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Dictionary of literary terms

Autology – an artistic technique of figuratively expressing a poetic idea not in poetic words and expressions, but in simple everyday ones.

And everyone looks with respect,

How again without panic

I slowly put on my pants

And almost new

From the point of view of the sergeant major,

Canvas boots...

Acmeism – a movement in Russian poetry in the first two decades of the 20th century, the center of which was the “Workshop of Poets” circle, and the main platform was the magazine “Apollo”. The Acmeists contrasted the realism of material mother nature and the sensual, plastic-material clarity of artistic language with the social content of art, abandoning the poetics of vague hints and the mysticism of symbolism in the name of a “return to the earth,” to the subject, to the exact meaning of the word (A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky , N. Gumilev, M. Zenkevich, O. Mandelstam).

Allegory- allegorical image of an abstract concept or phenomenon through a concrete image; personification of human properties or qualities. The allegory consists of two elements:
1. semantic - this is any concept or phenomenon (wisdom, cunning, kindness, childhood, nature, etc.) that the author seeks to depict without naming it;
2. figurative-objective - this is a specific object, a creature depicted in a work of art and representing a named concept or phenomenon.

Alliteration- repetition in poetic speech (less often in prose) of the same consonant sounds in order to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech; one of the types of sound recording.

Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.

The majestic cry of the waves.

A storm is coming. It hits the shore

A black boat alien to enchantment.

K.D.Balmont

Alogism – an artistic device that uses phrases that contradict logic to emphasize the internal inconsistency of certain dramatic or comic situations - to prove, as if by contradiction, a certain logic and, therefore, the truth of the position of the author (and then the reader), who understands the illogical phrase as a figurative expression (the title of the novel by Yu. Bondarev "Hot Snow").

Amphibrachium- a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the second syllable - stressed among unstressed ones - in the foot. Scheme: U-U| U-U...

The midnight blizzard was noisy

In the forest and remote side.

Anapaest- a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the last, third, syllable in the foot. Scheme: UU- | UU-…
People's houses are clean, bright,
But in our house it’s cramped, stuffy...

N.A. Nekrasov.

Anaphora- unity of command; repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of several phrases or stanzas.
I love you, Petra's creation,
I love your strict, slender appearance...

A.S. Pushkin.

Antithesis- a stylistic device based on a sharp contrast of concepts and images, most often based on the use of antonyms:
I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god!

G.R.Derzhavin

Antiphrase(s) – using words or expressions in a clearly contrary sense. "Well done!" - as a reproach.

Assonance- repeated repetition in poetic speech (less often in prose) of homogeneous vowel sounds. Sometimes assonance refers to an imprecise rhyme in which the vowels coincide, but the consonants do not coincide (hugeness - I’ll come to my senses; thirst - it’s a pity). Enhances the expressiveness of speech.
The room became dark.
The window obscures the slope.
Or is this a dream?
Ding dong. Ding dong.

I.P. Tokmakova.

Aphorism – a clear, easy-to-remember, precise, brief expression of a certain completeness of thought. Aphorisms often become individual lines of poetry or phrases of prose: “Poetry is everything! - a ride into the unknown." (V. Mayakovsky)

Ballad- a narrative song with a dramatic development of the plot, the basis of which is an unusual incident, one of the types of lyric-epic poetry. The ballad is based on an extraordinary story, reflecting the essential moments of the relationship between man and society, people among themselves, the most important features of a person.

Bard – a poet-singer, usually a performer of his own poems, often set to his own music.

Fable – a short poetic story-allegory of a moralizing nature.

Blank verse- unrhymed verses with metric organization (i.e., organized through a system of rhythmically repeating accents). Widely distributed in oral folk art and was actively used in the 18th century.
Forgive me, maiden beauty!
I will part with you forever,
Young girl, I’ll cry.
I'll let you go, beauty,
I'll let you go with ribbons...

Folk song.

Epics - Old Russian epic songs and tales, glorifying the exploits of heroes, reflecting historical events of the 11th - 16th centuries.

Barbarism – a word or figure of speech borrowed from a foreign language. The unjustified use of barbarisms pollutes the native language.

Vers libre- a modern system of versification, which represents a kind of border between verse and prose (it lacks rhyme, meter, traditional rhythmic ordering; the number of syllables in a line and lines in a stanza can be different; there is also no equality of emphasis characteristic of blank verse. Their poetic features speech remains divided into lines with a pause at the end of each line and weakened symmetry of speech (the emphasis falls on the last word of the line).
She came in from the cold
Flushed,
Filled the room
The aroma of air and perfume,
In a ringing voice
And completely disrespectful to classes
Chatting.

Eternal image - an image from a work of classic world literature, expressing certain features of human psychology, which has become a common name of one type or another: Faust, Plyushkin, Oblomov, Don Quixote, Mitrofanushka, etc.

Inner monologue - the announcement of thoughts and feelings that reveal the character’s inner experiences, not intended for the hearing of others, when the character speaks as if to himself, “to the side.”

Vulgarism – simple, even seemingly rude, seemingly unacceptable expressions in poetic speech, used by the author to reflect the specific nature of the phenomenon being described, to characterize a character, sometimes similar to vernacular.

Hero lyrical- the image of the poet (his lyrical “I”), whose experiences, thoughts and feelings are reflected in the lyrical work. The lyrical hero is not identical to the biographical personality. The idea of a lyrical hero is of a summary nature and is formed in the process of familiarization with the inner world that is revealed in lyrical works not through actions, but through experiences, mental states, and manner of verbal self-expression.

Literary hero - character, protagonist of a literary work.

Hyperbola- a means of artistic representation based on excessive exaggeration; figurative expression, which consists in an exorbitant exaggeration of events, feelings, strength, meaning, size of the depicted phenomenon; an outwardly effective form of presenting what is depicted. Can be idealizing and humiliating.

Gradation- stylistic device, arrangement of words and expressions, as well as means of artistic representation in increasing or decreasing importance. Types of gradation: increasing (climax) and decreasing (anti-climax).
Increasing gradation:
Orata's bipod is maple,
The damask boots on the bipod,
The bipod's snout is silver,
And the horn of the bipod is red and gold.

Epic about Volga and Mikula
Descending gradation:
Fly! less fly! disintegrated into a grain of sand.

N.V.Gogol

Grotesque – a bizarre mixture in the image of the real and the fantastic, the beautiful and the ugly, the tragic and the comic - for a more impressive expression of creative intent.

Dactyl- a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the first syllable in the foot. Scheme: -UU| -UU...
Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers!
The azure steppe, the pearl chain
You rush as if, like me, you are exiles,
From the sweet north to the south.

M.Yu.Lermontov

Decadence – a phenomenon in literature (and art in general) of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, reflecting the crisis of the transitional stage of social relations in the minds of some spokesmen for the sentiments of social groups whose ideological foundations were being destroyed by the turning points of history.

Artistic detail – detail that emphasizes the semantic authenticity of the work with material, eventual authenticity - concretizing this or that image.

Dialectisms – words borrowed by the literary language or by a specific author in his work from local dialects: “Well, go - and okay, you have to climb the hill, the house is nearby” (F. Abramov).

Dialogue - exchange of remarks, messages, live speech between two or more persons.

Drama – 1. One of three types of literature, defining works intended for stage execution. It differs from the epic in that it has not a narrative, but a dialogic form; from the lyrics - in that it reproduces the world external to the author. Divided into genres: tragedy, comedy, and also drama itself. 2. Drama is also called a dramatic work that does not have clear genre characteristics, combining techniques of different genres; sometimes such a work is simply called a play.

Unity of people – the technique of repeating similar sounds, words, linguistic structures at the beginning of adjacent lines or stanzas.

Wait for the snow to blow

Wait for it to be hot

Wait when others are not waiting...

K. Simonov

AND

Literary genre - a historically developing type of literary work, the main features of which, constantly changing along with the development of the diversity of forms and content of literature, are sometimes identified with the concept of “type”; but more often the term genre defines a type of literature based on content and emotional characteristics: satirical genre, detective genre, historical essay genre.

Jargon, Also argo - words and expressions borrowed from the language of internal communication of certain social groups of people. The use of jargon in literature allows us to more clearly define the social or professional characteristics of the characters and their environment.

Lives of the Saints - a description of the lives of people canonized by the church (“The Life of Alexander Nevsky”, “The Life of Alexy the Man of God”, etc.).

Tie – an event that determines the occurrence of a conflict in a literary work. Sometimes it coincides with the beginning of the work.

Beginning – the beginning of a work of Russian folk literature - epics, fairy tales, etc. (“Once upon a time...”, “In the distant kingdom, in the thirtieth state...”).

Sound organization of speech- targeted use of elements of the sound composition of the language: vowels and consonants, stressed and unstressed syllables, pauses, intonation, repetitions, etc. It is used to enhance the artistic expressiveness of speech. The sound organization of speech includes: sound repetitions, sound writing, onomatopoeia.

Sound recording- a technique for enhancing the imagery of a text by constructing phrases and lines of poetry in a sound manner that would correspond to the reproduced scene, picture, or expressed mood. In sound writing, alliteration, assonance, and sound repetitions are used. Sound recording enhances the image of a certain phenomenon, action, state.

Onomatopoeia- a type of sound recording; the use of sound combinations that can reflect the sound of the described phenomena, similar in sound to those depicted in artistic speech ("thunder rumbles", "horns roar", "cuckoos crow", "echoes of laughter").

AND

The idea of a work of art - the main idea that summarizes the semantic, figurative, emotional content of a work of art.

Imagism – a literary movement that appeared in Russia after the October Revolution of 1917, proclaiming the image as an end in itself of a work, and not as a means of expressing the essence of the content and reflecting reality. It broke up on its own in 1927. At one time, S. Yesenin joined this trend.

Impressionism- a direction in art of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which asserted that the main task of artistic creativity is the expression of the artist’s subjective impressions of the phenomena of reality.

Improvisation – direct creation of a work in the process of performance.

Inversion- violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of a phrase, giving it special expressiveness; an unusual sequence of words in a sentence.
And the maiden's song is barely audible

Valleys in deep silence.

A.S. Pushkin

Interpretation – interpretation, explanation of ideas, themes, figurative systems and other components of a work of art in literature and criticism.

Intrigue – system, and sometimes the mystery, complexity, mystery of events, on the unraveling of which the plot of the work is built.

Irony – a kind of comic, bitter or, on the contrary, kind ridicule, by ridiculing this or that phenomenon, exposing its negative features and thereby confirming the positive aspects foreseen by the author in the phenomenon.

Historical songs – a genre of folk poetry that reflects the people's understanding of genuine historical events in Rus'.

Literary canon - a symbol, image, plot, born of centuries-old folklore and literary traditions and which has become, to a certain extent, normative: light is good, darkness is evil, etc.

Classicism – an artistic movement that developed in European literature of the 17th century, which is based on the recognition of ancient art as the highest example, ideal, and works of antiquity as the artistic norm. Aesthetics are based on the principle of rationalism and “imitation of nature.” Cult of the mind. A work of art is organized as an artificial, logically constructed whole. Strict plot and compositional organization, schematism. Human characters are depicted in a straightforward manner; positive and negative heroes are contrasted. Actively addressing social and civil issues. Emphasized objectivity of the narrative. Strict hierarchy of genres. High: tragedy, epic, ode. Low: comedy, satire, fable. Mixing high and low genres is not allowed. The leading genre is tragedy.

Collision – generating a conflict that underlies the action of a literary work, a contradiction between the characters of the heroes of this work, or between characters and circumstances, the collisions of which constitute the plot of the work.

Comedy – a dramatic work that uses satire and humor to ridicule the vices of society and man.

Composition – arrangement, alternation, correlation and interrelation of parts of a literary work, serving the most complete embodiment of the artist’s plan.

Context – the general meaning (theme, idea) of the work, expressed in its entire text or in a sufficiently meaningful passage, cohesion, connection with which the quotation, and indeed any passage in general, should not lose.

Artistic conflict - figurative reflection in a work of art of the actions of the forces of struggle of interests, passions, ideas, characters, political aspirations, both personal and social. Conflict adds spice to the plot.

Climax – in a literary work, a scene, event, episode where the conflict reaches its highest tension and a decisive clash occurs between the characters and aspirations of the heroes, after which the transition to the denouement begins in the plot.

Legend – narratives that initially told about the lives of saints, then - religious-didactic, and sometimes fantastic biographies of historical, or even fairy-tale heroes, whose deeds express the national character, which entered worldly use.

Leitmotif- an expressive detail, a specific artistic image, repeated many times, mentioned, passing through a separate work or the entire work of the writer.

Chronicles – handwritten Russian historical narratives telling about events in the life of the country by year; each story began with the word: “Summer... (year...)”, hence the name - chronicle.

Lyrics- one of the main types of literature, reflecting life through the depiction of individual (single) states, thoughts, feelings, impressions and experiences of a person caused by certain circumstances. Feelings and experiences are not described, but expressed. The center of artistic attention is the image-experience. The characteristic features of the lyrics are poetic form, rhythm, lack of plot, small size, a clear reflection of the experiences of the lyrical hero. The most subjective type of literature.

Lyrical digression - deviation from descriptions of events, characters in an epic or lyric-epic work, where the author (or the lyrical hero on whose behalf the story is told) expresses his thoughts and feelings about what is being described, his attitude towards it, addressing directly the reader.

2. Reception of the characterization of a particular phenomenon not by a direct definition, but by the negation of the opposite definition:

The key to nature is not lost,

Proud work is not in vain...

V.Shalamov

A.S. Pushkin

Metaphor increases the accuracy of poetic speech and its emotional expressiveness. A type of metaphor is personification.
Types of metaphor:
1. lexical metaphor, or erased, in which the direct meaning is completely destroyed; “it’s raining”, “time is running”, “clock hand”, “doorknob”;
2. a simple metaphor - built on the convergence of objects or on one of their common features: “hail of bullets”, “talk of waves”, “dawn of life”, “table leg”, “dawn is blazing”;
3. realized metaphor - literal understanding of the meanings of the words that make up the metaphor, emphasizing the direct meanings of the words: “But you don’t have a face - you’re only wearing a shirt and trousers” (S. Sokolov).
4. expanded metaphor - the spread of a metaphorical image over several phrases or the entire work (for example, A.S. Pushkin’s poem “The Cart of Life” or “He couldn’t sleep for a long time: the remaining husk of words clogged and tormented the brain, stabbed in the temples, there’s no way was to get rid of it" (V. Nabokov)
A metaphor is usually expressed by a noun, a verb, and then other parts of speech.

Metonymy- rapprochement, comparison of concepts by contiguity, when a phenomenon or object is designated using other words and concepts: “a steel speaker is dozing in a holster” - a revolver; “led swords at a plentiful pace” - led warriors into battle; “The little owl began to sing” - the violinist began to play his instrument.

