Download the project on geology as a science. Geology. Continents. Ancient and modern

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Literature Abrikosov “General, petroleum and oilfield geology”, 1982. Course of lectures, part 1 and part 2. Mstislavskaya L.P., Filippov V.P. “Geology, prospecting and exploration of oil and gas”, 2005 Bondarev V.P. Geology. Course of lectures, 2002. Mstislavskaya L.P., Pavlinich M.F., Filippov V.P. "Fundamentals of oil and gas production", 2003.

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Additional literature Gabrielyants G.A. Geology, prospecting and exploration of oil and gas fields, 2000. Korshak A.A., Shammazov A.M. “Fundamentals of oil and gas business”, 2002 Zhdanov M.A. Oil and gas field geology and calculation of oil and gas reserves. - M.: Nedra, 1981.

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What role does geological knowledge play in modern human life? In which regions of Russia is mining carried out? What oil and gas fields do you know?

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Why is it important to know the geological conditions of drilling a well? Why is it important to know where oil and gas production is taking place in Russia?

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1. The content of the academic discipline “Geology”, its role and place in the system of acquired knowledge in the specialty, connection with other academic disciplines. Contents of the academic discipline “Geology” Section 1. “Fundamentals of General Geology”. Section 2 "Fundamentals of mineralogy and petrography". Section 3 "Fundamentals of historical and structural geology" Section 4 "Fundamentals of oil and gas geology" Section 5 "Search and exploration of oil and gas fields." Section 6 "Oil and gas field geology"

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The scientific and practical significance of geology lies in the fact that people use it to understand the world around them, it is the theoretical basis for searching, exploration and development of mineral resources, it is used in construction work, in healthcare, agriculture, as well as for solving issues of subsoil protection and environment.

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The role of geology and its place in the system of acquired knowledge in the specialty Drilling a well is carried out according to geological and technical principles. When opening productive formations, it is necessary to use such a flushing fluid to exclude the possibility of its penetration into the formation, and to create minimal back pressure on the formation to preserve the filtration properties of the rock. Eliminate blowouts High-quality geological, geophysical and geochemical studies in wells Reliable cementing of the annulus for formation isolation - subsoil protection

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Geology has several areas: Sciences that study the material composition of the Earth. Crystallography is the science of the internal structure of crystalline minerals. Mineralogy is the science of minerals. Petrography is the science of rocks. Geochemistry is the science that studies the chemical elements that make up the Earth, their distribution and migration.

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Sciences that study the history of the Earth. Stratigraphy is the science that studies the sequence of occurrence of layers. Paleontology is the science that studies fossil organic remains. Historical geology is a science that reconstructs the geological history of the Earth.

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Sciences that study the processes occurring on the surface of the Earth and in its interior. Dynamic geology is a science that studies geological processes, the earth's crust and the appearance of the Earth as a whole. Geotectonics is a science that studies the structure of the earth's crust and the history of the development of tectonic structures. Hydrogeology is the science of groundwater.

The main branches of geology: Mineralogy; Mineralogy; Crystallography; Crystallography; Petrography and lithology; Petrography and lithology; Geochemistry; Geochemistry; Geophysics; Geophysics; Geomorphology; Geomorphology; Hydrogeology; Hydrogeology; Geology of Quaternary deposits; Geology of Quaternary deposits;

The doctrine of minerals; The doctrine of minerals; Geotectonics; Geotectonics; Paleogeography; Paleogeography; Stratigraphy; Stratigraphy; Paleontology; Paleontology; The following sections are often distinguished: dynamic geology, mineralogy and petrography, geotectonics and volcanology. The following sections are often distinguished: dynamic geology, mineralogy and petrography, geotectonics and volcanology.

History of science: Aristotle (BC) - presented the first astronomical evidence of the sphericity of the Earth; Aristotle (BC) - presented the first astronomical evidence of the sphericity of the Earth; Aristarchus of Samos (III century BC) - anticipated the heliocentric system of the world of Copernicus; Aristarchus of Samos (III century BC) - anticipated the heliocentric system of the world of Copernicus; Al-Biruni (gg.) from Khorezm - determined the circumference of the globe; Al-Biruni (gg.) from Khorezm - determined the circumference of the globe; Leonardo da Vinci (gg.) - considered fossils found in rocks to be the movement of land and sea; Leonardo da Vinci (gg.) - considered fossils found in rocks to be the movement of land and sea;

Lomonosov M.V. () – is rightfully considered one of the founders of scientific geology; Lomonosov M.V. () – is rightfully considered one of the founders of scientific geology; An important role in the development of geological ideas about the origin of the Earth belongs to I. Kant, a German philosopher, and P. Laplace, a French mathematician and astronomer. An important role in the development of geological ideas about the origin of the Earth belongs to I. Kant, a German philosopher, and P. Laplace, a French mathematician and astronomer.

