardy or create an apparatus for walking on water. Almost every one of his significant works is “unfinished.” Many were damaged by water, fire, barbaric treatment, but the artist did not correct them. The Master had a special composition, with the help of which he seemed to specially create “windows of incompleteness” in the finished painting. Apparently, in this way he left a place where life itself could intervene and correct something.
Inventions
His only invention that received recognition during his lifetime was a wheel lock for a pistol (started with a key). At the beginning, the wheeled pistol was not very widespread, but by the middle of the 16th century it had gained popularity among the nobles, especially among the cavalry, which was even reflected in the design of the armor, namely: Maximilian armor for the sake of firing pistols began to be made with gloves instead of mittens. The wheel lock for a pistol, invented by Leonardo da Vinci, was so perfect that it continued to be found in the 19th century.
But, as often happens, recognition of geniuses comes centuries later: many of his inventions were expanded and modernized, and are now used in everyday life.
For example, Leonardo da Vinci created a device that could compress air and force it through pipes. This invention has a very wide range of applications: from lighting stoves to... ventilation of rooms.
Leonardo is not the first scientist who was interested in the possibility of a person remaining under water for a long time. For example, Leon Battista Alberti planned to raise some Roman ships from the bottom of Lake Nemi. Leonardo went further than just plans: he created a design for a diving suit, which was made of waterproof leather. It was supposed to have a large chest pocket, which was filled with air to increase volume, making it easier for the diver to rise to the surface. Leonardo's diver was equipped with a flexible breathing tube that connected his helmet to a protective floating dome on the surface of the water (preferably made of reeds with leather joints).
It is well known that Leonardo da Vinci also developed a drawing of the “ancestor” of the modern helicopter. The radius of the propeller was supposed to be 4.8 m. According to the scientist’s plan, it had a metal edging and a linen covering. The screw was driven by people who walked around the axis and pushed the levers. “I think that if this screw mechanism is well made, that is, made of starched linen (to avoid tears) and quickly spun, then it will find support in the air and fly high into the air,” wrote da Vinci in his works.
One of the most necessary things for teaching a person to swim is a lifebuoy. This invention of Leonardo remained virtually unchanged.
To speed up swimming, the scientist developed a design of webbed gloves, which over time turned into the well-known flippers.
It’s hard to believe, but to make the work of workers easier, Leonardo came up with... excavators, which were more likely designed for lifting and transporting dug material than for digging as such. Scientists suggest that excavators could be needed for the Arno River diversion project. It was planned to dig a ditch 18 m wide and 6 m long. The inventor’s drawings give an idea of the size of the machine and the canal that was to be dug. The crane, with booms of varying lengths, was interesting because it could be used with multiple counterweights on two or more excavation levels. The crane's booms swiveled 180° and covered the entire width of the channel. The excavator was mounted on rails and, as work progressed, moved forward using a screw mechanism on the central rail.
One of Leonardo's most famous drawings represents the ancient development of the automobile. The self-propelled cart had to be propelled by a complex crossbow mechanism that would transmit energy to drives connected to the steering wheel. The rear wheels had differentiated drives and could move independently. The fourth wheel is connected to a steering wheel, with which you can steer the cart. This vehicle was originally intended for the entertainment of the royal court and belonged to the range of self-propelled vehicles that were created by other engineers of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.
Humanity is only now daring to try some of the scientist’s inventions: for example, in the Norwegian town of As in 2001 In 2009, a 100-meter pedestrian bridge was opened, created according to the design of Leonardo da Vinci. This was the first time in 500 years when the architectural project of the Master, who was far ahead of his time, received a real embodiment...
Leonardo da Vinci designed this structure for the Turkish Sultan: the bridge was to span the Golden Horn Bay in Istanbul. If the project had been implemented, this bridge would have been the longest bridge of its time - its length was 346 meters. However, Leonardo failed to implement his project - Sultan Bayazet II refused the proposals of the Florentine artist.
True, the new bridge is inferior to its medieval prototype in length - 100 m instead of 346 - but it exactly repeats all the design and aesthetic advantages of Leonardo's project. This bridge serves as a pedestrian crossing at a height of 8 m above the E-18 motorway, 35 km south of Oslo. During its construction, only one idea of Leonardo da Vinci had to be sacrificed - wood was used as a building material, whereas 500 years ago the bridge was planned to be built of stone.
IN 2002 In the same year, one of the inventions of the great Leonardo da Vinci was also recreated in the UK: in the skies over the county of Surrey, a prototype of a modern hang glider, assembled exactly according to his drawings, was successfully tested.
Test flights from the Surrey hills were carried out by two-time world hang gliding champion Judy Liden. She managed to lift da Vinci’s “proto-hang glider” to a maximum height of 10 m and stay in the air for 17 seconds. This was enough to prove that the device actually worked.
The flights were carried out as part of an experimental television project. The device was recreated based on drawings familiar to the whole world by 42-year-old mechanic from Bedfordshire, Steve Roberts.
A medieval hang glider resembles the skeleton of a bird from above. It is made from Italian poplar, cane, animal tendon and flax, treated with a glaze derived from beetle secretions.
The flying machine itself was far from perfect. “It was almost impossible to control her. I flew where the wind was blowing and couldn't do anything about it. The tester of the first car in history probably felt the same way,” Judy said.
As Leonardo da Vinci believed, “if a person has an awning made of thick fabric, each side of which is 12 arm lengths, and the height is 12, then he can jump from any significant height without breaking.” He was not able to test this device himself, however, in December 2000 In 2009, British parachutist Adrian Nicholas in South Africa descended from a height of 3 thousand meters from a hot air balloon on a parachute made according to a sketch by Leonardo da Vinci. The descent was successful.
Was Leonardo da Vinci an alien?
He was born in 1452 -m and died in 1519 year. The father of the future genius, Piero da Vinci, a wealthy notary and landowner, was the most famous person in Florence, but his mother Catherine was a simple peasant girl, a fleeting whim of an influential lord. There were no children in Pierrot's official family, so from the age of 4-5 the boy was raised by his father and stepmother, while his own mother, as was customary, was hastened to marry off with a dowry to a peasant. The handsome boy, who was distinguished by his extraordinary intelligence and affable character, immediately became everyone’s darling and favorite in his father’s house. This was partly facilitated by the fact that Leonardo's first two stepmothers were childless. Piero's third wife, Margarita, entered the house of Leonardo's father when her famous stepson was already 24 years old. From his third wife, Senor Pierrot had nine sons and two daughters, but none of them shone “neither in mind nor in sword.”
IN 1466 year, at the age of 14, Leonardo da Vinci entered the workshop of Verrocchio as an apprentice. Surprisingly, at the age of 20 he was already proclaimed a master. Leonardo took on many subjects, but once he started studying them, he soon abandoned them. It can be said that most of all he learned from himself. He did not ignore, say, music, having mastered playing the lyre to perfection.
Contemporaries recall that he “divinely sang his improvisations.” Once he even made a specially shaped lute himself, giving it the appearance of a horse’s head and richly decorating it with silver. Playing it, he so surpassed all the musicians gathered at the court of Duke Ludovico Soforza that he “charmed” the powerful lord for life.