Myths – works of folk fantasy that personify reality in the form of gods, demons, and spirits. They were born in ancient times, preceding the religious and, especially, scientific understanding and explanation of the world.

Modernism – designation of many trends, directions in art that determine the desire of artists to reflect modernity with new means, improving, modernizing - in their opinion - traditional means in accordance with historical progress.

Monologue – the speech of one of the literary heroes, addressed either to himself, or to others, or to the public, isolated from the remarks of other heroes, having independent meaning.

Motive- 1. The smallest element of the plot; the simplest, indivisible element of a narrative (a stable and endlessly repeating phenomenon). Numerous motifs make up various plots (for example, the motif of the road, the motif of the search for the missing bride, etc.). This meaning of the term is more often used in relation to works of oral folk art.

2. “Stable semantic unit” (B.N. Putilov); “a semantically rich component of the work, related to the theme, idea, but not identical to them” (V.E. Khalizev); a semantic (substantive) element essential for understanding the author’s concept (for example, the motive of death in “The Tale of the Dead Princess...” by A.S. Pushkin, the motive of cold in “light breathing” - “Easy Breathing” by I. A. Bunin, motive full moon in "The Master and Margarita" by M.A. Bulgakov).

Naturalism – direction in literature of the last third of the 19th century, which asserted an extremely accurate and objective reproduction of reality, sometimes leading to the suppression of the author’s individuality.

Neologisms – newly formed words or expressions.

Novella – a short piece of prose comparable to a short story. The novella is more eventful, the plot is clearer, the plot twist leading to the denouement is clearer.

ABOUT

Artistic image - 1. The main way of perceiving and reflecting reality in artistic creativity, a form of knowledge of life and expression of this knowledge specific to art; the goal and result of the search, and then identifying, highlighting, emphasizing with artistic techniques those features of a phenomenon that most fully reveal its aesthetic, moral, socially significant essence. 2. The term “image” sometimes denotes one or another trope in a work (the image of freedom - “the star of captivating happiness” by A.S. Pushkin), as well as one or another literary hero (the image of the wives of the Decembrists E. Trubetskoy and M. Volkonskaya N. Nekrasova).

Oh yeah- a poem of an enthusiastic nature (solemn, glorifying) in honor of some
either persons or events.

Oxymoron, or oxymoron- a figure based on a combination of words with opposite meanings for the purpose of an unusual, impressive expression of some new concept, representation: hot snow, a stingy knight, lush nature withering.

Personification- the depiction of inanimate objects as animate, in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings: the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel.
What are you howling about, night wind,
Why are you complaining so madly?

F.I.Tyutchev

Onegin stanza - stanza created by A.S. Pushkin in the novel “Eugene Onegin”: 14 lines (but not a sonnet) of iambic tetrameter with the rhyme ababvvggdeejj (3 quatrains alternately - with a cross, paired and sweeping rhyme and a final couplet: designation of the theme, its development, culmination , ending).

Feature article- a type of small form of epic literature, different from its other form, story, the absence of a single, quickly resolved conflict and the great development of descriptive images. Both differences depend on the specific issues of the essay. It touches not so much on the problems of developing the character of an individual in its conflicts with the established social environment, but rather on the problems of the civil and moral state of the “environment.” The essay can relate to both literature and journalism.

Paradox - in literature - the technique of a statement that clearly contradicts generally accepted concepts, either to expose those of them that, in the opinion of the author, are false, or to express one’s disagreement with the so-called “common sense”, due to inertia, dogmatism, and ignorance.

Parallelism- one of the types of repetition (syntactic, lexical, rhythmic); a compositional technique that emphasizes the connection between several elements of a work of art; analogy, bringing together phenomena by similarity (for example, natural phenomena and human life).
In bad weather the wind
Howls - howls;
Violent head
Evil sadness torments.

V.A.Koltsov

Parcellation- dividing a statement with a single meaning into several independent, isolated sentences (in writing - using punctuation marks, in speech - intonation, using pauses):
Well? Don't you see that he's gone crazy?
Say it seriously:
Insane! What kind of nonsense is he talking about here!
The sycophant! father-in-law! and so menacing about Moscow!

A.S.Griboyedov

Pamphlet(English pamphlet) - a journalistic work, usually small in volume, with a sharply expressed accusatory nature, often a polemical orientation and a well-defined socio-political “address”.

Pathos – the highest point of inspiration, emotional feeling, delight, achieved in a literary work and in its perception by the reader, reflecting significant events in society and the spiritual upsurges of the heroes.

Scenery - in literature - the depiction of pictures of nature in a literary work as a means of figurative expression of the author’s intention.

Periphrase- using a description instead of your own name or title; descriptive expression, figure of speech, substitute word. Used to decorate speech, replace repetition, or carry the meaning of allegory.

Pyrrhic - an auxiliary foot of two short or unstressed syllables, replacing an iambic or trochaic foot; lack of stress in iambic or trochee: “I am writing to you...” by A.S. Pushkin, “Sail” by M.Yu. Lermontov.

Pleonasm- unjustified verbosity, the use of words that are unnecessary to express thoughts. In normative stylistics, Pleonasm is considered as a speech error. In the language of fiction - as a stylistic figure of addition, serving to enhance the expressive qualities of speech.
“Elisha had no appetite for food”; “some boring guy... lay down... among the dead and personally died”; “Kozlov continued to lie silent, having been killed” (A. Platonov).

Tale – a work of epic prose, gravitating towards a sequential presentation of the plot, limited to a minimum of plot lines.

Repetition- a figure consisting of the repetition of words, expressions, song or poetic lines in order to attract special attention to them.
Every house is alien to me, every temple is not empty,
And everything is the same and everything is one...

M. Tsvetaeva

Subtext – the meaning hidden “under” the text, i.e. not expressed directly and openly, but arising from the narrative or dialogue of the text.

Permanent epithet- a colorful definition, inextricably combined with the word being defined and forming a stable figurative and poetic expression (“blue sea”, “white stone chambers”, “red maiden”, “clear falcon”, “sugar lips”).

Poetry- a special organization of artistic speech, which is distinguished by rhythm and rhyme - poetic form; lyrical form of reflection of reality. The term poetry is often used to mean “works of different genres in verse.” Conveys the subjective attitude of the individual to the world. In the foreground is the image-experience. It does not set the task of conveying the development of events and characters.

Poem- a large poetic work with a plot and narrative organization; a story or novel in verse; a multi-part work in which the epic and lyrical principles merge together. The poem can be classified as a lyric-epic genre of literature, since the narration of historical events and events in the lives of the heroes is revealed in it through the perception and assessment of the narrator. In the poem we're talking about about events of universal significance. Most poems glorify some human acts, events and characters.

Tradition – oral narration about real persons and reliable events, one of the varieties of folk art.

Preface – an article preceding a literary work, written either by the author himself or by a critic or literary scholar. The preface may provide brief information about the writer, some explanations about the history of the creation of the work, and offer an interpretation of the author’s intentions.

Prototype – a real person who served as a model for the author to create the image of a literary hero.

Play - a general designation for a literary work intended for stage performance - tragedy, drama, comedy, etc.

Interchange – the final part of the development of a conflict or intrigue, where the conflict of the work is resolved and comes to a logical figurative conclusion.

Poetic meter- a consistently expressed form of poetic rhythm (determined by the number of syllables, stresses or feet - depending on the system of versification); diagram of the construction of a poetic line. In Russian (syllabic-tonic) versification, there are five main poetic meters: two-syllable (iamb, trochee) and three-syllable (dactyl, amphibrach, anapest). In addition, each size can vary in the number of feet (4-foot iambic; 5-foot iambic, etc.).

Story - a small prose work of a mainly narrative nature, compositionally grouped around a separate episode or character.

Realism – an artistic method of figuratively reflecting reality in accordance with objective accuracy.

Reminiscence – the use in a literary work of expressions from other works, or even folklore, that evoke some other interpretation from the author; sometimes the borrowed expression is slightly changed (M. Lermontov - “Lush city, poor city” (about St. Petersburg) - from F. Glinka “Wonderful city, ancient city” (about Moscow).

Refrain- repetition of a verse or a series of verses at the end of a stanza (in songs - chorus).

We are ordered to go into battle:

"Long live freedom!"

Freedom! Whose? Not said.

But not the people.

We are ordered to go into battle -

"Allied for the sake of nations"

But the main thing is not said:

Whose for the sake of banknotes?

Rhythm- constant, measured repetition in the text of the same type of segments, including minimal ones, - stressed and unstressed syllables.

Rhyme- sound repetition in two or more verses, mainly at the end. Unlike other sound repetitions, rhyme always emphasizes the rhythm and division of speech into verses.

A rhetorical question- a question that does not require an answer (either the answer is fundamentally impossible, or is clear in itself, or the question is addressed to a conditional “interlocutor”). A rhetorical question activates the reader’s attention and enhances his emotional reaction.
"Rus! Where are you going?"

"Dead Souls" by N.V. Gogol
Or is it new for us to argue with Europe?
Or is the Russian unaccustomed to victories?

"To the slanderers of Russia" A.S. Pushkin

Genus - one of the main sections in the taxonomy of literary works, defining three different forms: epic, lyric, drama.

Novel - an epic narrative with elements of dialogue, sometimes including drama or literary digressions, focusing on the history of an individual in a social environment.

Romanticism – a literary movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, which opposed itself to classicism as a search for forms of reflection that were more in line with modern reality.

Romantic hero– a complex, passionate personality, whose inner world is unusually deep and endless; it is a whole universe full of contradictions.

WITH

Sarcasm – caustic, sarcastic ridicule of someone or something. Widely used in satirical literary works.

Satire – a type of literature that exposes and ridicules the vices of people and society in specific forms. These forms can be very diverse - paradox and hyperbole, grotesque and parody, etc.

Sentimentalism – literary movement of the late 18th – early 19th centuries. It arose as a protest against the canons of classicism in art that had turned into dogma, reflecting the canonization of feudal social relations that had already turned into a hindrance to social development.

Syllabic versification e - syllabic system of versification, based on the equality of the number of syllables in each verse with obligatory stress on the penultimate syllable; equipoise. The length of a verse is determined by the number of syllables.
It's hard not to love
And love is hard
And the hardest thing
Loving love cannot be obtained.

A.D. Kantemir

Syllabic-tonic versification- syllabic stress system of versification, which is determined by the number of syllables, the number of stresses and their location in the poetic line. It is based on the equality of the number of syllables in a verse and the orderly change of stressed and unstressed syllables. Depending on the system of alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, two-syllable and three-syllable sizes are distinguished.

Symbol- an image that expresses the meaning of a phenomenon in objective form. An object, an animal, a sign becomes a symbol when they are endowed with additional, extremely important meaning.

Symbolism – literary and artistic movement of the late 19th – early 20th centuries. Symbolism sought through symbols in a tangible form to embody the idea of the unity of the world, expressed in accordance with its most diverse parts, allowing colors, sounds, smells to represent one through the other (D. Merezhkovsky, A. Bely, A. Blok, Z. Gippius, K. Balmont , V. Bryusov).

Synecdoche – artistic technique of substitution for the sake of expressiveness - one phenomenon, subject, object, etc. – correlated with it by other phenomena, objects, objects.

Oh, you are heavy, Monomakh’s hat!

A.S. Pushkin.

Sonnet – a fourteen-line poem composed according to certain rules: the first quatrain (quatrain) presents an exposition of the theme of the poem, the second quatrain develops the provisions outlined in the first, in the subsequent terzetto (three-line verse) the denouement of the theme is outlined, in the final terzetto, especially in its final line, the denouement is completed , expressing the essence of the work.

Comparison- a pictorial technique based on a comparison of a phenomenon or concept (object of comparison) with another phenomenon or concept (means of comparison), with the goal of highlighting any particularly important artistic feature of the object of comparison:
Full of goodness before the end of the year,
Days are like Antonov apples.

A.T. Tvardovsky

Versification- the principle of rhythmic organization of poetic speech. Versification can be syllabic, tonic, syllabic-tonic.

Poem- a small work created according to the laws of poetic speech; usually a lyrical work.

Poetic speech- a special organization of artistic speech, differing from prose in its strict rhythmic organization; measured, rhythmically organized speech. A means of conveying expressive emotions.

Foot- a stable (ordered) combination of a stressed syllable with one or two unstressed syllables, which are repeated in each verse. The foot can be two-syllable (iambic U-, trochee -U) and three-syllable (dactyl -UU, amphibrachium U-U, anapest UU-).

Stanza- a group of verses repeated in poetic speech, related in meaning, as well as in the arrangement of rhymes; a combination of verses that forms a rhythmic and syntactic whole, united by a certain rhyme system; additional rhythmic element of verse. Often has complete content and syntactic structure. The stanza is separated from one another by an increased interval.

Plot- a system of events in a work of art, presented in a certain connection, revealing the characters of the characters and the writer’s attitude to the depicted life phenomena; subsequence. The course of events that makes up the content of a work of art; dynamic aspect of a work of art.

Tautology- repetition of the same words that are close in meaning and sound.
Everything is mine, said gold,
Damask steel said everything mine.

A.S. Pushkin.

Subject- a circle of phenomena and events that form the basis of the work; object of artistic depiction; what the author is talking about and what he wants to attract the attention of readers to.

Type - a literary hero who embodies certain features of a particular time, social phenomenon, social system or social environment (“extra people” - Eugene Onegin, Pechorin, etc.).

Tonic versification- a system of versification based on the equality of stressed syllables in poetry. The length of the line is determined by the number of stressed syllables. The number of unstressed syllables is arbitrary.

The girl sang in the church choir

About all those who are tired in a foreign land,

About all the ships that went to sea,

About everyone who has forgotten their joy.

Tragedy - a type of drama that arose from the ancient Greek ritual dithyramb in honor of the patron of viticulture and wine, the god Dionysus, who was represented in the form of a goat, then in the likeness of a satyr with horns and a beard.

Tragicomedy – a drama that combines features of both tragedy and comedy, reflecting the relativity of our definitions of the phenomena of reality.

Trails- words and expressions used in a figurative sense in order to achieve artistic expressiveness of speech. The basis of any trope is a comparison of objects and phenomena.

Default- a figure that gives the listener or reader the opportunity to guess and reflect on what could be discussed in a suddenly interrupted utterance.
But is it me, is it me, the sovereign’s favorite...
But death... but power... but the people's disasters....

A.S. Pushkin

Fable – a series of events that serve as the basis of a literary work. Often, the plot means the same thing as the plot; the differences between them are so arbitrary that a number of literary scholars consider the plot to be what others consider to be the plot, and vice versa.

Feuilleton(French feuilleton, from feuille - sheet, sheet) - a genre of artistic and journalistic literature, which is characterized by a critical, often comic, including satirical, beginning, and certainly relevance.

The final - part of the composition of a work that ends it. It may sometimes coincide with the denouement. Sometimes the ending is an epilogue.