Conflicting directions in science (late 18th century): Neptunists - believed that the basis of all changes in the Earth is the action of external forces (water, wind, ice, sea), ideological inspirer, Professor of the Freiberg Academy Werner; Neptunists - believed that the basis of all changes in the Earth is the action of external forces (water, wind, ice, sea), the ideological inspirer was Professor of the Freiberg Academy Werner; Plutonists - based on the action of internal energy (volcanism, earthquakes), the ideological inspirer is the Scottish geologist Getton. Plutonists - based on the action of internal energy (volcanism, earthquakes), the ideological inspirer is the Scottish geologist Getton.

Contribution to science of Russian scientists: 1882 - the Geological Committee is created in St. Petersburg, which supervises the study of the geology of Russia in pre-revolutionary times; 1882 - the Geological Committee is created in St. Petersburg, which supervises the study of the geology of Russia in pre-revolutionary times; A.P. Karpinsky - the father of Russian geology; A.P. Karpinsky - the father of Russian geology; I.V. Mushketov – laid the foundation for seismotectonic research; I.V. Mushketov – laid the foundation for seismotectonic research;

V.A. Obruchev - developed many important issues (major researcher of Siberia and Central Asia); V.A. Obruchev - developed many important issues (major researcher of Siberia and Central Asia); A.P. Pavlov – the founder of the doctrine of Quaternary deposits; A.P. Pavlov – the founder of the doctrine of Quaternary deposits; E.S. Fedorov is a famous crystallographer; E.S. Fedorov is a famous crystallographer; V.I. Vernadsky - his works on geochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology are world famous. V.I. Vernadsky - his works on geochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology are world famous.
First cosmogonic hypotheses: First cosmogonic hypotheses: Cosmogony is the science of the origin and development of celestial bodies. Cosmogony is the science of the origin and development of celestial bodies. All hypotheses about the origin of the Earth can be divided into two main groups: All hypotheses about the origin of the Earth can be divided into two main groups: - nebular (Latin “nebula” - fog, gas) - the Kant-Laplace hypothesis. - catastrophic - Jeans hypothesis.

Modern hypotheses: The solar system was formed from a cluster of interstellar matter captured by the Sun in the process of moving in space - hypothesis of O.Yu. Schmidt. The solar system was formed from a cluster of interstellar matter captured by the Sun in the process of moving in space - hypothesis of O.Yu. Schmidt. The formation of planets is associated with the formation of new stars that arise as a result of the condensation of initially rarefied matter - V.G. Fesenkov’s hypothesis The formation of planets is associated with the formation of new stars that arise as a result of the condensation of initially rarefied matter - V.G. Fesenkov’s hypothesis

According to G.S. Safronova,
one of the creators
modern theory
origin of the planets,
The earth was formed from
protoplanetary
gas and dust substance,
formed by explosion
supernovas. IN
result of accretion
(sticking together) solids
protoplanetary particles
clouds were happening
increase in the mass of the Earth.
Growth of the Earth to the level of 99%
its real mass
lasted about 100
million years.
General information and geology and
planet earth
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Formation of the earth's crust at the dawn of the Earth

Origin and history of development
Earth
Formation of the earth's crust
at the dawn of the earth
Graphic object
General information and geology and
planet earth
4

Characteristics of the Earth

2. The Earth as a cosmic body
Characteristics of the Earth
Diameter
Weight
Density
Square
Volume
Circulation period
– 12756 km
– 5.98x1024 kg,
– 5510 kg/m3,
– 510 million km2,
– 1,083x1012 km3
– 365.26 days
General information and geology and
planet earth
5

Structure and composition of the Earth

Rice. 2.5. Internal structure of the Earth (according to L.P. Zonenshain, L.A. Savostin)
General information and geology and
planet earth
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Global seismic boundaries within the Earth:

Structure and composition of the Earth
Global seismic boundaries within the Earth:
1. Mohorovicic border – divides
earth's crust and mantle (12-40 km)
2. Conrad's border - divides
granite and basalt layer of the earth's crust
3. Gutenberg border - divides
mantle and outer core (2900 km)
4. Boundary between external and internal
cores – (5000-5100 km)
General information and geology and
planet earth
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The earth's crust is the uppermost layer of the solid Earth and differs from the underlying shells in structure and chemical composition. The surface of the seal is formed

The Earth's crust is the outermost layer of solid Earth.
and differs from the underlying shells in structure and
chemical composition.
The surface of the seal is formed due to three
influences:
1) endogenous, including tectonic and
magmatic processes that create relief unevenness;
2) exogenous, causing denudation (leveling)
this relief due to the destruction and weathering of mountain
breeds and
3) sedimentation, hiding irregularities
relief of the foundation and forming the uppermost
layer of the earth's crust.