Leonardo, it seems, was not the child of his parents, he was not a Florentine and an Italian, and was he even an earthly man? This supergenius of the beginning of the Italian Renaissance is so strange that it causes scientists not just amazement, but almost awe, mixed with confusion. Even a general overview of his capabilities plunges researchers into shock: well, a MAN cannot, even if he has seven spans in his forehead, be at once a brilliant engineer, artist, sculptor, inventor, mechanic, chemist, philologist, scientist, seer, one of the best of his time singer, swimmer, creator of musical instruments, cantatas, equestrian, fencer, architect, fashion designer, etc. His external characteristics are also striking: Leonardo is tall, slender and so beautiful in face that he was called an “angel”, and at the same time superhumanly strong (with his right hand - being left-handed! - he could crush a horseshoe). At the same time, his mentality seems infinitely far from not only the level of consciousness of his contemporaries, but also from humanity in general.
Leonardo, for example, was in complete control of his feelings, showing virtually no emotions typical of ordinary people, and always maintained a surprisingly even mood. Moreover, he was distinguished by some strange coldness of insensibility. He neither loved nor hated, but only understood, therefore he not only seemed, but was also indifferent to good and evil in the human sense (he helped, for example, with the conquests of the monstrous Cesare Borgia), to the ugly and the beautiful, which he studied with equal interest as something given. , external. Finally, according to contemporaries, Leonardo was bisexual. Today it is difficult to accurately judge why he first “studied” the science of love with Florentine ladies who were in love with this handsome and clever man, and then focused on homosexual relationships. There is a denunciation document in which Da Vinci is accused of homosexuality, which was then prohibited. An anonymous person accuses him and three other men of actively sodomizing one Jacopo Saltarelli, 17 years old, the brother of a jeweler.
They all faced punishment - death at the stake. The first meeting took place on April 9 1476 of the year. It yielded nothing: the court demanded evidence, declared witnesses; there weren't any. The trial is postponed to July 7. A new investigation, and this time a final acquittal. Nevertheless, when Leonardo became a master, he surrounded himself with well-written but untalented beauties, whom he took as students. Freud believes that his love for them was purely platonic, but this idea seems indisputable to not everyone.
Was he human? Leonardo's abilities and capabilities were undoubtedly supernatural. For example, in Da Vinci's "Diaries" there are sketches of birds in flight, for the execution of which it was necessary to have at least slow-motion filming materials! He kept a very strange diary, addressing himself as “you” in it, giving instructions and orders to himself as a servant or slave: “order to show you...”, “you must show in your essay...”, “order make two travel bags..." One gets the impression that there were two personalities living in da Vinci: one - well-known, friendly, not without some human weaknesses, and the other - incredibly strange, secretive, unknown to anyone, who commanded him and controlled his actions.
In addition, da Vinci had the ability to foresee the future, which, apparently, even surpassed the prophetic gift of Nostradamus. His famous "Prophecies" (first a series of recordings made in Milan in 1494 year) paint frightening pictures of the future, many of which have either already been our past or are now our present. Judge for yourself: “People will talk to each other from the most distant countries and answer each other” - we are undoubtedly talking about the telephone. “People will walk and not move, they will talk to someone who is not there, they will hear someone who does not speak” - television, tape recording, sound reproduction. “People... will instantly scatter to different parts of the world without moving from their place” - broadcast of a television image.
“You will see yourself falling from great heights without any harm to you” - obviously skydiving. “Countless lives will be destroyed, and countless holes will be made in the ground” - here, most likely, the seer is talking about craters from aerial bombs and shells, which actually destroyed countless lives. Leonardo even foresees travel into space: “And many land and water animals will rise between the stars...” - the launch of living beings into space. “Many will be those from whom their little children will be taken away, who will be skinned and quartered in the most cruel way!” - a clear indication of the children whose body parts are used in the organ bank.
Leonardo practiced special psychotechnical exercises, dating back to the esoteric practices of the Pythagoreans and... modern neurolinguistics, in order to sharpen his perception of the world, improve memory and develop imagination. He seemed to know the evolutionary keys to the secrets of the human psyche, which are still far from being realized in modern man. Thus, one of Leonardo da Vinci’s secrets was a special sleep formula: he slept for 15 minutes every 4 hours, thus reducing his daily sleep from 8 to 1.5 hours. Thanks to this, the genius immediately saved 75 percent of his sleep time, which actually extended his lifespan from 70 to 100 years! In the esoteric tradition, similar techniques have been known since time immemorial, but they have always been considered so secret that, like other psychic and mnemonic techniques, they have never been made public.
Tank project with left-facing inscription in mirrored font
The inventions and discoveries made by da Vinci cover all areas of knowledge (there are more than 50 of them!), completely anticipating the main directions of development of modern civilization. Let's talk about just a few of them. IN 1499 In the year 1999, Leonardo, for the meeting in Milan of the French king Louis XII, designed a wooden mechanical lion, which, after taking a few steps, opened its chest and showed its insides, “filled with lilies.” The scientist is the inventor of a spacesuit, a submarine, a steamship, and flippers. He has a manuscript that shows the possibility of diving to great depths without a spacesuit thanks to the use of a special gas mixture (the secret of which he deliberately destroyed). To invent it, it was necessary to have a good understanding of the biochemical processes of the human body, which were completely unknown at that time! It was he who first proposed installing batteries of firearms on armored ships (he gave the idea of a battleship!), invented a helicopter, a bicycle, a glider, a parachute, a tank, a machine gun, poisonous gases, a smoke screen for troops, a magnifying glass (100 years before Galileo!). Da Vinci invented textile machines, weaving machines, machines for making needles, powerful cranes, systems for draining swamps through pipes, and arched bridges.
He creates drawings of gates, levers and screws designed to lift enormous weights - mechanisms that did not exist in his time. It is amazing that Leonardo describes these machines and mechanisms in detail, although they were impossible to make at that time due to the fact that ball bearings were not known at that time (but Leonardo himself knew this - the corresponding drawing has been preserved). Sometimes it seems that da Vinci simply wanted to learn as much as possible about this world by collecting information. What did he do with her? Why did he need it in this form and in such quantity? He did not leave an answer to this question.
Strangely, even Leonardo's painting activities seem more and more insignificant over time. Let's not talk about his masterpieces, known throughout the world, let's just talk about one amazing drawing, kept in Windsor, depicting some kind of unearthly creature. The facial features of this creature are damaged from time to time, but one can guess their striking beauty. In this drawing, the deliberately huge and very widely spaced eyes attract attention. This is not an artist’s mistake, but a conscious calculation: it is these eyes that create a paralyzing impression.
The Royal Library of Turin houses the famous self-portrait of Leonardo da Vinci - "Portrait of Himself in Old Age". It is undated, but experts believe it was written around 1512 of the year. This is a very strange portrait: not only does the viewer from different angles perceive Leonardo’s expression and facial features completely differently, but photographs taken even with a slight deviation of the camera show a different person, who is either melancholic, or arrogant, or wise, or simply indecisive , then he appears as a decrepit old man, exhausted by life, etc.
Although most people know the genius as the creator of immortal artistic masterpieces, his closest friend Fra Pietro della Novellara notes: “Mathematics studies alienated him so much from painting that the mere sight of a brush infuriates him.”