Futurism – artistic movement in the art of the first two decades of the 20th century. The birth of futurism is considered to be the “Futurist Manifesto” published in 1909 in the Parisian magazine Le Figaro. The theorist and leader of the first group of futurists was the Italian F. Marienetti. The main content of futurism was the extremist revolutionary overthrow of the old world, its aesthetics in particular, down to linguistic norms. Russian futurism opened with the “Prologue of Egofuturism” by I. Severyanin and the collection “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste,” in which V. Mayakovsky took part.

Literary character - a set of features of the image of a character, a literary hero, in which individual characteristics serve as a reflection of the typical, determined both by the phenomenon that makes up the content of the work and by the ideological and aesthetic intention of the author who created this hero. Character is one of the main components of a literary work.

Trochee- two-syllable poetic meter with stress on the first syllable.
The storm covers the sky with darkness,

U|-U|-U|-U|
Whirling snow whirlwinds;

U|-U|-U|-
Then, like a beast, she will howl, -U|-U|-U|-U|
Then he will cry like a child...

A.S. Pushkin

Quote - a statement by another author quoted verbatim in the work of one author - as confirmation of one’s thought with an authoritative, indisputable statement, or even vice versa - as a formulation requiring refutation, criticism.

Aesopian language - various ways to figuratively express this or that thought that cannot be expressed directly, for example, due to censorship.

Exposition – the part of the plot immediately preceding the plot that provides the reader with background information about the circumstances in which the conflict of the literary work arose.

Expression- emphasized expressiveness of something. Unusual artistic means are used to achieve expression.

Elegy- a lyrical poem that conveys deeply personal, intimate experiences of a person, imbued with a mood of sadness.

Ellipsis- a stylistic figure, an omission of a word whose meaning can be easily restored from the context. The meaningful function of ellipsis is to create the effect of lyrical “understatement,” deliberate negligence, and emphasized dynamism of speech.
The beast has a den,
The way for the wanderer,
For the dead - drogues,
To each his own.

M. Tsvetaeva

Epigram- a short poem ridiculing a person.

Epigraph – an expression prefixed by the author to his work or part of it. An epigraph usually expresses the essence of the author's creative intent.

Episode – a fragment of the plot of a literary work that describes a certain integral moment of action that makes up the content of the work.

Epistrophe – repetition of the same word or expression in a long phrase or period, focusing the reader’s attention, in poetry - at the beginning and end of stanzas, as if surrounding them.

I won't tell you anything

I won't alarm you at all...

Epithet- an artistic and figurative definition that emphasizes the most significant feature of an object or phenomenon in a given context; used to evoke in the reader a visible image of a person, thing, nature, etc.

I sent you a black rose in a glass

Golden as the sky, Ai...

An epithet can be expressed by an adjective, adverb, participle, or numeral. Often the epithet has a metaphorical character. Metaphorical epithets highlight the properties of an object in a special way: they transfer one of the meanings of a word to another word based on the fact that these words have a common feature: sable eyebrows, a warm heart, a cheerful wind, i.e. a metaphorical epithet uses the figurative meaning of a word.

Epiphora- a figure opposite to anaphora, repetition of the same elements at the end of adjacent segments of speech (words, lines, stanzas, phrases):
Baby,
We are all a little bit of a horse,
Each of us is a horse in our own way.

V.V. Mayakovsky

Epic – 1. One of three types of literature, the defining feature of which is the description of certain events, phenomena, characters. 2. This term is often used to describe heroic tales, epics, and fairy tales in folk art.

Essay(French essai - attempt, test, essay) - a literary work of small volume, usually prosaic, of free composition, conveying the author’s individual impressions, judgments, thoughts about a particular problem, topic, particular event or phenomenon. It differs from an essay in that in an essay the facts are only a reason for the author’s thoughts.

Humor - a type of comic in which vices are not ridiculed mercilessly, as in satire, but the shortcomings and weaknesses of a person or phenomenon are kindly emphasized, recalling that they are often only a continuation or the reverse side of our merits.

Iambic- two-syllable poetic meter with stress on the second syllable.
The abyss has opened and is full of stars

U-|U-|U-|U-|
The stars have no number, the bottom of the abyss. U-|U-|U-|U-|

Part I. Questions of poetics

ACT, or ACTION - a relatively completed part of a literary dramatic work or its theatrical performance. The division of a performance into A. was first carried out in the Roman theater. The tragedies of ancient authors, classicists, and romantics were usually constructed in 5 A. In the realistic drama of the 19th century, along with the five-act play, four- and three-act plays appeared(A.N. Ostrovsky, A.P. Chekhov). A one-act play is typical for vaudeville. In modern dramaturgy, there are plays with different numbers of A.

ALLEGORY - an allegorical expression of an abstract concept, judgment or idea through a specific image.

For example, hard work is in the image of an ant, carelessness is in the image of a dragonfly in I.A. Krylov’s fable “The Dragonfly and the Ant.”

A. is unambiguous, i.e. expresses a strictly defined concept (compare with the polysemy of a symbol). Many proverbs, sayings, fables, and fairy tales are allegorical.

ALLITERATION - repetition of consonant sounds in the same or similar combination in order to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech.

How sweetly the dark green garden sleeps,

Embraced by the bliss of the night l u b oh,

Through them, whitened with flowers.

How to the moon is shining like hell wow!...

(F.I. Tyutchev)

In the above example, A. (sl - ml - zl - forehead - bl - bl - sl - zl) helps to convey pleasure in the beauty of a blooming garden.

AMPHIBRACHIUS - in syllabic-tonic verse - a poetic meter, the rhythm of which is based on the repetition of a three-syllable foot with stress on the second syllable:

Once upon a time in the cold winter time

I came out of the forest; it was bitterly cold.

ANAPAEST - in syllabic-tonic verse - a poetic meter, the rhythm of which is based on the repetition of a three-syllable foot with stress on the third syllable:

Name me such an abode,

I've never seen such an angle

Where would your sower and guardian be?

Where would a Russian man not moan?

(N.A. Nekrasov. “Reflections at the Main Entrance”)

ANAPHOR, or UNITY - stylistic figure;
repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning side by side
standing lines or stanzas (in verse), at the beginning of adjacent phrases or paragraphs (in prose).

I swear I am the first day of creation.

I swear his last day

I swear the shame of crime

And eternal truth triumph.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “Demon”)

By analogy with lexical a., they sometimes talk about phonic a. (repetition of the same sounds at the beginning of words), about compositional a. (repetition of the same plot motifs at the beginning of episodes).

ANTITHESIS - in a work of art there is a sharp contrast of concepts, images, situations, etc.:

You are rich, I am very poor;

You are a prose writer, I am a poet;

You are blushing like poppies,

I am like death, skinny and pale.

(A.S. Pushkin. “You and Me”)

A. can be the basis of the composition of the entire work. For example, in L.N. Tolstoy’s story “After the Ball,” the scenes of the ball and the execution are contrasted.

ANTONYMS - words with opposite meanings. A. are used to emphasize the difference between phenomena. A.S. Pushkin characterizes Lensky and Onegin as follows:

They got along. Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other.

("Eugene Onegin")

A. are also used to convey the internal complexity, inconsistency of a phenomenon or feeling:

All this would be funny

If only it weren't so sad.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “A.O. Smirnova”)

ARCHAISM - a word that is outdated in its lexical meaning or grammatical form. A. are used to convey the historical flavor of the era, as well as for the artistic expressiveness of the speech of the author and hero: they, as a rule, give it solemnity. For example, A.S. Pushkin, speaking about the tasks of the poet and poetry, achieves sublime pathos with the help of A.:

Arise, prophet, and see, and listen,

Be fulfilled by my will,

And, bypassing the seas and lands,

Verb burn people's hearts.

("Prophet")

Sometimes A. are introduced into a work for a humorous or satirical purpose.For example, A.S. Pushkin in the poem “Gavriliad” creates a satirical image of St. Gabriel, combining A. (“bowed down,” “rose up,” “river”) with lowered words and expressions (“grabbed him in the temple,” “hit him straight.” in the teeth").

ASSONANCE - repetition of the same or similar vowel sounds in order to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech. The basis of astrology is made up of stressed vowels; unstressed vowels can only serve as peculiar sound echoes.

"On this moonlit night

We love to see our work!”

In this phrase, the insistent repetition of sounds OU creates the impression of groaning, crying of people tortured by hard work.

ARCHETYPE - in modern literary criticism: a prototype, a model of the world and human relations, as if unconsciously “dormant” in the collective memory of humanity, going back to its common primitive ideas(e.g. old age - wisdom; motherhood - protection). A. manifests itself in individual motifs or in the plot of the work as a whole. The images and motifs of the folklore of the peoples of the world are archetypal. Conscious or unconscious transformed (altered) archetypicality is inherent in the work of individual writers. Its opening during analysis enhances the perception of the artistic image in all its innovative originality, acutely perceptible as if “against the background” of its eternal (archetypal) essence.For example, the motif of the transformation of a person by an evil force into some other creature (inherent in various folklore systems) in literature emphasizes the tragedy and fragility of human destiny (F. Kafka, “The Metamorphosis”).

APHORISM - a deep generalizing thought, expressed with extreme brevity in a polished form:

The habit was given to us from above.

She is a substitute for happiness.

A. differs from a proverb in that it belongs to some author.

BLANK VERSE - syllabic-tonic unrhymed verse. B.S. especially common in poetic dramaturgy (usually iambic pentameter), because convenient for conveying conversational intonations:

Everyone says: there is no truth on earth.

But there is no higher truth. For me

So it's clear, like a simple scale.

(A.S. Pushkin. “Mozart and Salieri”)

In the lyrics of B.S. occurs, but less frequently.See: “Again I visited...” by A.S. Pushkin, “Can I hear your voice...” by M.Yu. Lermontov.

UNION, or ASINDETON - stylistic figure; skipping conjunctions that connect homogeneous words or sentences in phrases. B. can impart dynamism, drama, and other shades to the depicted:

Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts,

Drumming, clicks, grinding,

The thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning...

(A.S. Pushkin. “Poltava”)

BLESSING, or EUPHONIA - the sound of words is pleasant to the ear, giving additional emotional coloring to poetic speech.

The mermaid swam along the blue river

Illuminated by the full moon:

And she tried to splash to the moon

Silvery foam waves.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “Mermaid”)

Here the words sound softly, smoothly, imparting a special lyrical harmony to the verse. B. is created by all types of sound repetitions (rhyme, alliteration, assonance), as well as the intonation of phrases. Requirements for poetry vary depending on the genre, individual poetic tastes or literary movement(for example, futurists considered sharp sound combinations to be euphonious).

BARBARISM - a word of foreign origin that has not become an organic property of the national language in which it is used.For example, the Russified words “diploma” and “maternity leave” (from French) are not barbarisms, but the words “madame”, “pardon” (from French) are barbarisms.

Monsieur l'Abbe , poor Frenchman.

So that the child does not get tired,

I taught him everything jokingly.

(A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”)

In Russian literature, V. are used when it is necessary to accurately name the phenomenon being described (in the absence of a corresponding Russian word), to convey the peculiarities of life of people of other nationalities, to create a satirical image of a person who worships everything foreign, etc.

EXTRA-SCRIPT ELEMENTS OF THE COMPOSITION- when interpreting the plot as an action - those passages of a literary work that do not advance the development of the action. To W.E.C. include various descriptions of the hero’s appearance (portrait), nature (landscape), description of the home (interior), as well as monologues, dialogues of the characters and lyrical digressions of the author.Thus, the second chapter of A.S. Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin” begins with a detailed description of the village, and then the house where the hero settled.V.E.K. They allow us to reveal the character of the characters in a more multifaceted and detailed way (since their essence is manifested not only in their actions, but also in their portrait, in their perception of nature, etc.). V.E.K. They also create a background for what is happening.

FREE VERSE - syllabic-tonic rhymed verse in which the lines have different lengths (unequal number of feet). Particularly common is free iambic (with feet fluctuating from 1 to 6), which is also called fable verse, because most often found in works of this genre.

Bear (1 foot)

Caught in the net, (2 stops)

Jokes about death from afar, as boldly as you want: (6 stops)

But death up close is a completely different matter! (5 stops)

(I.A. Krylov. “Bear in the Net”)

VULGARISM - a rude word that does not meet the literary norm. V. are sometimes introduced into the hero’s speech in order to characterize him.For example, Sobakevich conveys his attitude towards city officials in these words: “All are sellers of Christ. There is only one decent person there: the prosecutor; and even that one, to tell the truth, is a pig” (N.V. Gogol. “Dead Souls”).

HYPERBOLA - artistic exaggeration of the real properties of an object or phenomenon to such an extent that in reality they cannot have. A variety of properties are hyperbolized: size, speed, quantity, etc. For example:“Hare pants as wide as the Black Sea” (N.V. Gogol, “How Ivan Ivanovich and Ivan Nikiforovich quarreled”).G. is used especially widely in Russian epics.

GRADATION - stylistic figure; gradual increase (or, on the contrary, weakening) of the emotional and semantic meaning of words and expressions:“I knew him to be in love tenderly, passionately, madly...” (N.V. Gogol. “Old World Landowners”).G. is able to convey the development of any feeling of the hero, his emotional excitement or reflect the dynamism of events, the drama of situations, etc.

GROTESQUE - extreme exaggeration, giving the image a fantastic character. G. assumes the internal interaction of contrasting principles: the real and the fantastic; tragic and comic; sarcastic and humorous. G. always sharply violates the boundaries of plausibility, giving the image conventional, bizarre, strange forms.For example, the veneration of one of Gogol’s heroes is so great that he worships his own nose, which was torn away from his face and became an official higher in rank than him (“The Nose”). Widely used by G. M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, V. V. Mayakovsky and others.

DACTYL - in syllabic-tonic verse - a poetic meter, the rhythm of which is based on the repetition of a three-syllable foot with stress on the first syllable:

Glorious autumn! Healthy, vigorous

The air invigorates tired forces.

(N.A. Nekrasov. “Railroad”)

COUPLET - the simplest stanza, consisting of two rhymed verses:

The prince bathes his horse in the sea;

He hears: “Tsarevich! Look at me!

The horse snorts and pricks his ears.

It splashes and splashes and floats away.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “The Sea Princess”)

DIALECTISM - a non-literary word or expression characteristic of the speech of people living in a certain area (in the North, in the South, in a certain region). D., as a rule, have correspondences in the literary language.So, in villages where Cossacks live, they say: “baz” (yard), “kuren” (hut); in the North they say: “basko” (beautiful), “parya” (guy). Writers turn to D. to create a convincing, realistic image of the hero.In Russian literature, D. N. A. Nekrasov, N. S. Leskov, M. A. Sholokhov, A. T. Tvardovsky and others were widely used. D. are partly capable of performing the function of historical coloring (V. M. Shukshin. “I I came to give you freedom...").