Earth's crust
There are two main types of ZK:
“basalt” oceanic and “granite” continental.

Deep structure of the oceanic crust

Oceanic crust - three layers stand out
Layer 1 - sedimentary,
represented by carbonate
sediments deposited
at depths< 4 км или
clays. Nsr - about 0.5 km,
up to 10-15 km.
Layer 2 in the upper part is pillow lavas of tholeiitic basalts (layer 2A).
Below layer 2B are dikes of the same composition. Total H = 1.5-2 km.
Below lies layer 3 – gabbro. H = 4.7-5 km.
The total Nok crust, without sedimentary layer, reaches 5-7 km.
The mantle is located under the GC. They are separated by the Mohorovicic border.

Continental crust
both in structure and composition it differs sharply from the oceanic:
its thickness varies from 20-25 km under island arcs to 80 km
under the young mountain fold belts of the Earth. Average
equal to 40 km. The mass is about 0.4% of the Earth's mass.
Consists of two main layers: granite-metamorphic and
basalt.
From chemical elements in ZK
in the largest quantities
oxygen is present (43.13%),
Si (26%) and Al (7.45%)
in the form of silicates and oxides.

In the upper part of the Earth there are two shells - hard
lithosphere and more plastic and mobile – asthenosphere.
The lithosphere includes the GC and the subcrustal upper mantle and
underlain by the asthenosphere.
The asthenosphere is easily deformed under stress and
partially melts (several %).
).

The lithosphere is divided into a limited number
lithospheric plates.
There are three types of plate movements and
according to their boundaries:
- divergence boundaries (expansion and
spreading);
-convergent (compression: subduction and
collision);
transform (shift).
The reason for the movement of lithospheric plates is
chemical-density and thermal convection
Earth's mantle.

Types of plate boundaries. A - divergent (mid-ocean
ridge);
b - convergent (subduction zone); c - transformative.
(Simkin et al., 1994)

SUBDUCTION ZONES:
A - active continental margin;
b - island arc subduction zone

COLLISION ZONES

Transform Plate Boundaries Strike- slip motion of plate edges. No new crust material is added or destroyed at these transform faults. But they are associated with shallow earthquakes, sometimes of high magnitude.

Mechanisms of movement of lithospheric plates

1. Convection is the movement of matter that occurs in an environment with
unstable density as a result of the action
gravity, at which lighter substances
float up, and heavier ones sink
down.
2. Chemical-density (gravity) process
differentiation of earthly matter, leading
to the separation of the Earth into dense iron oxide
core and residual silicate mantle.
3. Radioactive decay, the influence of those plunging into
mantle of cold oceanic lithospheric
slabs

Historical geology

Geochronology

IN
geochronology
stand out
two
way:
1. Determination methods
relative
geological age
formations;
2. Absolute methods
geochronology.
Fig.1 Geochronological scale,
depicted as a spiral

Relative age of rocks

Paleontological
method
defines
consistency and
date of development stages
earth's crust and
organic world

Absolute age of rocks

The name of the method is conditional. Row
researchers give other names:
nuclear
geochronology,
applied
geochronology, isotope geochronology,
radiometric dating, etc.
All these synonyms indirectly reflect
research methods.

Three chronograms are presented, reflecting different stages
history of the earth.
1. The top diagram covers the ancient history of the earth;
2. The second is the Phanerozoic, a time of mass appearance of various
life forms;
3. Lower - Cenozoic, the period of time after the extinction
dinosaurs.