And he is also an excellent magician (his contemporaries spoke more frankly - a magician). Leonardo can cause a multi-colored flame from a boiling liquid by pouring wine into it; easily turns white wine into red; with one blow he breaks a cane, the ends of which are placed on two glasses, without breaking either of them; puts a little of his saliva on the end of the pen - and the inscription on the paper turns black. The miracles that Leonardo shows so impress his contemporaries that he is seriously suspected of serving “black magic.” In addition, near the genius there are always strange, dubious personalities, like Tomaso Giovanni Masini, known under the pseudonym Zoroaster de Peretola, a good mechanic, jeweler and at the same time an adept of the secret sciences.
Until his death, da Vinci was extremely active and traveled a lot. Yes, with 1513 By 1519 for a year he alternately lives in Rome, Pavia, Bologna, France, where, according to legend, he dies on May 2 1519 years in the arms of King Francis I, asking forgiveness from God and people for “not doing everything I could have done for art.”
Leonardo da Vinci is considered to be one of the geniuses of the Italian Renaissance, which is not even remotely true. He is unique: neither before nor after him in history has there existed such a person, a genius in everything! Who was he?..
This is the biggest mystery. As is known, answering this question, some modern researchers consider Leonardo a message from alien civilizations, others as a time traveler from the distant future, and still others as a resident of a parallel world more developed than ours. It seems that the last assumption is the most plausible: da Vinci knew too well the worldly affairs and the future that awaited humanity, about which he himself was little concerned...
Aphorisms of Leonardo da Vinci
Iron rusts without finding a use, stagnant water rots or freezes in the cold, and the human mind, without finding a use, withers away.
Wisdom is the daughter of experience.
Happiness comes to those who work hard.
The painter argues and competes with nature.
Painting is poetry that is seen, and poetry is painting that is heard.
A painter who sketches senselessly, guided by practice and the judgment of the eye, is like a mirror that reflects all the objects opposed to it, without having knowledge of them.
He who lives in fear dies from fear.
Anyone who wants to get rich in a day will be hanged within a year.
Experience is the true teacher.
One who is carried away by practice without science is like a helmsman entering a ship without a compass.
You can only love what you know.
It is better to be deprived of respect than to be tired of being useful.
The student who is not superior to his teacher is pitiful.
An adversary who looks for your mistakes is more useful than a friend who wants to hide them.
He who does not value life is not worthy of it.
Where hope ends, there is emptiness.
The mystery of Leonardo da Vinci
The mysteries of Leonardo da Vinci begin from the moment he was born on April 15 1452 of the year. For example, almost nothing is known about his mother, except that she was a certain peasant woman named Katerina.
He writes about his childhood memories as follows: “What comes to my mind is a very early memory that, when I was still lying in the cradle, a kite flew to me, opened my mouth with its tail and touched my lips with its tail many times.” Maybe that’s why Leonardo later bought birds at the market, and then went out of town to release them into the wild.
Even in his youth, he was interested in botany, geology, observing the flight of birds, the play of sunlight and shadow, and the movement of water. At the same time, he was skilled in painting like no one else. When his teacher Verrocchio, who entrusted him with painting the head of an angel in his painting “The Baptism of Christ,” saw the magic that Leonardo managed to create on canvas, he broke his brush in his heart and vowed never to touch paint again.
Leonardo had remarkable strength and could effortlessly tie a horseshoe into a knot. He skillfully played the harp, sang and was very courteous. He had an irresistible appearance. Contemporaries, looking at his flowing golden-chestnut curls, exclaimed: “the incomparable splendor of his extreme beauty gives serenity to every sad soul.”
At the same time, he had an amazing sense of humor and even in adulthood could laugh and joke selflessly. Having settled in the Vatican, in the Belvedere Palace, he began to tell everyone that a real dragon lived in his house. It was a lizard, to which he skillfully attached horns, a beard and wings. According to Vasari, his biographer, Leonardo kept it in a special box and showed it to his friends, who ran away in fear.
The notebooks left by the maestro are amazing. In them you can find a list of everyday tasks that is more like a poem: “Show how clouds form and break up, and why one wave appears bluer than another, describe the causes of snow and hail, and how new shapes and new leaves form in the air on trees, and icicles on stones in cold places."
Few people understood the true reason for some of da Vinci's actions. After all, the artist carefully placed the caterpillar lying on the road in the grass so that it would not be trampled. There really was something about Leonardo that puts him beyond even the generally recognized human genius. It is no coincidence that Dmitry Merezhkovsky, who wrote the novel Leonardo da Vinci, compared him to a man who woke up too early, when everyone was still sleeping.
He himself, despite his outrageousness and wide popularity at the court of Lodovico Sforzi, where he organized enchanting balls - masquerades, was a very secretive person. He wrote from right to left, turning some letters upside down, so that his notes could only be read with the help of a mirror, and even then not always.
Nevertheless, contemplating his masterpieces, including the Mona Lisa, which, according to some researchers, is a self-portrait of his feminine essence, still takes your breath away.
His “Canon of Proportions,” which depicts a man inscribed in a square, has become a well-known symbol, and his sketches of flowers, anatomical fragments, horses, bird flight and water flow remain unsurpassed to this day.
As an architect, he took part in the construction of cathedrals in Milan and Pavia, as well as the castle of the French king in Blois. As an inventor, he developed plans for a helicopter, an armored tank, a guided missile, a submarine, a mortar, a parachute and other wonders.
He invented a retractable ladder (firefighters still use it today), a three-speed gearbox, a screw cutter, a bicycle, a breathing tube for divers, a rotating stage, folding furniture, a water alarm clock, a medical chair and much more. He developed countless devices that save manual labor and laid the foundation for industrial automation. But, being a humanist by nature, he deliberately introduced small errors into his drawings so that his inventions would not be used for evil purposes.
Leonardo the scientist is practically the founder of modern anatomy and botany. He was the first to sketch the structure of internal organs, study the intrauterine development of the fetus, and make plaster casts of the brain. He was interested in everything - from the structure of human vision to the stars. By the way, in the Middle Ages, scientists believed that the human eye emits a ray of light, which, when it hits objects, allows them to be perceived. Leonardo established that, on the contrary, sunlight enters the eye, and thanks to this we see.
He anticipated the epochal discoveries of Copernicus, Galileo, Newton and Darwin. 40 years before Copernicus, he wrote in capital letters to emphasize the importance of his discovery: “IL SOLE NO SI MUOVE” - “The sun does not move.” Even before Galileo, he proposed using a “large magnifying glass” to study the surface of celestial bodies. 200 years before Newton, he discovered the law of universal gravitation: “Any weight tends to fall towards the center in the shortest possible way. The whole Earth must be spherical.”
How could an ordinary person do all this? I just want to say: “Yes, this is just a living hero of the Strugatskys’ novel “It’s Hard to Be a God.” There is a version that he communicated with representatives of alien civilizations who passed on part of their knowledge to him. According to another theory, he himself was an inhabitant of another planet who incarnated on Earth to give a new impetus to the development of earthlings.
Some researchers talk about the existence on Earth of eternal “enlightened” beings who have the abilities of the first man and always retain their memory, since it is erased in ordinary people. Their speed of thought is disproportionately higher than that of modern people. They still live in remote areas of the Earth, and representatives of their kind periodically incarnate into ordinary people in order to elevate their consciousness. There is a version that Leonardo is one of them.