DIALOGUE - exchange of remarks between two or more persons in a literary work. D. is especially widely used in drama, and is also used in epic works(for example, D. Chichikov and Sobakevich).

JARGON, or ARGO - a non-literary artificial language, understandable only to k.-l. a circle of dedicated people: a certain social stratum (secular Zh., thief Zh.), people united by a common pastime (gambling Zh.), etc.For example: “And the “hooks” are a damn flock!..” (I.L. Selvinsky. “The Thief”). "Hooks" here means "police".Writers turn to J. to convey the hero’s social affiliation, emphasize his spiritual limitations, etc.

TIE - an episode of the plot that depicts the emergence of a contradiction (conflict) and, to some extent, determines the further development of events in the work.For example, “The Noble Nest” by I.S. Turgenev 3. is the flared love of Lavretsky and Lisa, colliding with the inert morality of the environment.3. may be motivated by previous exposure(this is 3. in the named novel)and can be sudden, unexpected, “opening” the work, which gives special poignancy to the development of the action.This 3. is often used, for example, by A.P. Chekhov (“Spouse”).

ABSOLUTE LANGUAGE, or ABSOLUTELY - a purely emotional language, based not on the meaning of words, but on a set of sounds that seem to express a certain state of the poet. Nominated by futurist writers (1910-20 in Russian literature). 3. Ya is, of course, the destruction of art as a form of knowledge and reflection of reality. Eg:

Alebos,

Tainobos.

Bezwe!

Boo Boo,

Baoba,

Decrease!!!

(A.E. Kruchenykh. “Vesel zau”)

To some extent, the zaum served as a search for new artistic means, for example, the author’s neologisms(“winged with the golden writing of the thinnest wings...” - this is what V. Khlebnikov says about the grasshopper).

ONOMATOPOEIA- the desire to use sounds to hint at the sound characteristics of a person. specific phenomenon of reality. 3. makes the artistic image more expressive.In a humorous story by A.P. Chekhov, an old train is described as follows: “The mail train... is rushing at full speed... The locomotive whistles, puffs, hisses, sniffles... “Something will happen, something will happen!” - the carriages, trembling from old age, knock... Ogogogo - oh - oh! - picks up the locomotive." ("In the wagon"). 3. is used especially often in poetry (S. Cherny. “Easter Chime”).

INVERSION - stylistic figure; unusual (from the point of view of grammar rules) word order in a sentence or phrase. Successful I. gives the created image greater expressiveness. The poet emphasizes the youth and lightness of Onegin, who is hurrying to the long-started ball, with the following inversion:

He passes the doorman with an arrow

He flew up the marble steps.

(A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”)

ALLEGORY - an expression containing a different, hidden meaning.For example, about a small child: “What a big man is coming!”I. enhances the expressiveness of artistic speech and is the basis of tropes. Particularly striking types of fiction are allegory and Aesopian language.

INTONATION - the melody of spoken speech, which allows you to convey the subtlest semantic and emotional shades of a particular phrase. Thanks to I. same statement(e.g. greeting “Hello, Maria Ivanovna!”)may sound businesslike, or flirtatious, or ironic, etc. I. is created in speech by raising and lowering the tone, pauses, tempo of speech, etc. In writing, the main features of I. are conveyed using punctuation, explanatory words of the author regarding the speech of the characters . I. plays a special role in poetry, where it can be melodious, declamatory, colloquial, etc. The creation of the intonation of a verse involves poetic meters, line length, rhyme, clause, pauses, and stanzas.

INTRIGUE - a complex, intense, tangled knot of events that underlies the development of a dramatic (less often, epic) work. I. is the result of a thoughtful, persistent, often secret struggle of the characters(for example, plays by A.N. Ostrovsky, novels by F.M. Dostoevsky).

PUN - a play on words based on the identical or very similar sound of words with different meanings. K. are based on homonyms or comic etymology. K. usually characterizes the hero as a witty, lively person:“I came to Moscow, I cry and cry” (P.A. Vyazemsky. “Letter to my wife”, 1824).

QUATREIN, or quatrains - the most popular stanza in Russian versification. The rhyming of lines in K. can be different:

1. abab (cross):

Don’t be shy for your dear fatherland...

The Russian people have endured enough.

He took out this railway too -

He will endure everything that God does not send!

(N.A. Nekrasov. “Railroad”)

2. aabb (adjacent):

I can't wait for freedom,

And prison days are like years;

And the window is high above the ground.

And there is a sentry at the door!

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “The Neighbor”)

3. abba (waist):

God help me, my friends,

And in storms and in everyday grief,

In a foreign land, in a deserted sea

And in the dark abysses of the earth.

COMPOSITION - this or that construction of a work of art, motivated by its ideological concept. K. is a certain arrangement and interaction of all components of works: plot (i.e., development of action), descriptive (landscape, portrait), as well as monologues, dialogues, author's lyrical digressions, etc. Depending on artistic goals, techniques and the principles underlying K. can be very diverse.So, for example, the basis for the arrangement of paintings in Leo Tolstoy’s story “After the Ball” is contrast, which well conveys the main idea about the inhumane essence of the outwardly respectable and brilliant colonel. And in “Dead Souls” one of the compositional techniques is the repetition of similar situations (Chichikov’s arrival to another landowner, meeting the hero, lunch) and descriptions (estate landscape, interior, etc.). This technique allows us to convey the idea of the diversity of the characters of the landowners and at the same time their uniformity, which consists in the meaninglessness of an idle existence at the expense of the peasants. In addition, the idea is raised about Chichikov’s many-sided opportunism.The composition of epic works is especially diverse in its components; In classical dramatic works, the plot, monologues, and dialogues play a particularly significant role; In K. lyrical works, as a rule, there is no plot beginning.

CLIMAX - that point in the development of the plot when the conflict reaches its highest tension: the clash of opposing principles (socio-political, moral, etc.) is felt especially acutely, and the characters in their essential features are revealed to the greatest extent.For example, in “The Noble Nest” by I.S. Turgenev, the contradiction between the love of the heroes and the laws of the social environment reaches a special intensity in the episode depicting the arrival of Lavretsky’s wife Varvara Pavlovna. This is K. novel, because The outcome of the conflict depends on how the main characters behave: will Lavretsky and Lisa be able to defend their feelings or not?

VOCABULARY - vocabulary of the language. When turning to this or that L., the writer is guided primarily by the tasks of creating an artistic image. For these purposes, it is important for the author to choose an accurate and apt word (see: synonyms, antonyms), the ability to use its figurative meaning (see: tropes), as well as lexical and stylistic shades (see: archaisms, colloquialisms, jargons, etc.) . Features of L. in the hero’s speech serve as a means of characterizing him.For example, Manilov’s speech contains many endearing words (“darling”, “mouth”) and epithets expressing the highest (even “twice the highest”) degree of k.-l. qualities (“most venerable”, “most amiable”), which speaks of the sentimentality and enthusiasm of his character (N.V. Gogol. “Dead Souls”).A literary analysis of a literary work should lead to an understanding of the character of the hero and the author’s attitude towards the depicted.

AUTHOR'S LYRICAL DISCLOSURE- the author’s deviation from the direct plot narrative, which consists in expressing his feelings and thoughts in the form of lyrical inserts on topics that have little (or nothing) to do with the main theme of the work. L.O. allow you to express the author’s opinion on important issues of our time and express thoughts on certain issues. L.O. found in both poetry and prose.For example, in the second chapter of A.S. Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin,” the story of Tatyana, who has fallen in love, is suddenly interrupted, and the author expresses his opinion on issues of classicist, romantic and realistic art (the principles of which he affirms in the novel. Then again there is a story about Tatyana An example of a lyrical digression in prose can be the author’s thoughts about the future of Russia in N.V. Gogol’s “Dead Souls” (see the end of Chapter XI).

LITOTES - artistic understatement of the real properties of an object or phenomenon to such an extent that in reality they cannot possess.For example: Chichikov’s stroller is “light as a feather” (N.V. Gogol. “Dead Souls”).A variety of properties can be downplayed: size, thickness, distance, time, etc. L. increases the expressiveness of artistic speech.

METAPHOR - one of the main tropes of artistic speech; hidden comparison of an object or phenomenon based on the similarity of their characteristics. In mathematics (as opposed to comparison), the word does not denote both objects (or phenomena) that are being compared, but only the second, the first is only implied.

Bee for field tribute

Flies from a wax cell.

(A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”)

In this example, there are two M.: the beehive is compared by similarity with a cell, nectar - with tribute, although the concepts of “beehive” and “nectar” themselves are not named. Grammatically M. Can be expressed by different parts of speech: noun (examples given), adjective("fire kiss"), verb (“a kiss sounded on my lips” - M.Yu. Lermontov. “Taman”), participle (“A bee crawls into every carnation of fragrant lilac, singing” - A.A. Fet).If the image is revealed through several metaphorical expressions, then such a metaphor is called expanded:see the poem “In the worldly, sad and boundless steppe” by A.S. Pushkin, “The Cup of Life” by M.Yu. Lermontov.

METONYMY - transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another not on the basis of the similarity of their characteristics (which is noted in the metaphor), but only according to s.l. their adjacent connections. Depending on the specific nature of the contiguity, many types of M are distinguished. Let's name the most common ones.

1. Content is called instead of containing:“The flooded stove is cracking” (A.S. Pushkin. “Winter Evening”);

3. The material from which a thing is made is called instead of the thing itself:“The amber in his mouth was smoking” (A.S. Pushkin. “Bakhchisarai
fountain");

4. The place where people are is called instead of the people themselves:"Steam
ter and chairs - everything is boiling” (A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”).

MULTI-UNION, or POLYSYNDETHON - stylistic figure; a special construction of a phrase in which all (or almost all) homogeneous members of a sentence are connected by the same conjunction. M. can impart gradualism, lyricism, and other shades to artistic speech.“The whole earth is in a silver light, and the wonderful air is cool and sultry, and full of bliss, and moves an ocean of fragrances...” (N.V. Gogol. “May Night”).

Oh! Summer is red! I would love you.

If only it weren't for the heat, the dust, the mosquitoes, and the flies.

(A.S. Pushkin. “Autumn”)

MONOLOGUE - a fairly long speech by the hero in a literary work. M. is especially significant in drama, used in epic works, and manifests itself in a unique way in lyric poetry (M. of the lyrical hero). M. conveys the character’s feelings, thoughts, includes messages about his past or future, etc. M. can be pronounced out loud (direct M.) or mentally (internal M).An example is the famous M. Onegin addressed to Tatyana, which begins with the words: “Whenever I wanted to limit my life to the home circle...” (A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”, Chapter IV, stanzas XIII-XVI ).

NEOLOGISM - a newly formed word or phrase in a language, created to designate a new object or phenomenon,e.g. "computer virus".Writers create their own individual narratives in order to enhance the imagery and emotionality of artistic speech, especially poetic speech.For example, the poet conveys his impression of a silent city street: “...the squat buildings of Otserkveneli, like yesterday” (L. Martynov. “New Arbat”).N. can be found in many writers of the 19th and 20th centuries. Some of them, very accurately expressing k.-l. a feeling or phenomenon has forever become part of the Russian language:“industry”, “phenomenon” (N.M. Karamzin); “Slavophile” (K.N. Batyushkov): “hunt” (N.M. Zagoskin); “to shy away” (F.M. Dostoevsky).

OCTAVE - an eight-line stanza with the following rhyme pattern: ababab vv (i.e. in the first 6 verses the rhyme is cross, and in the last two it is adjacent). The final couplet often contains an aphoristic conclusion, an unexpected thought, a comic turn of events, which is emphasized by a change in rhyme (vv). O.'s poetic meter is iambic pentameter or hexameter.

I'm tired of iambic tetrameter:

Everyone writes to them. Fun for the boys

It's time to leave him. I wanted

It's been a long time since we took up the octave.

But in fact: I would co-own

With triple consonance. I'm going to glory!

After all, rhymes easily live with me;

Two will come on their own, the third will be brought.

(A.S. Pushkin. “House in Kolomna”)

In Russian poetry, O. was also used by Zhukovsky, Lermontov, Maikov, A.K. Tolstoy and others.

PERSONIFICATION, or PROSOPOPEIA - trope; likening an inanimate object to a living being:“... the handsome poplar, in the summer heat, and in the winter cold, and in the terrible autumn nights, experiences its loneliness heavily...” (A.P. Chekhov. “The Steppe”).

The trees sing, the waters glisten,

The air is filled with love...

(F.I. Tyutchev. “The sun is shining, the waters are sparkling”)

HOMONYMS - words with the same sound but different meaning. In O.’s literary work they convey a peculiar play on words:

Sits, is silent, neither eats nor pours

And the current wears away tears,

And the older brother takes his knife,

Whistling, he sharpens.

(A.S. Pushkin. “Groom”)

ONEGIN STROPHA- she wrote the novel by A.S. Pushkin
"Eugene Onegin": a fourteen-line stanza consisting of three
quatrains with cross rhymes, p. paired, and then r. encompassing and final rhymed couplet: abab vvgg deed
LJ.

So, she was called Tatyana.

Not your sister's beauty,

Nor the freshness of her ruddy

She wouldn't attract anyone's attention.

Dick, sad, silent,

Like a forest deer is timid,

She is in her own family

The girl seemed like a stranger.

She didn't know how to caress

To your father, nor to your mother;

Child herself, in a crowd of children

I didn’t want to play or jump

And often alone all day

She sat silently by the window.

The variety of rhymes makes O.S. flexible and intonationally rich: it is capable of conveying epic, lyrical, colloquial and other intonations. O.S., in addition to the named novel, also wrote“Tambov Treasurer” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Infancy” by V. Ivanov, etc.

SYNTACTIC PARALLELISM- repetition in adjacent verses of sentences with the same (or almost the same) syntactic structure. P.S. enhances the emotionality of artistic speech, giving it various shades, for example, dreamy sadness:

The lonely sail turns white

In the blue sea fog.

What is he looking for in a distant land?

What did he throw in his native land?

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “Sail”)

SCENERY - description of pictures of nature in a work of art. P.'s role is very diverse.

1. P. can give events one or another emotional coloring.Thus, the night landscape (steep banks, rough sea, moonlight and approaching fog) in “Taman” by M.Yu. Lermontov imparts mystery and enigma to the actions of the smugglers.

2. P. can help reveal the character of the hero (or his psychological state).Thus, the surroundings of Manilov’s estate reflect his extraordinary mismanagement (the pond turned green with mud, frail trees) and at the same time the desire for European sophistication (the turf was trimmed, the flower beds and pond were laid out in the English style), see “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol, chapter II.

3. P. can symbolically express the main idea, the main pathos of the work.For example, the steppe in the story of the same name by A.P. Chekhov symbolizes the beauty and wealth of Russia, its forces dying in vain.P. can be urbanistic (urban).