Main stages of evolution:

3. Origin and history of the development of the Earth
Main stages of evolution:
Archean era - the oldest (4.5-2.5 billion years)
Proterozoic - the era of the beginning of life (2.5
billion-535 million years),
Paleozoic - era of ancient life
(531-251 million years),
Mesozoic - era of middle life
(251-65 million years)
Cenozoic - era of new life
(65 million years - until now)
General information and geology and
planet earth
25

Principles of Historical Geology

Geology is a historical science, and
its most important task is
sequencing
geological events. For execution
this task has been developed since ancient times
a number of simple and intuitively obvious
signs of time relationships
breeds

The principle of incompleteness of the geological record

Charles Darwin
installed the most
the main principle is the principle of incompleteness
geological record
Geological record
is incomplete, and
many historical
stages of planetary development
not recorded in
form of rocks.

Gresley's principle

Principle of facial differentiation
coeval sedimentary strata.
Thicknesses of the same age may differ in
appearance, depending on the conditions in which they
were formed.
At the same time, a whole
facies series of sediments.

Principle of N. A. Golovkinsky

At the core
principle lies
provision on
different times
ty of education
lithologically
homogeneous
layers.

Intrusive Relationships

presented
contacts
intrusive rocks
and containing them
thickness Detection
signs of such
relationships
(hardening zones, dikes
etc.) definitely
indicates that
intrusion
formed later
than containing
breeds

Intersecting relationships

also allow
define
relative
age. If
the fault is tearing
rocks,
that means he
formed
later than them.

Xenoliths and fragments enter the rocks as a result
destruction of their source, accordingly they
formed earlier than their host rocks, and may
be used to determine relative
age.

The principle of actualism

geological
forces acting
Nowadays,
similarly
worked in
old times.
James Hutton
formulated
principle
actualism in a phrase
"The present -
key to the past."
Fig.2 Fossil
channel ridge

Superposition principle

The principle of superposition is that
that the rocks are in an undisturbed
folding and faults,
follow in order of their formation, breeds
those lying higher are younger, and those that
are located lower in the section - ancient.

The principle of final succession

at the same time in the ocean
the same organisms are common.
It follows from this that the paleontologist,
by identifying a set of fossil remains in
breed, can find at the same time
the resulting rocks provided
similar processes of mountain formation
breeds

Development of historical geology

Diluvianism

I.
Late 17th century attempts are made
can't generalize yet
sufficient knowledge in
some general
theory of the Earth.
Most scientists of the end
17th - early 18th centuries
adhered to
ideas about
existence in history
Lands of the Flood,
as a result of which
sedimentary
breeds and contained in
them fossils.

II. Second half of the 18th century - development
elementary observation techniques and
accumulation of factual material.
The research was mainly
to the description of properties and conditions of occurrence
rocks. But even then they appeared
attempts to explain the genesis of rocks and
understand the essence of the processes taking place
both on the surface of the Earth and in it
subsoil.

III. Mid-18th century - centuries appear
geological maps, small ones at first
plots, and then large territories. On
these maps showed the composition of mountain
breeds, but age was not indicated. In Russia
The first "geognostic" map was
map of Eastern Transbaikalia, compiled
in 1789-94 by D. Lebedev and M. Ivanov.

IV. Late 18th – early 19th century - Birth
geology as a science. Installed
ability to separate layers of the earth's crust
by age based on those preserved in
them remains of ancient fauna and flora.
Later this made it possible to generalize and
systematize previously disparate
mineralogical and paleontological
data, made it possible to build
geochronological scale and creation
geological reconstructions.

Abraham Gottlob
Werner wrong
believed that
primary mountain
rocks (basalt)
educated
action of water
primitive
ocean, while
volcanic
activity
was attributed to them
burning stone
coal First
applied
hierarchical
stratigraphic
classification.

1790 - English
scientist W. Smith
compiled a "scale
sedimentary
formations
England
1815 - composed
first
geological
map of England.

Evolutionary
Charles's teachings
Darwin - gave
durable
methodological
basis for detailed
dismemberment according to
sedimentary age
shell of the Earth.
Installed the most
the main principle is
principle of incompleteness
geological
chronicles.

Second half of the 19th century:
1872 - American geologist J. Dana identified
Archean group of deposits, originally
covering the entire Precambrian.
1838 - the first ideas about
the existence of especially mobile belts of the earth
crust - geosynclines
French geologist M. Bertrand and Austrian
geologist E. Suess identified for the territory of Europe
folding epochs of different ages
(Caledonian, Hercynian and Alpine).
20th century - the geology of the seabed develops and
oceans, geological surveys are being carried out.