It seems that in truth this could not have happened without the help of aliens. No one had previously dared to think about what Leonardo was able to do, but at the same time he sadly asked himself at the end of his life: “Was anything done at all?”
Renaissance genius
Many modern researchers seriously consider Leonardo da Vinci to be a messenger of alien civilizations, a time traveler from the distant future, and even a representative of a parallel world. And not only because his technical projects were four centuries ahead of their time.
Periods of intense interest in the life of Leonardo da Vinci followed
In the traditional view, Leonardo da Vinci is a man who alternates several professions: architect, painter, sculptor, anatomist, engineer, writer.
He was invited to Milan as an architect, to Rome as an engineer. He designed the dome of the Milan Cathedral and worked on hydraulics. Lodovico Moro ordered him a giant bronze statue, the Florentines ordered a huge painting “The Battle of Anghiari” (both were not completed, abandoned halfway). In the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, he painted the fresco “The Last Supper,” the soil of which began to flow (however, the fresco was spared another misfortune - it survived the British bombs of World War II). He was the first artist in the world to master oil painting (the first is said to be the Sicilian Antonello, who brought the recipe from Burgundy; however, Leonardo came to oil painting with his own thoughts in parallel, his technique is different from that of Antonello da Messina). Leonardo was engaged (“for himself,” as they would say today) in oil painting on boards; conducted experiments with paints, invented the sfumato technique, the technical aspects of which are unknown. They say that he took the board with the “Mona Lisa” with him everywhere - he loved to add another stroke, another light touch to what he had done. He painted a few paintings - and all the paintings are mysterious, they all require decoding. He was also a chemist, his original oil paints testify to the success of his experiments: making oil paint from a mineral is chemistry, after all. However, it should be noted that these paints, used for Florentine wall painting, failed him - they spread. His engineering inventions are confirmed in modern mechanics, that is, five hundred years later. However, during his lifetime, not one of the inventions found embodiment; however, the double helix staircase of the Chateau de Francis in Chambord can be considered the first illustration of DNA and an unprecedented staircase design in principle. Leonardo planned - and no less - to write 120 books; He didn’t write a single book, he left manuscripts and fragments. He was a good anatomist - he took part in autopsies, described internal organs, but did not become a doctor. However, he made several medical discoveries: for example, he was the first to notice the phenomenon of blood vessels narrowing due to old age, which leads to a slowdown in blood flow in the heart; called the limestone layer deposited on the walls of vessels (salt, etc.) “aging powder.” He did not become a doctor, but his punctual knowledge of the human body was useful in his drawings and paintings. He was going to build an aircraft and studied birds. But the apparatus was built (similar to his drawings) only after five hundred years; Moreover, both Tatlin and the American engineers followed his path, repeating his schemes. His work was characterized by understatement, he left things unfinished, and abandoned a task (even a completed order) easily.
Egregious cases, such as the bronze equestrian statue in Milan or the large oil painting on the theme of the adoration of the Magi, commissioned by the monastery of San Donato in Florence, provoked bad publicity. Leonardo easily left in Florence an unfinished masterpiece, a huge board, two and a half meters square on the side. Preparing a board of this size for painting is a gigantic labor in itself; the work already done is perfect and beautiful; There was very little left to bring the picture to completion; unexpectedly Leonardo left for Milan, taking with him a model of the lyre he had constructed, which he alone knew how to play. The contract for the painting was formally drawn up for two and a half years (from 1481 to 1483), Leonardo could have returned to work, but he returned to Florence after 18 years. The monks were offended. The inability to complete the work was a common reproach of Leonardo. Moving from city to city (and in fact from state to state), Leonardo left behind great projects and little that was actually accomplished and brought to completion. They say that Michelangelo reproached his old rival with these very words (Leonardo was older in years). Others believe that the scattered nature of his studies, the inability to concentrate on one subject did not allow Leonardo to succeed fully in any of his studies. Others, on the contrary, are sure that a genius is a genius in everything; the phenomenon of Leonardo began to denote interest in all phenomena of the world, and the specific occupation of the genius no longer matters.
It is difficult to agree with this position (both in its negative and positive aspects. Leonardo was not at all an eclecticist and had a very specific profession - he was a painter. The products of professional labor are obvious, they are easy to list: “La Gioconda”, “Benois Madonna”, “Madonna Litta”, “John the Baptist”, “Bacchus”, “Lady with an Ermine”, “Annunciation”, “Saint Jerome”, “Adoration of the Magi”, “St. Anne with Mary and the Christ Child”, “Last Supper”, “ Madonna in the Grotto." There are not very many paintings, but they are busy. Piet Mondrian or Maurice Vlaminck painted quantitatively more paintings than Leonardo da Vinci, but, you see, the work expended by the masters is unequal. There are artists whose legacy is quantitatively modest. And Jan Vermeer, Pieter Bruegel, and Matthias Grunewald also have few paintings.
Leonardo da Vinci did not mix professions at all, and this must be clearly stated. There was only one profession - painting; and he insisted on the advantages of painting over other pursuits. He was engaged in painting, and all side activities are preparatory work for painting work. He simply viewed painting in its ideal form - as the queen of all arts and crafts. To do quality painting, you need to be an engineer and a musician - what is not clear here?
It is no longer a revelation to us that Cezanne united two disciplines into one: painting and drawing became a single process for Cezanne (for the eighteenth century, such a combination of two principles into one was an impossible blasphemy); We understand Cezanne’s phrase “as you write, you draw” - a phrase that a representative of the Bolognese school would not be able to understand. Cézanne meant that the very process of applying color to a depicted object can become not the painting of a form, but the formation of a form, that is, drawing. Now imagine that, just as Cezanne combined the process of painting and drawing into one whole, Leonardo combined painting, sculpture, anatomy, engineering and architecture into one discipline. It is difficult to name a discipline formed from the combination of these dissimilar activities, but Leonardo da Vinci believed that the final product was painting, an oil painting.
It would not be out of place to ask: why did Leonardo gain the fame of a world genius, superior to everyone else, why are his paintings considered unsurpassed masterpieces, although at the same time masters are working with him who are hardly inferior to him in plastic or coloristic talent? Hugo van der Goes, Rogier van der Weyden, Albrecht Dürer, Sandro Botticelli, Jan van Eyck - these are all painters, undoubtedly brilliant, and their pictorial heritage, by the way, is much more extensive than that of Leonardo. And yet, the name Leonardo stands immeasurably higher than any of the listed masters. There is a secret, probably a simple and easily guessed secret; but you need to understand it.
A painting, according to Leonardo, is not a decoration of a home; he was not trying to see the picture on the wall. Things went well in Santa Maria delle Grazie, he painted a fresco; and left Florence without finishing the work. The picture is also not evidence of faith (and cannot be so, since the purpose of the picture is analysis, and scientific analysis contradicts faith). A picture is painted for oneself - in the process of painting one gets to know the world. The painting is a kind of project of a community life, even a project of an ideal state (like Plato’s), a conglomerate of human efforts.