REPEAT VERBAL- repetition of the same word or root k.-l. words in one or more adjacent sentences in order to emotionally enhance the expressed thought:

I'm driving in an open field,

Bell ding-ding-ding...

Scary, scary involuntarily

Among the unknown plains!

(A.S. Pushkin. “Demons”)

POETICS - the term P. in modern literary criticism has two main meanings:

1. A set of artistic techniques (plot, composition, language, verse, etc.) of a literary work.For example: A.P. Chudakov. Chekhov's poetics. - M., 1971;

2. The doctrine of the artistic form of literary works.For example: V.M. Zhirmunsky. Tasks of poetics. /Questions of literary theory. - L., 1928; V.V. Vinogradov. Stylistics. Theory of poetic speech. Poetics. - M.,) 1963.The term literature is also used in a broader meaning, close to the meaning of the term “theory of literature.”See, for example: D.S. Likhachev. Poetics of Old Russian Literature. - L., 1971.Historical literature involves the study of changes in artistic forms of literature over time.For example: A.N. Veselovsky. Historical poetics.-L., 1940.

PROLOGUE - a kind of preface to the main plot development. P. communicates the author's intentions or depicts events that long preceded the main action. P.'s purpose is to clarify the root causes of the events shown.For example, in “The Snow Maiden” by A.N. Ostrovsky, P. introduces us to an event that took place 15 years before the Snow Maiden’s settlement in the kingdom of the Berendeys, which allows us to better understand the conflict of the work.

VERBOSE - a word or expression that is a distortion of a literary norm due to illiteracy.For example, “lay down” instead of “put down”; “lie down” instead of “lay down.”In fiction, P. is used as a short and expressive technique for creating an image. For example,A.P. Chekhov, in one word belonging to a high school student, conveys her primitiveness and spiritual limitations: “I read a lot of books, including Meshchersky, Maykov, Dune, ... Turgenev and Lomonosov.” (“Vacation work of schoolgirl Nadenka N”).

INTERCLOSURE - outcome, resolution of the conflict in the work. R. shows which opposing forces won.For example, R. in “The Noble Nest” by I.S. Turgenev - Lavretsky’s satisfaction of Varvara Pavlovna’s demands and Lisa’s departure to the monastery. Thus, the heroes succumbed to the world they opposed.

VERSE SIZE - a certain commensurate ordering of rhythmic repetitions within poetic lines. R.S. depends on the rhythm-forming phonetic feature that forms the basis of a particular system of versification. Russian literary poetry is known for R.S. syllabic, syllabic-tonic and tonic. Russian classical poetry of the 19th century. mainly based on the syllabic-tonic principles of rhythm organization. Dimensions of the verse in social-t. system of versification indicate different ordering of stressed and unstressed syllables in poetic lines. There are five main social-t. sizes: iambic, trochee, dactyl, anapest, amphibrachium,

NARRATOR - the image of the person on whose behalf the story is told. R., as a rule, tells “incidents” that left a deep imprint on his soul.For example, in “The Station Agent” by A.S. Pushkin, the whole story is told not from the perspective of the author-narrator, but from the perspective of the narrator Belkin.Often R. is one of the main characters in the work.For example, Ivan Vasilyevich in Leo Tolstoy’s story “After the Ball.”As a rule, the author’s ideological content of a work (and even more so its objective ideological pathos) is broader than the conclusions that the narrator’s immediate listeners and the narrator himself draw from the story told.(“Man in a Case” by A.P. Chekhov).Thus, the narrator's form activates the reader's thoughts, forcing him to draw his own conclusions.

REFRAIN - a rhythmically repeated word, verse or group of verses at the end of each stanza. R. emotionally enhances the main mood of the verse.So, for example, each stanza of N.A. Nekrasov’s “Lullaby” ends with the refrain line: “Bayushki-bayu” (strengthening the author’s irony).Often R. is an independent stanza. In songs, R. is called the chorus.

NARRATOR'S SPEECH- the entire text of the epic work, except for the direct speech of the heroes. R.P. conducted from a third party. In the drama and lyrics of R.P. No. R.P., firstly, connects all the heterogeneous verbal elements of the work into a single whole; secondly, it contains a certain assessment of what is depicted. For some writers, R.P. is more evaluative(N.V. Gogol, L.N. Tolstoy),for others - less evaluative(A.P. Chekhov). R.P. in a work of art, it tells about events, helps to understand the ideological content of the text, the thoughts and emotions expressed in it in all their complexity. There cannot be a full perception of a work without understanding the specifics of the narrative style.For example, the style of narration by A.S. Pushkin is often characterized by light mockery (“Eugene Onegin”), and the manner of N.V. Gogol is characterized by mocking caustic laughter (“Dead Souls”).

RHYTHM - the process of regular repetitions of certain phenomena. Poetic rhyme is created by the regular repetition of various poetic units, for example, a foot (in syllabic-tonic versification), verse, rhyme, stanza, etc. There is also rhyme in artistic prose, but the principles of its organization are different (the rhythm of prose is based on relative commensurability intonation in syntagms and, moreover, has not a constant, but a variable, changeable character).

A RHETORICAL QUESTION- figure; a question that does not require an answer, uttered with a peculiar interrogative-exclamation intonation. R.V. may refer to an absent person, an inanimate object or phenomenon (for example, nature, etc.).

Where are you galloping, proud horse?

And where will you put your hooves?

(A.S. Pushkin. “The Bronze Horseman”)

RHETORICAL EXCLAMATION- figure; pronouncing a phrase with an affirmative-exclamatory intonation in order to significantly enhance a certain emotion expressed in it (for example, anger, admiration, contempt, etc.).

What a lamp of reason has gone out!

What heart has stopped beating!

(N.A. Nekrasov. “In Memory of Dobrolyubov”)

RHETORICAL APPEAL- figure; an appeal that is conditional in nature and has a purely emotional purpose. P.O. may refer to people, inanimate objects, or natural phenomena.

Oh Volga!.. my cradle!

Has anyone ever loved you like I do?

(N.A. Nekrasov. “On the Volga”)

RHYME - repetition of sounds and intonation connecting the endings of two or more lines. R. divides the poetic text into separate verses, organizes it into stanzas, and enhances the emotional expressiveness of poetry. Rhyme is distinguished:

1. EXACT and INACCURATE (according to the number of matching sounds: “Eugene-genius”, “got around-good”).

2. ADJACENT (verses rhyme in pairs); CROSS (even and odd verses rhyme with each other); COVERAGE (verses 1 and 4, 2 and 3 rhyme). These types of rhymes are distinguished by their relative position in the stanza. All these types of rhyme are presented in the Onegin stanza.

3. There are MEN’S RHYME (with emphasis on the last syllable of the word “bypassed - good”), FEMININE (with emphasis on the penultimate syllable: “Eugene is a genius”), DACTYLIC (with emphasis on the third syllable from the end: “appointed - captured”) . These types of rhymes are distinguished by the nature of the intonation created by the last stress in the line. Intonation M.R. energetic, J.R. and especially D.R. - smooth.

SYLLABIC VERSE- versification in which rhythm is created by repeating the same number of syllables in poetic lines. Depending on the number of syllables, sizes are distinguished: seven-syllable, eleven-syllable, thirteen-syllable, etc. Long poems (more than 8 syllables) are divided by a caesura (long pause) into hemistiches, which further rhythmizes the verse. Example of a thirteen syllable:

Whenever you see the need of your neighbor,

Give him a quick benefit and do it.

(S. Polotsky. “Manual”)

S.S. is originally inherent in languages in which words have stress on a certain syllable: French (on the last), Polish (on the penultimate), etc. In the Russian language, the stress is mobile, but at a certain historical stage, Russian poetic culture was influenced by S.S. (XVII - first third of the XVIII centuries). It was used by: Simeon of Polotsk, Feofan Prokopovich, Antioch Cantemir, Sylvester Medvedev and others.

SYLLAB-TONIC VERSE- a system of versification in which rhythm is created by the ordering of stressed and unstressed syllables in poetry. The unit of measurement of rhythm is the foot (a certain combination of a stressed syllable with unstressed syllables adjacent to it in intonation). Depending on the nature of the repeating foot, five main syllabic-tonic meters are distinguished: trochee, iambic, dactyl, amphibrachium, anapest. However, the rhythmic richness of S.-T. S. is not limited to the five named meters, it is practically inexhaustible: the rhythm of syllabic-tonic meters is varied by additional or omitted stresses, various pauses, length of verse, etc. S.-T. S. is characteristic of languages in which the stress is varied, mobile, and stressed and unstressed syllables sound with different strength (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, English, German, etc.) - In Russia S.-T. S. has become widespread since the 30s. XVIII century, after the works of V.K. Trediakovsky (“A New and Brief Method for Composing Russian Poems,” 1735) and M.V. Lomonosov (“Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry,” 1739), who reformed Russian versification. Russian classical versification of the 19th century. mainly S.-T. (A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.A. Nekrasov). S-.T. S. is the main one in Russian poetry of the 20th century. (which also uses purely tonic verse).

ARTISTIC SYMBOL- an independent artistic image that has a multi-valued emotional and figurative meaning. (Compare with the uniqueness of allegory). S.H. is based on the discovery of a certain relatedness in diverse phenomena of reality.Thus, the sail driven by the waves in the poem of the same name by M.Yu. Lermontov symbolizes the rebellious passions of the human soul, courage, struggle, etc.. S.H. It cannot be deciphered logically, you have to get used to it, feel it. The lyrics are especially rich in symbolism, because she is more emotional.

SYNECDOCHE - trope; a type of metonymy; a part of an object is called instead of a whole object, or a whole object instead of its part. For example,"Hey! Beard, how do you get from here to Plyushkin?” (“Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol).S., as it were, highlights in close-up that detail that at the moment is capable of very economically and expressively creating a picturesque image.

SYNONYMS - words that are identical or very similar in meaning, but differ in sound and stylistic nuances. For example: road - way - path. When choosing a particular word from synonyms, the writer strives for accuracy and a certain stylistic flavor. Sometimes S. are used in two or more, diversifying artistic speech and giving it a special charm. Eg:

I go out alone on the road;

Through the fog the flinty path shines.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “I go out alone on the road”)

SKAZ - a form of narration from the first linden with a pronounced focus on orality, conversational speech (both in intonation, and in vocabulary, and in phonetics). S. stylizes the speech not of an individual person, but of a typical representative of a certain socio-historical, ethnographic, or other environment.S. was often used by N.V. Gogol (“Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka”), N.S. Leskov (“Lefty”), M. Zoshchenko (“Bathhouse”).

SONNET (classical) - a lyric poem of 14 verses, grouped into two quatrains (with the same sounding sweeping rhyme: abba abba) and two tercets (with three other rhyming consonances: vvg dgd). In poetic practice, there are other - cross - variants of rhyming quatrains in S. The poetic size of S. is iambic penta (six) feet. The unity of the rhymes in the quatrains emphasizes the unity of the theme, which changes somewhat in the tercet and is, as it were, summed up by the last line (“the castle of the sonnet”).

The stern Dante did not despise the sonnet;

Petrarch poured out the heat of love in him.

The creator of Macbeth loved his game;

Camões clothed them with mournful thoughts.

And today it captivates the poet;

Wordsworth chose him as his instrument.

When away from the vain world

He paints an ideal of nature.

Under the shadow of the distant mountains of Tauris

Singer of Lithuania in the size of his sedate

He instantly concluded his dreams.

Our maidens didn’t know him yet,

How Delvig forgot for him

Hexameter sacred chants.

(A.S. Pushkin. “Sonnet”)

Delvig, Lermontov, Fet, Blok, Bryusov and others also wrote S. in Russian poetry.

COMPARISON - trope; one phenomenon or concept is clarified by comparing it with another phenomenon. S. always consists of two parts (what is compared and what is compared with), which are combined in a variety of ways:

1. Using the conjunctions “how”, “what” and the words “similar”, “as if”, etc.:“It looked like a clear moon” (M.Yu. Lermontov. “Demon”).

2. Using the instrumental case:“His beaver collar is silvered with frosty dust” (A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”).

3. Using negation:

It is not the wind that rages over the forest,

Streams did not run from the mountains.

Moroz the voivode on patrol

Walks around his possessions.

(N.A. Nekrasov. “Frost, Red Nose”)

S. can be deployed.A classic example of an expanded S that runs through the entire work is M.Yu. Lermontov’s poem “The Poet”, in which, through the comparison of the poet with a dagger, the contemporary state of poetry and the demands of a demanding artist are revealed for the poet.

POEM -

1. A unit of poetic rhythm, usually coinciding with a line. The page can also be divided into several graphic lines(N. Aseev, V. Mayakovsky).

2. Poetic speech, which differs from prosaic speech by a system of regular repetitions: sounds, pauses, stressed and unstressed syllables, etc.

POEM - a relatively small lyrical or lyric-epic work in verse.See, for example: “I loved you: love can still be...” by A.S. Pushkin; “Borodino” by M.Yu. Lermontov.

FOOT - in syllabic-tonic verse - a combination of a stressed syllable and unstressed syllables adjacent to it in intonation, which, when repeated, creates the rhythm of the verse. There are two types of disyllabic C: trochaic (with stress on the first syllable of two), iambic (on the second); trisyllabic: dactylic (with stress on the first syllable of three), amphibrachic (on the second), anapestic (on the third). S. is also found in ancient versification (but is based on the length and brevity of the syllable). In syllabic and tonic verses there is no S.

STANZA - a group of verses repeated throughout a poetic work, united by a common idea and rhyme. S. enhances the rhythm of the poetic text, gives it compositional harmony - Russian versification is rich in a variety of stanzas (see, for example, couplet, quatrain, octave, Onegin stanza). A poetic work not grouped in C is called astronomical(for example, “Ruslan and Lyudmila” by A.S. Pushkin).

PLOT - one of the main meanings: a system of events in a literary work, revealing the characters of the characters and the conflicting relationships between them.For example, events such as an escape or a fight with the leopard Mtsyri reveal significant traits of his character; courage, love of freedom, desire to live brightly, and also reveal a conflict between him and the lives of other monks.S. is typical for dramatic, epic and lyric-epic works. In the lyrics there is no S. as a system of events. In a story, a number of links are distinguished: prologue, exposition, plot, climax, denouement, and epilogue. Not all elements of S. must take place in every work. In addition, they can come in different sequences. The events of the plot can be presented by the author not in a natural chronological sequence, but in an artistic one, which serves as an additional means of revealing the character of the hero(M.Yu. Lermontov. “Hero of Our Time”).The page of a work can consist of not one, but several intertwining lines.

TONIC VERSE - a verse whose rhythm is created by a certain number of stresses in poetic lines. Depending on their number, sizes are distinguished: two-impact, three-impact, four-impact, etc. Example of a three-beat T.S.:

We sleep at night.