Modern geology. Geology of yesteryears

Until the 18th century, geology was a branch of mineralogy
(passive description of minerals and rocks), or
physical geography. The main task of this science
was considered to clarify the question of origin
land. Geology as a science in an understanding close to
modern, took shape at the end of the 18th century, when
a scattered supply of geological information was
systematized in Russia by M. Lomonosov, in
Germany A. Werner and others. The term "geology"
was introduced in 1657 by the scientist Emolt.

TWO MAIN DIRECTIONS OF MODERN RESEARCH

In the last decade
two main ones have been identified
research directions in
geosciences - deep
geodynamics and early history
Earth.
To the task of deep
geodynamics includes the study
physical and chemical
processes occurring in
in the bowels of the Earth below level 400
km, i.e. borders proper
upper mantle.
To solve this problem in
currently applied
three methods: seismic
tomography, experimental
mineralogy and mathematics

Scheme of global tectonics (after S. Maruyama et al., 1994). Three stand out
main geospheres with different processes occurring in them: core,
the lower mantle and the upper mantle with the crust, combined into the tectonosphere.
Arrows show the movement of matter.

Model of the main heat and mass transfer in
modern Earth (according to S. Maruyama et al., 1994)

Main tasks of geology

1. Search and development of deposits invisible from the surface
2. Study of the earth's crust and upper mantle by geophysical
methods
3. Study of metamorphic and igneous formations, their
composition, structure and conditions of education
4. Drilling ultra-deep wells
5. Study of Precambrian strata from the standpoint of stratigraphy,
tectonics, mineralogy, petrography and placement in them
mineral
6. Study of the geology of the bottom of seas and oceans (71% of the total surface
Earth)
7. Detailed study of underground heat as a possible
energy resource of the future
8. Study of the evolution of internal and external geological
processes that determine patterns of distribution
mineral resources.
9. Comparative study of the Earth and other planets

Spheres of the Earth

Atmosphere
Hydrosphere
Biosphere
Lithosphere

Atmosphere

Atmosphere - external
gas envelope
Earth. Her bottom
the border runs along
lithosphere and
hydrosphere, and
top - at height
1000 km.
In the atmosphere
differentiate
troposphere
(moving layer),
stratosphere (layer above
troposphere) and
ionosphere (upper
layer).

Hydrosphere

Hydrosphere
occupies 71%
surface of the Earth.
Temperature
oceanic
surfaces - from 3
up to 32 °C, density
- about 1.
sunlight
penetrates
depth 200 m, and
ultraviolet
rays - to depth
up to 800 m.

Biosphere

Biosphere, or sphere
life, merges with
atmosphere,
hydrosphere and
lithosphere. Her top
the border reaches
upper layers
troposphere, lower -
passes along the bottom
ocean trenches.
Biosphere
divided into
plant sphere (over
500,000 species) and sphere
animals (over 1,000
000 species).

Lithosphere

Lithosphere-stone
shell of the Earth
thickness from 40 to 100
km. It includes
continents, islands and
the bottom of the oceans.
Average height
continents above the level
Ocean: Antarctica-
2200 m, Asia-960 m,
Africa-750 m,
North America -
720 m, South America
- 590 m, Europe - 340
m, Australia - 340 m.

Cambrian period:
In place of North America and Greenland is the continent of Laurentia. South - Brazilian
mainland. The African continent included
Africa, Madagascar and Arabia. North
the Russian continent was located. East of
The Russian continent was located Siberian
mainland - Angarida.

Continents. Ancient and modern.

Ordovician period
At the beginning of the Paleozoic (500-440 million years ago) in
Northern Hemisphere from ancient platforms -
Russian, Siberian, Chinese and North American - a single continent has emerged
Laurasia.
Southern continent Gondwana (Hindustan,
African, South American,
Antarctic platform, as well as Arabia and
Australia)
Laurasia was separated from Gondwana by sea
(geosyncline) Tethys.

Slide 2: GEOLOGY

the science of the composition, structure and patterns of development of the Earth Descriptive - deals with the study of the placement and composition of geological bodies, including their shape, size, relationship, sequence of occurrence, as well as the description of various minerals and rocks. Dynamic - considers the evolution of geological processes, such as the destruction of rocks, their transport by wind, glaciers, ground or underground waters, accumulation of sediments (external to the earth's crust) or movement of the earth's crust, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions (internal). Historical - studies the sequence of geological processes of the past. Sections of Geology

Slide 3: Science of the Earth's crust

Mineralogy is a branch of geology that studies minerals, questions of their genesis, and qualifications. Lithology is the study of rocks formed in processes associated with the atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere of the Earth. These rocks are not quite accurately called sedimentary rocks. Geocryology - studies permafrost rocks with characteristic properties and features. Petrography (petrology) is a branch of geology that studies igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks - their description, origin, composition, textural and structural features, as well as classification. Structural geology is a branch of geology that studies the forms of occurrence of geological bodies and disturbances of the earth's crust. Crystallography was originally a branch of mineralogy, but is now more of a physical discipline.