To paraphrase Cézanne, in relation to Leonardo’s method it should be said: while you are doing engineering work, you are drawing, while you are building a building, you are drawing, while you are studying anatomy, you are drawing, while you are pouring bronze, while you are drawing drawings,
while you are writing treatises, while you are reading sermons, you are painting; you comprehend the world from different sides, and all this is summed up in drawing with paints, all together is painting.
He considered painting to be the pinnacle of all arts, the acme of human activity. Painting with oil paints (he wrote about this very clearly, there can be no double interpretation) accumulates a lot of knowledge and allows you to comprehend the world with a single glance - this is the advantage of painting over music, and over poetry, and even over philosophy. Painting in Leonardo’s view is by no means a handmaiden of philosophical discourse, not an illustration of other people’s concepts; on the contrary, painting is the ultimate expression of the sum of human knowledge. Actually, painting represents the very eidos that Neoplatonists (slightly correcting Plato’s idea) considered Logos. Painting, according to Leonardo, is the Logos visibly revealed to us.
This reasoning is all the more valuable today because in our era, when we abolish painting, replacing it with installation or video art, we do not take into account the fact that initially painting is not a narrow specialization at all, but, on the contrary, a conglomerate of skills, it is a discipline that includes several different, including installation, of course. Engineering knowledge, music, prose and architecture, philosophy and medicine are the essence of the emanation of a single Logos, an integral eidos, which is revealed to us in the form of a perfect picture. The painting “La Gioconda” does not contradict the fortifications and diving suits, but the Gioconda seems to exude the knowledge that the fortifications and diving suits produce.
The above explains the cold calm with which Leonardo approached the work of a painter. His paintings are unemotional; they radiate a kind of tension, but this is not religious delight, not romantic passion.
This is a kind of calm greatness, even, perhaps, indifferently calm. Expecting a passionate, ecstatic, sloppy brushstroke from Leonardo’s painting is as absurd as expecting Dante to stumble in triple rhyme or Plato to sacrifice the construction of the state for the sake of the poet’s glory. It is common to blame Leonardo for the fact that, while creating gentle images of Madonnas, he simultaneously composed the design of fortification machines or devices for chariots (sickles for the outside of the chariot at the level of the wheels), which cut the legs of the enemy’s horses. The widespread assertion of Leonardo’s “indifferent cruelty” also calls into question the spirituality of his paintings.
Leonardo’s “cruelty” is of the same nature as Machiavelli’s “cynicism”; ideas about such are based on the insufficient information of the observer. Both of them, Leonardo and Machiavelli, are extremely rational people, cold, unemotional - that’s true.
The characters of Leonardo da Vinci and Niccolo Machiavelli have a lot in common, which is not surprising: both Florentines lived at the same time, the world was changing rapidly before their eyes - they were looking for a foothold to avoid catastrophe. The idea of a struggle for absolute power at any cost (this is how “The Prince” is often interpreted) and accusations of Machiavelli’s treachery almost always come from those people who have never looked into Machiavelli’s works and have no idea why they were written. “Discourses on the First Decade of Titus” provides a different view of government than “The Prince,” and friendship with the staunch confederate Guicciardini (an opponent of absolute power in Italy) calls into question the predilection for absolutism. Machiavelli did not glorify Cesare Borgia at all (it is customary to say that “The Prince” is the justification of the insidious Borgia), he only described the pattern of the rise of this type of power in the conditions of contemporary Italy. The fire of Savonarola (and Machiavelli observed the entire evolution: oligarchy-signoria-republic of Jesus Christ-occupation of Charles VIII) forced him to look for a design that is practical. Machiavelli's piles should be perceived in all their contradictions; that is, the way Leonardo's paintings should be perceived.
In those years, the main pain of humanists was the thought of the state - how to organize society so that democracy does not turn into tyranny? The humanists who studied antiquity had two examples: Sparta, which maintained a barracks democracy with elected kings for 800 years, and Athens, where periods of freedom and democratic laws alternated with tyranny, transferring power by inheritance, and with the rule of oligarchs. How to build a state without infringing on rights and providing the opportunity for development? The diversity of oligarchies and signories in Italy led to some variety of tyrannies (compare the 20th century with variants of totalitarian dictatorships), but a general recipe was required on how to avoid the infection corroding society. Machiavelli composed texts of praise to the cruel Romulus (he gave credit to Romulus, not Borgia) on the basis that Romulus avoided arbitrary interpretations of statehood. Florence (the birthplace of Leonardo and Machiavelli) constantly changed its structure: Botticelli compared it with the ever-transforming Venus - in his time it is necessary to say more about this picture - Leonardo painted “The Lady with an Ermine”, a picture in which the Madonna, instead of the Savior, is nursing a predator.
What is shown in the picture: a mysterious project? Construction of society? A parody of motherhood? As usual with Leonardo, everything is depicted at once: both, and the third, and even left an unpleasant prophecy. Conveying statehood through the image of an ermine is as natural as suggesting an underwater bathyscaphe - this is just the most accessible explanation. Leonardo da Vinci persistently instills in us the idea: the design of the universe is rational; its elements are interconnected. With a drawing you can express a state thought as simply as with a drawing you can declare your love. Leonardo's engineering drawings and sketches of figures are woven into a single drawing. Look at the drawings of machines made by Leonardo, and his drawings of human organs, the heart, for example, and compare these drawings with his own portraits, you will see that all the lines are made with the same movement: Leonardo does not see the difference between an engineering design, human internal and external device - this is all a single world of phenomena.
As if on purpose, in order to make it easier for posterity to analyze his method, Leonardo left the huge panel “Adoration of the Magi” (now in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence) unfinished. In the picture we literally see how a complex architectural drawing grows into a swirling drawing of human figures, and the drawing, in turn, is overgrown with the flesh of the painting. This is all a single substance: drawing-drawing-painting; There is no contradiction in these elements of the universe; they flow freely into one another.
By the way, our confidence that this work is not finished is based on the opinion of the monks of San Donato, but it is by no means impossible that Leonardo, revolutionary in many aspects of painting, had a different opinion. A combination of drawing, drawing and painting, that is, a project visibly revealed to us - what could be the best embodiment of the idea of the Savior who appeared in the world, whom Caspar, Balthasar and Melchior came to worship? A moving project is depicted, a growing tree (“God is a growing baobab” - as Tsvetaeva randomly determined in “New Year’s Eve”, dedicated to Rilke). And what, if not the intended project, does the famous half-smile of Mona Lisa, the pregnant Mother of God carrying Jesus, mean - she already knows what she is smiling at. A project growing out of itself is the main theme of Leonardo. Man is a microcosm, similar in its joints and organic matter to the universe; mechanics is an organic discipline, rooted in nature, and not contrary to it; By constructing, a person complicates nature and himself - a person constantly improves his own project. All this, if it does not make Leonardo an agnostic, then greatly reduces his faith. Leonardo's credo can be compared with the concept of Pico della Mirandola, but Leonardo goes much further - he does not simply place man at the center of the universe; but he even places the product of human consciousness and labor on a par with the creation of God. In fact, he thinks about the symbiosis of man and machine, in which the machine is an organic project, invented by man in exactly the same way as man himself was once created by God. The creation of creators is capable of creativity; the ability to design is endowed with the project; painting turns out to be the quintessence of design - in Leonardo’s painting technique there is no chiaroscuro because there is no isolated object that can be walked around from all sides; a person is a project unfolding into the future.