During the day we do things

We love our crush

Water in your mortar.

(V.V. Mayakovsky)

In T.S. there are no stops (unlike syllabic-tonic verse), i.e. the number of unstressed syllables between stresses is arbitrary: in the given example it ranges from 0 to 2. The tonic principle of rhythm organization is characteristic of Russian folk poetry. In Russian literary poetry of the 19th century. is quite rare, but developed quite widely in the poetry of the 20th century.(V. Mayakovsky, N. Aseev, L. Martynoz, etc.).

TROPE - the use of a word or expression in a figurative meaning to create an artistic image. T. include: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, partly epithet, etc.For example, cf. the direct and figurative meaning of the word: “dinner has cooled down” and “No: the feelings in him have cooled down early” (A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”). In the latter case, we are dealing with a trope (metaphor).

DEFAULT, or ELLIPSIS - figure; deliberate understatement of a phrase with the expectation that the reader will guess it. U. usually gives the speech increased emotionality, drama, gives it a touch of humor, satire, etc.

No, you don’t know red childhood,

You will not live calmly and honestly.

The lot is yours... but why repeat it?

Something that even a child knows.

(N.A. Nekrasov)

FABULA - the term is used in two equally common meanings:

1. main events in the development of action, i.e. its skeleton, what can be retold;

2. natural temporal sequence of events, in contrast to the artistic (plot) sequence in a literary work.

In both; In cases, the concept of “plot” is used for the purpose of a deeper understanding of the artistic richness and originality of the plot of a literary work.In plot order, the events of I. Bunin’s story “Easy Breathing” would begin with the heroine’s childhood and end with her death.F. may be very different from the plot (as in the named story), or may coincide with it(“Ionych” by A.P. Chekhov).

FIGURE - a special intonation-syntactic method of constructing a phrase in a literary work that goes beyond the framework of practically accepted norms. F. is used to enhance the artistic expressiveness of speech. K. F. include: rhetorical F., anaphora, epiphora, junction, gradation, inversion, non-union, polyunion, silence, etc.

HOREUS - in syllabic-tonic verse - a poetic meter, the rhythm of which is based on the repetition of a two-syllable foot with stress on the first syllable.

The hare ran through the meadow into the forest,

I was walking home from the forest.

Poor frightened hare

So he sat down in front of me.

(N. Rubtsov. “Hare”)

Some stressed syllables in trochaic verse can sometimes be replaced by unstressed ones, which diversifies its rhythm. This phenomenon is called pyrrhic (see example given).

AESOP'S LANGUAGE - artistic speech based on an allegory in which, under the images of animals, birds, etc. means a person. Aesop (the semi-mythical ancient Greek fabulist of the 5th-6th centuries BC) was a slave, so he could not openly express his thoughts. Later, censorship forced writers to make such allegory. The true content of a work of art went into the subtext, encrypted with seemingly harmless phrases, hints, associations, fables and fairy-tale images.A striking example of the use of E.Ya. are fables by I.A. Krylov, “Tales” by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.Having arisen as a bitter necessity, the 3rd. became over time one of the methods of satire.

EXPOSITION - a conflict-free part of the text preceding the plot. E. provides an image of the initial situation, the environment, the background against which events will then unfold. The purpose of E. is to make the subsequent behavior of the characters more understandable(see, for example, the description of the life of young Onegin in Chapter I of L.S. Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin”),E. is most often given at the very beginning of the work, but can be in the middle or even at the end of it(see, for example: “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol).In this case, it carries an additional artistic load, for example, in the above example, for the time being, it gives the main character mystery, mystery, etc. and explains it to the reader only at the very end of the work.

EPILOGUE - the final part of the work following the denouement of the conflict, briefly informing about the further fate of the heroes. But the main purpose of E. is not event-related, but emotional, because First of all, it evokes in the reader one or another feeling about the final outcome of the depicted life of the characters.For example, E. in “The Noble Nest” by I.S. Turgenev gives rise to sadness and pain in the reader’s soul about the unfulfilled high aspirations of the heroes of this novel.

EPITHET - an artistic definition emphasizing k.-l. an important feature in the depicted phenomenon or giving it additional, additional meaning. E. may represent the direct meaning of the word(“September is cold”) or portable (“fading day”)The latter allows us to classify it as a trail. Grammatically, E. can be expressed by various parts of speech:

1. Adjective or participle (see examples given).

2. Noun:"Winter Sorceress"

3. With a pronominal word: “After all, there were battles, and they say what other ones!”(M.Yu. Lermontov. “Borodino”).

4. Adverb: “Why are you greedily looking at the road...”(N.A. Nekrasov. “Troika”);

5. Participle:“The skies are shining blue...” (A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”).

There is a special group of E., which are a constant combination of words:“blue sea”, “greyhound horse”, “good fellow”etc. These epithets are characteristic of folk art and are called permanent epithets.

LANGUAGE OF FICTIONis the language used to create works of art. Language is a means of communication between people. The language of fiction is, moreover, a figurative language: the laws of use and combination of words in it are not only logical, but (and above all) aesthetic.For example, A.S. Pushkin was indignant when the critic of “Eugene Onegin” rebelled against such expressions as “the fireplace is breathing,” “wrong ice,” etc.These laconic expressions are unusually precise in a figurative, but not logical sense. However, Y.H.L. not opposed to the common language. On the contrary, it is based on it. The largest source in terms of volume is Y.H.L. is a literary language (i.e. correct, standardized language). But the concept of “Y.H.L.” broader than the concept of “literary language”. Depending on the nature of the created image and other ideological and aesthetic tasks, the writer also uses other layers of the national language: archaisms, vernaculars, jargons, etc. From all that has been said, it follows that the literary analysis of Y.Kh.L. pursues goals other than linguistic analysis. A linguist is interested in the internal laws of language development, a literary critic is interested in the laws of creating an artistic image.

JAMB - in syllabic-tonic verse, a poetic meter, the rhythm of which is based on the repetition of a two-syllable foot with stress on the second syllable. A.S. Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin” was written in iambic:

The village where Evgeniy was bored,

It was a lovely corner.

Sometimes in iambic verse some stressed syllables can be replaced by unstressed ones, which diversifies the rhythm of this meter. This phenomenon is called pyrrhic (see example given).

Part II. General questions of literary theory

1. A. biographical (A.S. Pushkin, L.N. Tolstoy).

2. A. in its intratextual, artistic embodiment, i.e. the author's position, something close to the concept of “aesthetic idea” (I. Kant), which lies in the entire structure of the work (from the word to the system of images, construction, etc.). A. expresses his attitude through the title, and through the epigraph, and through the detail, and through the plot, that is, through the nature of the narration (author-narrator), and through the system of images. The ways of expressing a. (a.p.) in epic, dramatic and lyrical works are different.Thus, in drama there is no author-narrator; in the lyrics of A. (the author's consciousness) is associated with the concepts of “lyrical hero”, “role hero”, “the author himself”, “emotional tone”.

AUTHOR-NARRATOR- in an epic work, a presentation of artistic material from a third (i.e., not personified) person. A.-p. impersonal, but omniscient: he talks not only about events, but about barely noticeable movements of the hero’s soul, characterizes his nature, knows his past, present, future, etc. The narrator's omniscience is not motivated by anything (whereas the narrator often talks about what was witnessed and narrates in the first person). From A.-p. the story is being toldfor example, in L.N. Tolstoy’s epic “War and Peace”, I.S. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons”, I.A. Bunin’s story “Easy Breathing” and many others. etc.A.-p. may be dispassionate in his words, or, on the contrary, may be evaluative, which depends on the writer’s individuality and artistic method (the desire for an objective manner of narration is a realistic tendency).

AUTHOR'S CONSCIOUSNESS- a category of literary analysis that expresses the writer’s attitude towards the world, which is embodied in the artistic images of the work and its entire structure. A.S. - this is a kind of writer’s assessment of what is depicted in the work. Forms of expression A.S. depending on the literary origin and genre are different. In the epic and lyric-epic works of A.S. is especially clearly manifested through the speech of the author-narrator, the author’s lyrical digressions, as well as the development of the plot.For example, in “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol A.S. consists of satirical intonations in the narrative, deep faith in the future of Russia, expressed in lyrical digressions, etc.A complex case of expression by A.S. in the epic genre is the use of the narrator form. The narrator can express A.S. in many ways.(for example, in “Notes of a Hunter” by I.S. Turgenev),or be very far from him(for example, in the early story of A.P. Chekhov “The Triumph of the Winner”),or be in a complex relationship with its assessment. So, in“The Man in a Case” by A.P. Chekhov, the narrator Burkin only partially expresses A.S.In dramatic works, the main form of expression of A.S. is the plot, because author's explanations (remarks) are kept to a minimum. In the lyrics, the most characteristic form of expression of A.S. associated with the categories of lyrical hero, role-playing hero, and the author himself. Forms of expression A.S. depend on the personality of the writer.For example, the narration in the works of Leo Tolstoy is quite expressive, and A.P. Chekhov strives to avoid expressing the author’s emotions. An analysis of an individual work, as well as the writer’s work as a whole, will be incomplete and shallow without understanding A.S. One should not draw a direct analogy between A.S. and the biographical author: these concepts are interrelated, but not identical. The term “image of the author” is often used in the meaning of A.S., which, however, is subject to fair criticism (M.M. Bakhtin, G.N. Pospelov).

BALLAD - a small lyric-epic (see gender) work in verse with intense development of action and intense character of the characters’ experiences. The heyday of B. is associated with the literature of romanticism; authors often created it on the basis of fantastic motifs, beliefs, fairy tales, etc.B. occupies a large place in the translations and original works of V.A. Zhukovsky (“Lyudmila”, “Svetlana”, “Eolian Harp”), P.A. Katenin (“Leshy”, “Killer”), as well as A.S. Pushkin (“Mermaid”, “Groom”) and M. Y. Lermontov (“Reed”, “The Sea Princess”).In the literature of realism, B. gradually loses its fantastic nature, but retains the general intense dramatic and exceptional character of the main event.

TIME AND SPACEin literature, or CHRONOTOP (connection of time and space) - an artistic category associated with the composition of the work and the transmission of the psychological state of the characters. Classicism, oriented toward imitation of reality, was characterized by the unity of place, time and action, which was recognized as the harmonic principle of constructing plays. Gradually, literature masters discontinuity, discreteness, inconsistency in the reflection of V. and the like, parallelism in the depiction of events, which allows one to expand the boundaries of what is depicted(for example, in I.A. Goncharov’s novel “The Cliff” the action is transferred from St. Petersburg to Malinovka, to the Volga, etc.).V. and p. can serve as a psychological characteristic of the character.For example, for the Demon in the poem of the same name by M.Yu. Lermontov, centuries pass “as if a minute passes,” but for the heroes of Oblomovka (in I.A. Goncharov’s novel “Oblomov”) it seems to have stopped.

DRAMA - has two meanings:

1. One of the main types of literature that reflects reality primarily in the form of actions, dialogues and monologues of characters. D. as a genus exists in specific dramatic genres: tragedy, drama (see 2nd meaning) and comedy. which are always intended to be staged;

2. A play depicting serious, significant conflicts of various nature: socio-political, family, everyday, moral, etc., which are often intertwined in one work. D. reflects life in all its complexity and contradictions. D. arose in Russia in the 17th century and went through a long path of development, reaching its peak in the realistic literature of the 19th century.(in the works of A.N. Ostrovsky (“Dowry”), L.N. Tolstoy (“The Living Corpse”), A.P. Chekhov (“Three Sisters”).D. is a living phenomenon of modern art.

GENRE - a set of the most general, typological features of content and form, repeated in many works throughout the history of the development of literature.For example, a literary novel is characterized by the depiction of a hero throughout his life and against the backdrop of a certain historical era, the presence of a social and personal conflict, and a multifaceted plot and composition (M.Yu. Lermontov. “A Hero of Our Time”).. Zh. does not exist on its own, but in certain genre varieties. Zh.r. - a group of works of any genre that has its own distinctive features in content and form. For example, Zh.r. novel - historical novel, social novel, etc.

IDEA - the main generalizing idea that consistently follows from the entire figurative structure of the work. I. embodies the main task of literature - knowledge of reality and influence on it; “In addition to the reproduction of life, art also has another meaning - an explanation of life” (N.G. Chernyshevsky). I. always reflects the author’s attitude towards the phenomena depicted.For example, throughout the entire structure of the novel “Crime and Punishment,” F. M. Dostoevsky inspires the reader with the idea of the impossibility of transgressing the moral law “thou shalt not kill.”Often a work expresses not just one idea, but a combination of ideas; in this case, one speaks not only about the main idea, but about the ideological diversity of the work. Sometimes a truthful depiction of reality objectively leads the reader to thoughts that are different from the author’s(“They hit the government with me like a log,” said I.S. Turgenev about the ideological sound of “Notes of a Hunter,” while his political views were those of a liberal).Author's I. can be prophetic(A. Platonov. “Pit”),and sometimes - false(2nd volume of “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol).The value of any history lies in its depth and historical veracity.

COMEDY - one of the dramatic genres, a work in which a certain phenomenon is denied with the help of laughter. K. differ in the subject and nature of ridicule.For example, in satirical K., phenomena that pose a serious danger to society are ridiculed sharply, in a pointedly pointed, often grotesque form (“Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboyedov, “The Inspector General” by N.V. Gogol), and lyrical K. Using irony and humor, he depicts individual shortcomings in life, funny situations, while simultaneously affirming the new relationships of the characters (“Old-Fashioned Comedy” by A.N. Arbuzov).Comedy makes fun of negative phenomena, but for a positive hero, every “comedy has a happy ending” (Dante).

LYRICS - a literary genre that reveals a person’s experiences regarding various phenomena of reality. “Lyrics are a reflection of the entire diversity of reality in the mirror of the human soul” (L.I. Timofeev). The feeling expressed in a truly artistic lyrical work is always individual and at the same time always typical, because it evokes consonant experiences among a wide range of people.(For example, “These poor villages, this meager nature” by F.I. Tyutchev).Thus, literature directly captures the social consciousness of people, while the epic primarily depicts pictures of their social existence. In L., of course, there are elements of depicting the external world, but they are of secondary importance and are subordinate to the expressed experience. The artistic principle of true literature is laconicism. In L., the word has an exceptionally large load in lexical, syntactic and sound relations. As a rule, lyrical works do not have a plot (in its event meaning). But in addition to “pure” L., there is the so-called “narrative L.”, in which event elements are quite noticeable, i.e. plot. In literature of this type, “the content is epic in nature, but the treatment is lyrical” (Hegel). The works of narrative literature are close to the lyric-epic genre.For example, “Borodino” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Railway” by N.A. Nekrasov.The actual lyrical plot is the development of a feeling, an experience.