Slide 4: Science of dynamic geology

Tectonics is a branch of geology that studies the movement of the earth's crust. Volcanology is a branch of geology that studies volcanism. Seismology is a branch of geology that studies geological processes during earthquakes and seismic zoning. Geocryology is a branch of geology that studies permafrost. Petrology (petrography) is a branch of geology that studies the genesis and conditions of origin of igneous and metamorphic rocks

Slide 5: Sciences of historical geology

Historical geology is a branch of geology that studies data on the sequence of major events in the history of the Earth. The history of the Earth is divided into two major stages - eons, according to the appearance of organisms with solid parts, leaving traces in sedimentary rocks and allowing, based on paleontological data, to determine the relative geological age. Precambrian geology stands out as a special discipline, as it studies specific, often strongly and repeatedly metamorphosed complexes and has special research methods. Paleontology studies ancient life forms and deals with the description of fossil remains, as well as traces of the vital activity of organisms. Stratigraphy is the science of determining the relative geological age of sedimentary rocks, the division of rock strata, and the correlation of various geological formations. One of the main sources of data for stratigraphy is paleontological definitions

Slide 6: Applied disciplines

Mineral geology studies the types of deposits, methods of their search and exploration. It is divided into oil and gas geology, coal geology, and metallogeny. Hydrogeology is a branch of geology that studies groundwater. Engineering geology is a branch of geology that studies the interactions of the geological environment and engineering structures

Slide 7: Other sections of geology

Geochemistry is a branch of geology that studies the chemical composition of the Earth, the processes that concentrate and disperse chemical elements in various spheres of the Earth. Geophysics is a branch of geology that studies the physical properties of the Earth, which also includes a set of exploration methods: gravity prospecting, seismic prospecting, magnetic prospecting, electrical prospecting of various modifications, etc. Geobarothermometry is a science that studies a set of methods for determining the pressure and temperatures of formation of minerals and rocks. Microstructural geology is a branch of geology that studies the deformation of rocks at the microlevel, on the scale of grains of minerals and aggregates. Geodynamics is a science that studies the evolution of the Earth on a planetary scale, the connection between processes in the core, mantle and crust. Geochronology is a branch of geology that determines the age of rocks and minerals. Lithology is a branch of geology that studies sedimentary rocks. The history of geology is a section of the history of geological knowledge and mining. Agrogeology is a branch of geology about the search, extraction and use of agro-ores in agriculture, as well as the mineralogical composition of agricultural soils.

Slide 8: Basic principles of geology

The principle of actualism is that the geological forces operating in our time worked similarly in earlier times. James Hutton formulated the principle of actualism with the phrase “The present is the key to the past.” The principle of primary horizontality - when formed, marine sediments lie horizontally. The principle of superposition - rocks that are not disturbed by folds and faults follow the order of their formation, the rocks that lie higher are younger, and those that are lower in the section are older. The principle of consistency - the same organisms are common in the ocean at the same time. It follows from this that a paleontologist, having determined a set of fossil remains in a rock, can find rocks that formed at the same time. The principle of continuity is that the building material forming layers extends across the surface of the earth unless some other mass restrains it.

Last presentation slide: GEOLOGY: Key geological events

4.568 billion years ago - formation of the Solar System. 4.54 billion years ago - accretion of the Earth. 3.8 billion years ago - end of late heavy bombardment, first life. 3.5 billion years ago - the first photosynthesis. 2.4-2 billion years ago - enrichment of the atmosphere with oxygen, the first ice age. 900-630 million years ago - the second ice age. 540 million years ago - Cambrian explosion, sudden increase in biodiversity; beginning of the Paleozoic. 360 million years ago - the first land vertebrates. 199.6 million years ago - Triassic-Jurassic, one of the largest extinctions of the Mesozoic era. 65.5 million years ago - Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction, the last mass extinction that destroyed the dinosaurs; the end of the Mesozoic and the beginning of the Cenozoic. 6 million years ago - present - hominins: 6 million years ago - the first hominins appear; 4 million years ago - the first australopithecus, the direct ancestors of modern humans; 124 thousand years ago - the first Homo sapiens appeared in East Africa.