The infinity of design is best conveyed by the picture in which St. Anne holds the Virgin Mary on her lap, and she, in turn, holds the baby Jesus. This composition reproduces the principle of the “matryoshka doll” - one thing appears from the other; in essence, Leonardo depicted the literal movement of generations. But this is a project open to the future, an endless creation, an always renewed creation of a design project.
To convey the endless transition of project to project, to create a continuous design, Leonardo invented the sfumato technique.
The sfumato technique is a soft, non-contrasting style of writing, with hidden contradictions and contrasts, as if enveloping the form, as if weaving a web of color, rather than building color plans. Leonardo did not leave the technical secret of sfumato to his descendants; most likely, the method was to rub paint into the surface; This was probably possible due to the low oil content of the pigment. Leonardo himself prepared the paints and (indirectly evidenced by unsuccessful experiments with wall painting) changed the proportion of binding oils and pigment in relation to the Burgundian recipe. The paints did not stick to the wall (as happened with the “Battle of Anghiari” in Florence), but on a rough board even a low binder content should have been sufficient. Oil darkens over the years - this happened with most Burgundian paintings, this happened with absolutely all Dutch paintings of subsequent centuries; this also happened with the paintings of the Italians, who copied the Burgundian technique. Leonardo's paintings did not change their tones - this can only mean one thing: he added oil very sparingly when composing the paint, and the binder during writing was not linseed oil at all. They say that in the “Battle of Anghiari” the master used mastic (that is, mastic varnish), and mastic led to even more destructive consequences than linseed oil: the painting began to flow. It is quite possible that in his easel oil paintings he used not linseed oil, nor mastic varnish, nor cedar resin (as the Burgundians recommended - in particular, Karel van Mander writes about this), but some kind of drier, which used in other experiments. A drier (that is, a hardener for oil paint) can be a salt of cobalt, lead or manganese; These salts were used by alchemists at that time as indicators of substances. Leonardo could well have used lead salt, for example, adding it to oil paint.
Van Mander replaced the effect of the drier by recommending pouring glycerin and honey into cedar resin as plasticizers; but the result was inconclusive. So, other doctors, prescribing a medicine that treats one organ but harms another organ, stop the harmful effect with another medicine, which, in turn, also causes harm, and so on until the patient dies. But what if, by mixing medications, we record the patient’s condition and confirm the stage of his health? Leonardo mixed paints to infinity (see the treatise “On the mixing of colors with each other, which extends to infinity”) - completely in the spirit of the idea of infinite design, and this can be achieved, so as not to produce dirt in the mixture, only if each the next mixture is fixed as an unprecedented autonomous color. That is, it is necessary to record the intermediate result in any mixture. A kind of periodic table of colors emerges. In other words, Leonardo’s palette is significantly richer than the spectrum known to us. (By the way, it should be said that Leonardo came up with a unique form of palette, which - this is an assumption, but based on knowledge of the practical use of the palette - allows paints to be placed in two levels. Most likely, the primary paints lay in the first semicircle, and the inner semicircle formed mixtures).
Leonardo did not always achieve positive results in his experiments (in the technology of wall living -
he made a mistake in writing), but he succeeded with easel painting. Generally speaking, the belief that Leonardo adopted the technique of oil painting from Burgundy (that is, through Antonello from the van Eycks?) has a shaky foundation. His oil painting is not similar to the painting of the Burgundians. Most likely, Leonardo invented the oil painting technique on his own, in parallel with Hubert and Jan van Eyck; It should be added that oil painting on canvas reigned supreme only after 1530, and before that tempera painting on boards was widely used, and in tempera (there is several evidence of this) they carefully and arbitrarily began to add oil to make the technique more flexible and plastic; the adhesive base and the oily substance did not mix well, but mixed; this was called “oil painting.” Why oil painting at all? Why did artists adopt this innovation? All professionals were seduced by the flexible line of color, which can be drawn using a stroke, like a pencil. The covering effect of the paint was replaced with transparent layers; Bellini's blue sky, across which light transparent clouds rush, cannot be painted in tempera. Mantegna, who rubbed tempera in such transparent, gossamer layers (see the portrait of the Madonna in Berlin), could not help but welcome the oil, which facilitated the work in the complex Triumphs. Leonardo obviously took a different path.
Today's restorers are against oils and varnishes in principle, assuring that the drier will perform their functions, but will not darken over time. It can be assumed that by using a drier, Leonardo achieved a high concentration of pigment in the paint and was able to work with an almost dry brush (that is, not draw a wet line, do not fill the surface with flowing paint), but maintain variability, literally rub pigment into pigment. Look closely at a chip of marble or granite - you will see myriads of crystals, each of the grains retains its color, although together they form a surface that is uniform in tone and shade. Leonardo achieved the same effect in the colorful surface. Sfumato gave his colors a stony hardness, but eliminated the inevitable clashes of tones within the same color with the wet oil method. The problem of “contact” of shades, “merging” of the shadow side of the depicted object and its light side is extremely important for the painter. How do dark colors and light colors meet within the same object? What will the border look like? Let's say a character's cheek is in the shadow, and his forehead is in the light - does the complexion change its nature in the shadow or not? The Sienese solved this issue simply - they painted the light with warm paint, and the shadow with cold, sometimes even green, contrasting the green with the pink shade of the skin (see, for example, the characteristic technique of the Siena master Lippo Memmi). The Venetians, first of all Paolo Veronese (and after him his follower Delacroix and, in turn, the followers of Delacroix), believed that the shadow contrasts with the subject. Thus, Delacroix writes in his diary that the yellow carriage casts a purple shadow. Rembrandt, the small Dutch and especially the Caravaggists make a shadow from the same color as the illuminated part of the object, but take the color lower, that is, darker, adding dark brown to the brown color. This sometimes seems like a primitively simple solution, nevertheless, in its lapidarity there is the logic of Caravaggism.
The sfumato technique generally avoids shadows; there are no shadows in Leonardo's paintings. Sfumato is absolute light. This is the direct opposite of hard light and shadow. Caravaggio or La Tour, adherents of chiaroscuro (let's leave aside Rembrandt as the author of a more complex statement), theatrically bring to light the most significant in the picture and plunge the insignificant into darkness; They denote by shadow what is evil and by light what is virtuous. For the sfumato technique, such a naive division of the world into positive and negative is impossible: sfumato accepts the whole world; Only God accepts the world this way. We know very well what La Tour considers interesting and significant; but we don’t know what exactly makes Leonardo stand out. He appreciates everything in the world. One can imagine a philosophical judgment in the style of sfumato, which does not contain “yes” or “no”, but expresses what in German is conveyed by the word jain - both yes and no at the same time. This “yes-no” does not occur at all from relativism, as one might imagine, but only because the superficial opposition of subjective predicates is unimportant for wisdom. Whether it is raining or not, whether the shoe is tight or free, the answers to these questions are insignificant in relation to the problem of the finitude of being; and Leonardo neglects the contrast of light and shadow.
This “sfumato” of judgment extends so widely for Leonardo that it blurs the line between the main definitions: Is John the Baptist a man or a woman? Is the government republican or monarchical? He deliberately complicates the judgment and avoids one-dimensionality. Even in the portrait of the lovely Mona Lisa, some today find a self-portrait of the elderly artist.