LYRICAL HERO- a holistic attitude towards the world, palpable behind the structure of feelings and experiences of a certain lyrical work, often expressing the ideological and aesthetic ideal of the poet. Introduction to L.G. The perception of this or that poet is formed in the reader from the totality of experiences expressed by him in his various poems.For example, for L.G. M.Yu. Lermontov is characterized by the denial of the emptiness and inaction of the generation and the resulting feeling of loneliness and passionate impulse, rebellion in search of an elevated spiritual principle that will be accessible to “other, purest beings” (“Excerpt”, 1830).Concept of L.G. not to be confused with "hero"(i.e., the “character” who is narrated in the poem in the 3rd person, for example, about the Belarusian in “The Railway” by N.A. Nekrasov):".role hero"(when the entire poem is written from an “objectified character”, for example, “Song of Kalistratushka” by N. Nekrasov), and also identify with the biographical author, who determines the originality of L.G., but often differs from him due to fiction or because not all of his spiritual life is reflected in the lyrics. L.G. - a conditional collective concept that reflects one of the forms of expression of the author’s consciousness in lyrics, which arose in the era of romanticism (with its increased attention to the inner world of the individual) and assimilated by subsequent stages in the development of poetry. L.G. - as if an individual, artistic image of the author, which also reflects the mood of his generation, i.e. there is a typical beginning.

LITERATURE - in a broad sense - all writing that has social significance; in the narrow and more common sense - fiction, i.e. the art of the written word (H.L. was preceded by the oral art of the word - folklore). H.L. arises with the advent of printing. The uniqueness of literature as an art form is to a certain extent determined by the specificity of its means of creating artistic images, namely words (cf.: in music - sound, in painting - color). A word can evoke a variety of images in readers: sound, color, and many others. etc. Everything that is accessible to thought is accessible to the word, and all spheres of reality are accessible to thought, which is why artistic literature is capable of reflecting life in the most multidimensional and voluminous way.

LITERARY STUDIES- the science of literature. At the present stage, literature consists of several main sections:

1. Literary theory, which studies the aesthetic essence of literature and literary works, for example, artistic image, gender, genre, method, composition, language of fiction, and many others,

2. The history of literature, which studies its historical development, determines the place of the writer in the literary process. These sections are interconnected: “Without the history of the subject there is no theory of the subject, but without the theory of the subject there can be no thought about its history” (N.T. Chernyshevsky).

3. Literary criticism, which studies the modern literary process.

4. The methodology of literary criticism, which develops the most general principles of literary analysis, for example, the comparative historical study of literature, the study of literary phenomena in the unity of their content and form, the principles of structural and holistic analysis of a work, etc.

There are also auxiliary disciplines of literature: bibliography (records fiction and critical literature), historiography (describes the degree of study of any issue), textual criticism (analyzes manuscripts, compares editions of works, etc.).

ARTISTIC METHOD- a method of artistic reflection of reality, which is determined by the totality of the most general and stable features of literary creativity, namely: the nature of the selection of phenomena of reality, the means of artistic representation, the most general assessment of what is depicted and the correlation of the aesthetic ideal with the patterns of development of reality. Literature knows several Kh.M., for example, romanticism, realism, socialist realism (realism with socialist ideas), etc. Kh.M. reveals the commonality of writers of different national literatures and historical periods. For example, realist writers (A.S. Pushkin, O. Balzac, L.N. Tolstoy) in the above-mentioned features of creativity (selection of phenomena, means of artistic representation, etc.) are guided by the principle of objectivity, recreating all phenomena without embellishment reality, and romantic writers (A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, F. Novalis, V. Scott) to a greater extent follow the re-creating subjective principle, more often they depict not so much pictures of objective reality, but their ideas about it. “The poet either recreates life according to his own ideal..., or reproduces it in all its nakedness and truth, remaining faithful to all the details, colors and shades of reality” (V.G. Belinsky). Principles of various H.M. are comprehended and formulated by scientists on the basis of generalizations of the artistic practice of writers. With the development of literature, the principles of H.M. themselves develop and deepen. For example, the realistic depiction of the life of serfs in the works of N.A. Nekrasov (“Who Lives Well in Rus'”) is much more multifaceted and deeper than its earlier depiction in the works of N.A. Radishchev (“Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”) . The specific historical manifestation of H.M. in the work of a number of writers who are aware of their basic ideological and aesthetic principles and defend them in works of art, critical articles, program speeches, etc., is called a literary movement. For example, the direction of realism of the Enlightenment era (A.N. Radishchev, I.A. Krylov), the direction of romanticism of the first third of the 19th century. (V.A. Zhukovsky, Decembrist poets), etc.

MODERNISM - non-realistic movements and other literary associations that contrast their aesthetic principles with realism, which unconditionally dominates literature (and other forms of art) of the 19th century. In Russia, M. has been appearing since the early 1890s. (and in some ways influences the poetics of the works of realists, for example, I.A. Bunin). The main trends of modernism are symbolism, acmeism, futurism. Their representatives (with all the differences in aesthetic views) believed that the idea of public service of literature and “artistic materialism”, coming from the 60s. (Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Pisarev) led literature into an aesthetic impasse, narrowed the subject of literature, leaving outside its boundaries, for example, mystical spheres, the unconscious principle in man, and many others. etc. None of the movements of M. has ever been internally unified, for example, Acmeism (N.S. Gumilev; A.A. Akhmatova; O.E. Mandelstam sang different things: exoticism; subtlety and complexity of the soul; culture in its various types). Modern (since the 1970s) non-realistic movements (conceptualism, social art, etc.) are usually called the general term postmodernism,

NATIONALITY OF LITERATURE- an aesthetic category that emerged as a result of the long development of aesthetic thought. Initially in Russia under N.L. understood works for the poorly educated common people (during the Enlightenment of the 18th century). In the era of romanticism (the beginning of the 18th century - the first third of the 19th century), which attached great importance to N.L., it was understood as the national uniqueness of literature: “people” and “nation” for the romantics were identical concepts. By the 40s XIX century Based on the study of the works of L.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, N.A. Nekrasov and others, a democratic doctrine of N.L. is emerging. V.G. Belinsky, which is then developed by N.G. Chernyshevsky and N.A. Dobrolyubov. N.L. - this is, first of all, a deep, comprehensive and true depiction of the phenomena of reality that are important to the people. N.L. manifests itself not only in the content, but also in the artistic form of the work - its accessibility to the people and national identity. N.L. - a historically changing category, therefore the content and forms of its expression, for example, in the works of I.A. Krylov will be different than in the works of N.A. Nekrasov or A.T. Tvardovsky. About the people and N.L., their relationship with national problems in the 20th century. I.A. Bunin (see the writer’s diaries) and A.I. Solzhenitsyn (in his works) talked interestingly.

NATIONAL IDENTITY OF LITERATURE- artistic reflection in literature of the peculiar features of a particular nation: the life and way of life of people, mentality and character of feelings, customs and traditions, clothing and speech. “Climate, government, faith give everyone a people; a special physiognomy, which is more or less reflected in the mirror of poetry. There is a way of thinking and feeling, there is a darkness of customs, beliefs and habits that belong exclusively to some people” (A.S. Pushkin). N.S.L. manifests itself in the theme of the work, its images, visual and expressive means of language. The problem of N.S.L. was especially acute. in the era of romanticism and then realism.The greatest Russian national poet is A.S. Pushkin. The “Song of the Merchant Kalashnikov” by M.Yu. Lermontov, the poem “Frost, Red Nose” by N.A. Nekrasov are clearly national.; especially bright N.S.L. noticeably in comparison with other national literatures, in which universal human problems are clothed in unique verbal and figurative forms.

ARTISTIC IMAGE- first of all, the image-character; a specific and at the same time generalized picture of human life, created by the creative imagination of the artist in the light of his aesthetic ideal.

But in a work of art there are different levels of imagery: landscape image, interior image, figurative detail, etc., which are always subordinate to the expression of the character image. In addition, in most works there is a system of interacting images-characters. Various character images, as well as images of other levels subordinate to them, are united by a common idea of a work of art, without the organizing principle of which they would crumble into links independent of each other and would lose aesthetic significance. All other images work to create an image of a person.For example, such image-details as withered aspen, leaky roofs, windows covered with rags help create the image of Plyushkin. And his interaction with the images of other landowners creates a satirical image of serf Russia as a whole (“Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol).Those. imagery is a way of reflecting and cognizing reality through art, in contrast to science, which cognizes it through abstract concepts. OH. has some common properties, which are as follows:

A combination of fictional and authentic. Without fiction there is no artistic creativity, even realistic creativity. However, fiction is often the result of the writer’s comprehension of reliable facts and phenomena:the images of “War and Peace” are the fruit of Leo Tolstoy’s imagination, but many of them have life prototypes;

A combination of objective and subjective. Different artists evaluate the same phenomena of objective reality differently.Thus, the objective basis for the image of Napoleon in the works of M.Yu. Lermontov and L.N. Tolstoy is one: a real historical person. But the subjective author's coverage of them is different. In M.Yu. Lermontov’s ballad “Airship,” the personality of Napoleon is the ideal of the author, and in L.N. Tolstoy’s epic “War and Peace” the commander is condemned for individualism and personal ambitions.

A combination of specific and general. OH. is depicted by the author in his specific individual characteristics, this is the strength of his direct emotional and aesthetic impact. But true O.H. The essence of many similar phenomena is always generalized.Thus, the image of Eugene Onegin in the novel of the same name by A.S. Pushkin is very specific in appearance, actions, feelings, i.e. it is an individual character. But at the same time, he also contains the most important common features characteristic of the noble youth of that time: Onegin is not only a character, but also a type.Typification is the highest degree of artistic generalization.

All of the above-mentioned properties internally interact in every true O.H., but depending on the method, type, genre and author’s individuality of the writer, one or another principle is expressed in him to a greater or lesser extent. Thus, the fictional is more clearly expressed in a fairy tale than in a realistic novel, and the reliable in a documentary story than in a romantic poem; the subjective is always more clearly expressed in lyrics, and the objective in epic.

PATHOS - an excited ideological and emotional mood that permeates the work and stems from the nature of the writer’s ideal. P. is unthinkable without the artist’s passionate conviction in a certain assessment of this or that phenomenon of reality. In its most general form, a poem can be either affirmative or negative in relation to what is depicted (heroic, tragic, satirical, etc.). The specification of P. depends on the theme and ideological orientation of the work.For example, A.I. Kuprin’s story “The Garnet Bracelet” is permeated with a tragic, cleansing pathos that affirms true love as the highest human value.

STORY - the epic genre is medium in volume, as well as coverage of reality (in comparison with the novel and short story). In P., as a rule, several episodes are described, the focus is on one or two heroes; In addition, in P. there is often a tendency to rely on the reliable.P. includes “Taras Bulba” by N.V. Gogol, “Asya” by I.S. Turgenev, “The Tale of a Real Man” by B.P. Polevoy, etc. Sometimes, in terms of the scope of reality, P. comes close to a novel (“The Captain’s Daughter” "A.S. Pushkin).For this and other reasons, the question of the genre characteristics of literature in modern literary criticism remains debatable: some literary scholars do not see the fundamental difference between literature and the novel, others see it in a calmer (rather than action-packed) presentation, and still others see it in the fact that literature was previously gives everything a “moral snapshot of reality.”

POSITIVE HERO- in fiction, an image of a person that expresses the ideals of the writer and at the same time embodies the advanced trends of a certain historical time (socio-political, moral, etc.).For example, images of Dobrolyubov (N.A. Nekrasov. “In Memory of Dobrolyubov”) or Tatyana Larina (A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”).The concept of P.G. should not be replaced. the concept of “ideal hero”. P.G. reflects all the contradictions of human character, the formation and formation of a positive principle in it, often in an internal struggle with oneself.For example, the image of Andrei Bolkonsky (L.N. Tolstoy. “War and Peace”).Writers sometimes create subjective, false images of P.G. due to a lack of understanding of the advanced trends of the era. The falsity of such “P.G.” is proven by the objective course of the historical process.For example, the image of the landowner Konstanzhoglo, a benefactor of serfs, is historically false (N.V. Gogol. “Dead Souls”, 2nd volume).Society and its ideals change historically, therefore they replace each other in literature and P.G., while remaining at the same time, to a greater or lesser extent, close to our time. A special concept of P.G. was characteristic of the literature of socialist realism, in which P.G. was an exponent of socialist and communist ideals. Modern literature sometimes also gives interesting images of P.G.(A. Volos. “Real Estate”).

MESSAGE - a poem written in the form of a written address. The flourishing of this genre in Russian lyrics is associated with the work of the Decembrists and A.S. Pushkin, under whose pen it received a sharp socio-political sound, for example,“Message to Siberia” by A.S. Pushkin, “Fiery Sounds of Prophetic Strings” by A.I. Odoevsky. P. is found in the lyrics of S. Yesenin, V. Mayakovsky, I. Brodsky.

POETRY - original meaning - all fiction, as opposed to non-fiction, for example, scientific, etc. This usage is found in the articles of V.G. Belinsky, N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov. In modern literary criticism, poetry is the general name for works of art (lyrical, epic, dramatic, lyric-epic) written in verse. In comparison with prose, it is a much more ancient way of organizing artistic speech, which consists in the presence of a pronounced poetic rhythm.

POEM - a large poetic work of the lyric-epic (less often - epic or lyrical) kind. As a rule, in the center of poetry is the fate of an individual, and its genre pathos is characterized by a “glorifying” (A.N. Sokolov) beginning. The heyday of this genre is associated with the era of romanticism, whose poems praise various manifestations of the love of freedom of the heroes;“Voinarovsky” by K.F. Ryleev, “Prisoner of the Caucasus”, “Bakhchisarai Fountain”, “The Robber Brothers” by A.S. Pushkin, “Mtsyri” and “Demon” by M.Yu. Lermontov, etc.. P. was further developed in the era of realism in the 19th and 20th centuries:“Frost, Red Nose” by N.A. Nekrasov; “Requiem” by A. Akhmatova, “By Right of Memory” by A. T. Tvardovsky.In the 20th century, as a rule, the nature of the epic beginning changes: it more often represents not a plot development, but the subject of reflection of the lyrical hero - the fate of the people in a certain era.

PROBLEM - a question generated by the material depicted in the work, which worries the author and is conveyed by him to the reader. P.’s task is to push the reader to the importance of the phenomenon, to make him think about its essence.Thus, the main question in “Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky can be formulated as follows: is a strong person allowed to violate the moral law of ordinary people?The problematics (the totality of a number of themes) of one work can combine moral, philosophical, social, etc. themes, as, for example, in the above-mentioned novel. P. directly connects the theme and idea of the work, being an expression of its ideological and thematic unity.