For him, painting is not an emotion; painting is an exploration of the world. But the way this research is presented to us (the final product, the solved theorem) leaves the impression of an easy, magical work. He rubbed color onto color to achieve an unprecedented shade. Five hundred years later, Cézanne would do almost the same thing, sequentially placing tiny strokes on top of each other with a flat brush. Slightly different in color saturation (blue, blue-green, green-blue, etc.), these strokes fused into each other create in Cezanne an unprecedented shade and appearance of a stone surface. Leonardo achieved the same effect at the level of pigments. In all likelihood, Leonardo believed that he helped discover a hitherto unknown color by grinding stones in a mortar; he associated different properties of human nature with those stones that were ground into pigment. The color (obtained as a result of the experiment) was hidden in nature, and Leonardo found the color. Thus, sfumato is the result of alchemical science, the overall product is a kind of philosopher's stone.
When we use the word “alchemy” in relation to Leonardo, we must make a reservation so as not to fall into mysticism, Leonardo rejected mysticism, he despised everything artificial: artificial talent, artificial art, artificial gold, “And if senseless stinginess led you to such an error, why won’t you go to the mountain mines where nature produces gold?” Leonardo believed that reason manifests itself in union with nature, experience is meaningful only when it helps to reveal the organic forces of nature and man. Alchemy for Leonardo is not a desire for the supernatural, on the contrary, for the most natural, but hitherto unidentified. The impact of stones and minerals on the human psyche is organic, there is no mysticism here; identifying patterns is the painter’s task. It is natural to take into account the power of the elements, it is natural for the mind to direct the elements.
Sfumato hides all the preparatory studies and even hides the artist’s emotions. In the 19th century, the expression “sweat in a painting must be hidden” took root among painters - this means that the viewer does not have to see the artist’s efforts; the viewer is shown the glossy surface of the work, but the study and efforts are not shown. The 20th century, on the contrary, flaunted the effort: Van Gbg did not do it on purpose, but hundreds of Van Gogh’s epigones demonstrated effort (often artificially produced, not necessary for work) very consciously: look how painfully I make a stroke, how I pile up paint, this comes from tension of thought and the intensity of passions. Very often this demonstration is deceitful: no mental and moral effort is required to pile up paint and sharp gestures. Moreover, such a work does not convey anything other than a demonstration of effort. However, in the minds of the 20th century viewer, this demonstration of effort is already associated with the titanic work of the thinker-artist; the viewer naively believes that the efforts made correspond to the scale of the statement; Of course, this is nonsense.
Leonardo's paintings look as if they were made easily, not at all with ecstatic tension, but with pleasure; and it is not clear how this was done. Leonardo (I believe, deliberately flaunting and misleading the viewer) wrote that the work of a painter is pleasant because one can indulge in it in festive clothes, to the sound of a lute, etc. This, of course, does not correspond to reality: the work of a painter is hard manual labor, and dirty work. But Leonardo teased, wanted to show a miracle: like a magician, he takes a flower out of the top hat - and the audience is perplexed: how did he put the flower there? Made masterfully, magically, how? In the case of artists of the 20th century - expressionists, dadaists, fauvists - we clearly know how exactly the painting was made - this is how they poured paint, this is how they laid out the paint layer, here the paint flowed... In most cases, Leonardo's contemporaries did not know how to hide their efforts - painful compositions van der Goes, Dürer's difficult foreshortenings practically reveal to us the method: Dürer, for example, does not hide the technical aspects of drawing foreshortening, and the stages of priming, sanding, the sequence of layers on the board - imprimatura, etc. - are widely described. The craftsmen applied the initial drawing to the board, then painted the white primer in transparent layers.
Leonardo does not give such a gift to the viewer. We do not know how the painter made his product. And this is paradoxical, but true, despite the fact that Leonardo da Vinci left us a detailed work plan - what exactly an artist needs to know, what he needs to be able to do in order to paint an oil painting. We can say that Leonardo left a detailed outline of the painter’s activities, but they did not read the concept as a guide to action, they were only surprised by the abundance of interdisciplinary points. Drawing a variety of facial expressions is understandable; examining tendons and arteries is also understandable, although less necessary; but why know the laws of hydraulics and the principle of bird flight? Five centuries later, the artist Tatlin (originally a painter) decided to create an aircraft (the so-called “Letatlin”) and, following the path of Leonardo, began to study the structure of birds and the properties of various materials, this took him away from the painting workshop (although, in fact, he directed work exactly to the main thing).
The so-called “New Time,” that is, the time of capitalism, became a time of narrow specializations, and painting became a narrow professional skill - the structure of guilds and private orders of the rich, the structure of the art market only exacerbated this situation. The artists belonged (and tried to achieve this social status) to the guild, just as in our time people of creative professions want to join creative unions: writers, artists, directors. Guilds provided benefits, but established dependence on the environment. Just as today creative people belong to PEN and other clubs and associations, taking advantage of the mutual guarantee of guild solidarity, but paying tribute to conventions, so the artists of the Middle Ages entered the Guild of St. Luke: this helped to receive orders, but the artist ended up (wittingly or unwittingly) but inevitably) depending on the views of the workshop, on the beliefs of the circle of colleagues, on the tastes of customers, on the manner of the local school. A few went the other way: to refuse a place in the guild and seek an individual destiny meant literally risking one’s life: one could be left without a means of subsistence.
Michelangelo could tell Pope Julius II that he would throw the pope off the scaffolding if he interfered with his work, but a 17th-century Dutch painter could not tell a burgher who commissioned a still life that he would not paint a curled lemon peel because it was vulgar.
Some great masters, who were men of character, refused to work in the guild's market assembly line; Thus, in the Quattrocento era, the type of wandering artist appeared (cf. knight errant, not belonging to the army). Masters like Michelangelo or Leonardo did not categorically fit into the circles; This determined Leonardo’s wanderings through cities - the artist was looking for conditions consistent with his genius. The conditions were created by the court of Lorenzo Medici, the court of Ludovico Gonzaga, the court of d'Este or Francis I, or Ludovico Moro. Leonardo managed to change several courts: apparently, he did not want his name to be identified with the position of court artist. He accepted worship, lived several lay down at the court - and left. Absolute freedom was for Leonardo the first condition of the contract with the court; the slightest non-compliance with this contract, which could make his personal will dependent on the will of the customer, led to a break. Leonardo was a great proud man, like Dante, their wanderings defined by an over-individualistic character. Leonardo easily abandoned the work unfinished if he felt that his rights were being infringed. So, I believe, he left the Florentine panel “Adoration of the Magi” as soon as he felt a semblance of dictate from the customer (the monastery of San Donato).
During Leonardo's time, the Mediterranean commercial world comes to life, and, according to Fernand Braudel, this world forms a kind of “common market”; Aragonese maritime trade expansion makes the Southern Mediterranean a kind of (let us say carefully after the French historian) “world of economics.” Simultaneously with the Aragonese (later Castilian) economic world, a powerful Hanseatic League emerged in northern Europe, uniting 50 cities. This, without exaggeration, is a new concept of Europe, a commercial, capitalist, merchant Europe, alternative to the imperial one. It is tempting to say that art falls under the laws of the common market; but to say so would not be entirely accurate. The power of the Strozzi or Fugger banking houses is great; but neither Leonardo, nor Mantegna, nor any of the significant humanists seeks the patronage of Strozzi or Fugger. Moreover, the Medici banking family - and it is to this family that Italy owes a short period of social balance and a fragile agreement that contributed to the flourishing of humanism - is actually reducing its financial and business hypostasis in order to join the circle of humanists on equal terms. Members of the Medici family (Lorenzo, first of all) are made primarily humanists - interlocutors of humanists. Lorenzo the Magnificent is not a nobleman who condescends to converse with a patronized artist, but an equal interlocutor, a humanitarian and poet who understands the superiority of spirit over matter.
In this sense, there is no market power over art in the Renaissance, or rather, the power is mutual. However, having said this, we have to carefully amend the statement: we would not know the Portinari Altarpiece, commissioned from Hugo van der Goes by the banker Tommaso Portinari (by the way, a representative of the same Medici bank in Brussels), we would not know a dozen paintings by Durer, if not for Jakob Fugger. The market is enveloping, merchants are buying paintings from Botticelli along with Lorenzo; a merchant can act as a donor of a painting in a temple, and the artist Jos van Cleve literally goes crazy (remained in history as “mad Cleve”) when he does not get the place of court painter of the Spanish crown. The artist is freed, but the free artist begins to seek the friendship of the nobleman.
Leonardo da Vinci exists outside the market, in addition to the market, parallel to the market. “A man is worth as much as he values himself,” wrote Francois Rabelais, and Leonardo is a living example of this rule: he cannot be assessed. He allows himself to be read, but does not allow himself to be bought. He did not complete work on “The Adoration of the Magi,” but no one would have thought of demanding the money back: Leonardo’s time and talent are priceless; The pay is symbolic, he doesn’t work for money. Whatever the terms of Leonardo's agreement with the customer, he did not work for the customer. We know very well how much “The Night Watch” costs, we even know the history of Rembrandt’s order, but if we learn about the price paid for “La Gioconda” by Francis the First, this will not make Leonardo’s work a phenomenon of market labor. Like Van Gogh or Cezanne (they did this five hundred years later), Leonardo emerged from the power of the market and imposed his idea of \u200b\u200bwhat should be on it. How the illegitimate son of a notary achieved such respect for himself from the kings is unknown; We do not know what property, besides his unyielding disposition, distinguished him among his contemporaries. How did he conquer the rulers of the earth? The universality of Leonardo’s knowledge is not exceptional: for example, the great artist Matthias Grunewald was also a hydraulic engineer (having lost his position due to sympathy for Protestants in the peasant war, the artist went to the Saxon town of Halle, where he worked as an engineer until the end of his short life). However, from the very appearance of the illegitimate son of a notary, greatness emanated; his mission, everyone felt it, was grandiose.
Most artists during Leonardo's life stuck to a certain court, not looking for change - they preferred a guaranteed salary. After the death of Lorenzo Medici, the dialogue between humanitarians and the authorities fell into disrepair - the participants in the dialogue were divided into customers and executors; The logic of the market has conquered the world of Europe. The time for chivalric ethics is over. Emperor Charles V was elevated to the throne by the money of Jakob Fugger, no one hid the bribery intrigue; Louis XI paid the English Edward compensation and an annual annuity for neutrality in the conflict with Burgundy (Louis appropriated the Burgundian lands as a result); The era of commercialization of politics and the era of market relations in art has arrived.
The wandering artist, perhaps the only type of human activity that now resembled knight errantry, became a unique figure for society. Today, looking at the life of the knight errant Leonardo, we can say that with his unyielding pride he created a precedent that allowed Van Gogh or Gauguin to follow the same path. Wandering from city to city, Van Gogh actually repeated the strategy of Leonardo da Vinci, not wanting (in the case of Van Gogh and not being able) to join the market process of making and selling art objects.
They (Leonardo and Van Gogh) had a predecessor who can safely be placed third on this list - we are talking about Dante Alighieri.
“And if there is no path of honor leading to Florence, then I will never return to Florence,” said Dante in exile, and these words were probably repeated to himself dozens of times by Leonardo da Vinci, leaving the once hospitable court to go to new journey. The powerful, unquestioning individualism that permeated Dante’s Comedy, which made Dante a witness and analyst of the construction of the entire universe, this same individualism fueled the creativity and painting of Leonardo da Vinci.
Leonardo did not and could not have like-minded people. The greatest Florentine, Dite Alighieri, Leonardo's predecessor in solitude, formulated his social status in this way;
“You will become your own party,” says Dante in his “Comedy,” putting this credo into the mouth of his ancestor Cacciaguida, whom he meets in Paradise.
In the 17th canto of “Paradise”, Dante conducts a conversation with the crusader Cacciaguida, who predicts the future of the poet and characterizes his deeds. “You will become your own party,” Cacciaguida says exactly what Dante himself managed to decide about himself, in connection with the party struggle between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines. He was a white Guelph formally, but, in the end, this partisanship did not suit him: “The Guelphs also go along the disastrous road”; Dante was left to himself, and as centuries passed, Italy learned from him alone. This is exactly what Leonardo did, retaining his unique (even at that time) autonomy.
We cannot name his students; to be a student of Leonardo - just like to be a student of Dante - means to become an infinitely free person; do not depend on the place, do not depend on the circle and school; do not depend on the market and customers; to lead his own life according to his convictions, but who could afford this luxury?
Leonardo da Vinci did not leave a portrait of his beloved, most likely he did not have one; He didn't have a family either. The master's loneliness gave rise to gossip and suspicions of homosexual predilections. However, no matter what Leonardo’s passions were, Leonardo had no time for carnal pleasures or a taste for carnal pleasures. His nomadic lifestyle made family life impossible; so Daite had to leave Gemma and the children, going into exile; so Van Gogh did not have a family, and Michelangelo did not have a family.
The lifestyle of a knight errant, unfortunately, is not conducive to family life.
The role of the family was played by paintings, which the master did not part with - he carried them with him in his luggage, constantly improving them. More precisely, to put it this way: since painting is an endless project open to the future, since the painter’s occupation is endless design, it is logical to continue to improve the image endlessly. Design cannot be stopped.
In this sense, Leonard’s image of John the Baptist, an effeminate handsome man who seems to lure the viewer into the project of Christianity, is extremely important. The evil face, almost the face of the tempter, does not promise anything good in the future, and yet it will not be possible to evade Christianity. Leonardo depicts the inevitability of temptation by Christianity; we have already gone down this path.
The important thing is that in the world created by Leonardo da Vinci, in a world that knows no shadows and is permeated with eternal light, every project is valuable. In the dispute between Oxford and the Sorbonne, in the dispute between nominalists and realists (that is, in the opposition of fact and general design), Leonardo occupied a very special position - he decisively affirmed every fact of existence as a project of the whole: be it an aircraft, a bathyscaphe, a drawing of a human heart, a portrait of a Madonna, the adoption of Christian doctrine, or the design of a palace staircase - any of these noumena is a phenomenal project of an integral being. There are no service disciplines, but everything is combined into painting; there are no shadows, but everything merges into an evenly shining light; there is no death - there is a transition to another, no less significant state of natural life.
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