PROSE - the general name for non-poetic works of art. Until the end of the 18th century. Russian literature existed on the periphery of the literary movement, then developed in the work of L.N. Radishchev. There is no one N.M. Karamzin, A.A. Bestuzhev-Marley, but starting with A.S. Pushkin, P. occupies a leading position in Russian literature, without, of course, canceling poetry. In terms of content, poetry, in comparison with poetry, strives to a greater extent to master the everyday and multifaceted existence of people, and in form it differs significantly from poetry in the nature of the rhythm: in poetry it is natural and constant, and in II. - free and changeable character throughout the work.

LITERARY PROCESS- the progressive development of literature in a certain era (and in a broad sense - from its origins to the present day). PL. in the most general terms, it is determined by socio-historical periods in the development of society and expresses their existence and spiritual content. Distinctive features of P.L. unique in a certain era. Thus, the world of ideas and images in the works of L.N. Tolstoy could not have arisen in the 17th century, and the type of ancient artistic thinking could not have been repeated in later eras. P.L. manifests itself in the evolution of literary methods, genres, genres, themes, ideas, and many others. etc.For example, realism of the 19th century. - a phenomenon deeper and more developed than the realism of the 18th century.The driving force behind P.L. is the interaction of literary tradition and innovation.

STORY - a small epic work of the most diverse content, arising mainly from a specific episode, event, human fate or character. R. is free and flexible in its structure, but the general principle of his poetics is laconicism. Because of this, detail carries an exceptionally large artistic load in painting, being one of the most important means of creating a typical image.For example, the constant “galoshes” and “umbrella” characterize Belikov’s spiritual “case” (“Man in a Case” by A.P. Chekhov).A variety of R. is the short story, characterized by intense development of action and an unexpected denouement(“Easy Breathing” by I.A. Bunin).

REALISM - an artistic method, according to which the main task of literature is to understand and depict the objective laws of reality through typification. According to the expression of F. Engels, true to this day, “R. involves, in addition to the truthfulness of details, the truthful reproduction of typical characters in typical circumstances"(“Letter to Margaret Harkness,” 1888).R. strives to depict all aspects of life; for him there are no restrictions, themes or plots. R.'s images predominantly (though not always) correspond to the figurative forms of life itself. R. as a method did not arise suddenly; its concrete historical manifestation varies. In relation to the early stages of the development of literature, it is customary to talk not about realism, but about realism, i.e. about realistic trends in depicting everyday details, conveying individual psychological character traits, etc. (for example, in folklore or ancient Russian literature). In the second half of the 18th century. R. receives significant development and is formed as a literary movement, called “R. the Age of Enlightenment." Enlightenment R. truthfully depicts not only individual details, but also social contradictions, which reached exceptional acuteness in A.N. Radishchev’s “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” (1790). The deepest and most striking manifestation of R. is the literary era of the 19th century, starting from the 30s. XIX century, when the new quality of painting lies primarily in the depiction of a person as a product of a certain social environment and historical era, as well as in the depiction of not only an individual person, but also the people as a whole. Through a detailed analysis of R. XIX, and then XX-XXI centuries. tries to reveal the essence of various life phenomena in all their inconsistency. From here quite often follows the critical pathos of R., directed against the inhumane foundations of society (serfdom, wars, the power of money, etc.), as well as the affirmation of an aesthetic ideal, which is given in different ways: either in the images of positive heroes, or in the subtext of the work as something opposite to the negative phenomena depicted. The principles of R. were especially deeply developed and shaped in the works of N.V. Gogol, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, L.N. Tolstoy, and A.P. Chekhov. R. is a living phenomenon both in the era of the Silver Age (along with various non-realistic movements), and in the era of so-called socialist realism, and in the literature of our days(for example, the novel by A. Volos “Real Estate”).

ROD literary- the most common historically stable ways of creating an artistic image, characteristic of very large groups of works. Since the time of Aristotle, three main styles have been distinguished: epic, lyrical and dramatic, which communicate reality in different ways: “... as something separate from oneself” (epic), “without changing its face” (lyrics), “ presenting all depicted persons as acting and active” (drama). Different poems, which is very important, also differ in the subject of the image: in the epic the main thing is the event, stated, as a rule, by the author-narrator, in the lyrics - the experience, in the drama - the action reproduced by the heroes on the sienna. R. do not exist on their own, but in epic, lyrical and dramatic genres. In artistic practice, various R. sometimes interact. Literature knows intermediate generic forms: lyric-epic, lyric-dramatic, etc.

ROLE HEROES - in the lyrics, the disclosure of feelings, emotions, experiences of a soul other than the author’s. Principle R.G. originated in romantic lyrics(for example, “Alone with you, brother, I would like to be” by M.Yu. Lermontov),but it receives widespread development in realistic lyrics, especially in the worksN.A.Nekrasoea (“Kalistrat”, “Katerina”). R.G., and more broadly, role-playing lyrics are “a lyrical way of mastering epic content” (B.O. Korman), i.e. the poet’s desire for objectivity, a truthful conveyance of the diversity of human souls.

NOVEL - an epic genre depicting human life in broad connections with society. R. received great development in Russian literature from the middle of the 19th century. For Russian R. of the second half of the 19th century. characterized by a comprehensive depiction of the hero, attention to the process of his formation, complex composition (the presence of several storylines, author's digressions, introductory episodes, etc.). R. has a number of genre varieties: socio-psychological R.(“Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov), satirical (“The History of a City” by M. Saltykov-Shchedrin), historical (“Peter I” by A.N. Tolstoy)and others. A peculiar phenomenon is represented by R. in verse(for example, “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin), in which, along with the epic, the lyrical principle is clearly expressed.

ROMANTICISM - an artistic method that attaches paramount importance to the writer’s subjective position in relation to the depicted reality. R. is characterized by:

1. Increased attention to the inner world of the individual, depicted outside the objective socio-historical reality and in contrast with it, which forms the conflict of the work.For example, the hero of A.S. Pushkin’s romantic poem “Prisoner of the Caucasus” is a non-historical, bright “person in general” by nature.

2. Re-creation of reality in accordance with the subjective ideas of the author.For example, in the aforementioned poem by A.S. Pushkin, the Caucasus appears as an ideal harmonious reality.

3. The predominance of convention in artistic forms: fantasy, grotesque, symbolism (although, of course, realistic forms are also used) and the strengthening of emotional and evaluative elements in the author’s speech and other poetic techniques.

R.'s method was especially fully manifested in Russian literature in the first third of the 19th century. Russian R. reflected dissatisfaction with the existing reality, which was expressed in different ways:

1. On the one hand, in the fascination with the first bourgeois revolution in France and the national liberation movement of one’s country and other countries, which was expressed in the freedom-loving pathos of the early works of A.S. Pushkin, Decembrist poets (K.F. Ryleeva, V. K. Kuchelbecker, V. F. Raevsky, A. I. Odoevsky), M. Yu, Lermontov and other writers of active romanticism;

2. On the other hand, among representatives of contemplative romanticism (V.A. Zhukovsky, I.I. Kozlov), dissatisfaction with reality was expressed in the desire to escape into the world of intimate (and not civil, as in active romanticism) feelings, the expression of which they found in medieval and otherworldly themes, as well as in popular beliefs and superstitions. The turn of active and contemplative romantics to folklore is due to the fact that R., as one of the most important, posed the problem of nationality, the national uniqueness of literature. Later, R.'s method received a certain expression in Russian literature at the end of the 19th century, as well as in the 20s and 30s of the 20th century.for example, M. Gorky (“Old Woman Izergil”), A. Green (“Scarlet Sails”).

ROMANCE - one of the varieties of pathos, expressing the author’s excited and positive attitude towards the depicted. R., infecting the reader, evokes in him a desire for the ideal. R. can be inherent in works of different artistic methods and movements: romanticism(“Mtsyri” by M.Yu. Lermontov), realism (“The Bride” by A.P. Chekhov), futurism (“Left March” by V.V. Mayakovsky).

SATIRE - the castigating, denouncing laughter of a work, aimed at the inconsistency of certain negative social phenomena. S. denies the ridiculed phenomenon not in particulars, but in general, in its very essence. S. presupposes a high ideal of the writer. She is characterized by special techniques for creating a typical image (hyperbole, grotesque, fantasy, etc.). S. may or form the basis of the entire work(“Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol), or act as individual satirical motifs in works that are not generally satirical. C - diverse in genre manifestation. The actual satirical genres include the fable, epigram, pamphlet, and feuilleton. S. finds expression in a satirical novel, satirical comedy, etc., as well as in various parodies.Great satirists of Russian literature of the 19th century. - N.V. Gogol and M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. In the literature of the 20th century. S. occupies a large place in the works of V.V. Mayakovsky, I. Ilf and E. Petrov, M. Zoshchenko, S. Cherny and others.

SYMBOLISM - literary movement of the late XIX - early XX centuries. In Russian literature, the names of D. Merezhkovsky, K. Balmont, V. Bryusov, A. Blok, V. Ivanov, A. Bely and others are associated with S. S. is a complex and varied phenomenon, but in general its artistic principles are characterized by subjectivism and aestheticism. The subject of knowledge and reflection of literature, the symbolists considered the invisible being hidden behind the external forms of reality, which they understood as the highest organizing spiritual principle of the world. The artist, in S.'s interpretation, is the exponent of this world, and the symbol is a way of expressing it, covering the entire structure of the work from sound to word and image, which are thought of as infinitely polysemantic. Extreme manifestations of this understanding of creativity often led to vacuity and formalism. In general, S. is characterized by a desire for spiritual beauty, an ideal (albeit illusory, mystical), for example, in “Poems about a Beautiful Lady” by A. Blok. The presence of a positive ideal significantly distinguishes S. from decadence (the art of extreme disbelief and pessimism). Symbolism received its greatest development in Russian poetry at the beginning of the 20th century. In a complex form, indirectly, S. reflects the tragic gap between the individual and society, the uncompromising denial of the latter’s lack of spirituality.

SOCIALIST REALISM- an artistic method that began to take shape at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries, which developed in the 20s - 30s of the 20th century. and existed before perestroika. SR. - this is realism, reflecting the development of socialist and communist ideas in society and their approval in art. SR. - an international phenomenon: its formation in Russia is associated with the name of A.M. Gorky (“Mother”), in France - A. Barbusse (“Fire”), in Germany - A. Segers (“Trust”), etc. Main features Wed:

1. Understanding socialism and communism as an objective, logical and only historical perspective for the development of reality. The latter indicates the ideological one-sidedness of SR's works.

2. SR. He attached especially great importance to the problem of a positive hero as a person who actively and confidently defends socialist and communist ideals.

3. In the literature SR. A special normative poetics has developed (the type of positive hero, the nature of his conflict with reality, a certain slogan-like quality of the characters’ speech, etc.). The concepts “literature of the SR” should not be identified. and “literature of the era of socialism”, because During the Soviet era, many deeply realistic works were created that cannot be measured by SR criteria.(for example, “Quiet Don” by M. Sholokhov, “Live and Remember” by V. Rasputin, “House on the Embankment” by Y. Trifonov).

CONTENT AND FORM IN LITERATURE- inextricably interconnected aspects of a work in artistic reality, highlighted only when analyzing it for the purpose of a deeper understanding of the work. S. works are not so much a list of events and situations, but also the entire range of his ideas and emotions, i.e. C is the unity of what is depicted and expressed in a work, which is emphasized in such a literary expression as “the ideological and thematic content of the work” (see: theme, idea). S. of L.N. Tolstoy’s story “After the Ball” - scenes of the ball, execution and, most importantly, the author’s thoughts and emotions about them. F is a material (i.e. sound, verbal, figurative, etc.) manifestation of S. and its organizing principle. Turning to a work, we directly encounter the language of fiction, composition, etc. and through these components F, we comprehend the S. of the work. For example, through the change of bright colors into dark ones in the language, through the contrast of actions and scenes in the plot and composition of the above-mentioned story, we comprehend the author’s angry thought about the inhumane nature of society. Thus, S. and F. are interconnected: F. is always meaningful, and S. is always formed in a certain way, but in the unity of S. and F., the initiative always belongs to S: new F. are born as an expression of a new S.

STYLE - in literary criticism: a set of individual characteristics of artistic techniques (linguistic, rhythmic, compositional, etc.) or a certain work, or genre, or period of the writer’s work, determined by the content.For example, Gogol the satirist is characterized by comparisons of heroes with the world of domestic animals, tongue-tied speech of characters, attention in their appearance not to the eyes, but to the nose, anti-aesthetic actions (spit, sneezed), etc., which are connected together by the thought of the lack of spirituality of the people depicted ( “Dead Souls”, “How Ivan Ivanovich quarreled with Ivan Nikiforov and why”, etc.).In linguistics, the concept of S. is somewhat narrower (linguistic style).

SUBJECT - is interpreted differently in literary criticism:

1. As a problem posed in the work. In this case, the originality of the concepts “topic” and “problem” is lost,

2. As life events that form the basis of the work. But with this understanding it is impossible to define T., for example, a science fiction novel.

3. As the main circle of events depicted in the work itself. The last understanding is the most common.For example, T. story “The Death of Ivan Ilyich” by L.N. Tolstoy - the fate of a man who devoted his entire life to the organization of everyday well-being. T. is revealed through a plot in which it deepens and is concretized in a number of pictures of the life, illness and death of Ivan Ilyich. T. is the path to understanding the problem and idea of the work. Thus, the comprehension of the life of Ivan Ilyich by the reader and the hero himself before his death leads to the idea of its falsity, the absence of great human meaning in it. In relation to a work, they often talk about its theme, i.e. a set of T series.For example, L.N. Tolstoy’s epic “War and Peace” is dark.When talking about T. in lyrics, one should take into account its generic specificity. Lyrical poetry reflects the nature of the main experiences expressed in the poem: love lyrics, civil lyrics, etc.

LITERARY TYPE- an artistic image in which, despite its individual uniqueness, embodies the most important, natural features characteristic of people of a particular group, class, nation, etc.For example, in the unique, extremely individualized image of Eugene Onegin, certain common features are expressed: secular appearance, demeanor, and most importantly, the emptiness and aimlessness of a boring existence that many of his peers eke out.T.L. always reflects the patterns of a certain era. Any era is heterogeneous in its content, and T.L. reflect its various phenomena: obsolete, firmly rooted, and also just emerging.For example, the types of landowners in “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol reflect the established system of serf Russia, and the type of Bazarov (“Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev) are only emerging manifestations of a new nihilistic attitude to life in Russian society,T.L. always nationally and historically specific. But along with this, it often embodies certain universal and eternal traits,for example, in Romeo and Juliet (“Romeo and Juliet” by W. Shakespeare), Khlestakov (“The Inspector General” by N.V. Gogol), Molchalin (“Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboyedov).

TYPICAL - the most general, significant, natural phenomena of reality, as well as the leading trends in its development. The task of literature is to understand T. in life through the creation of typical characters (types), typical circumstances, and the transfer of typical processes. The revelation in artistic images of the general, natural in the life of human society is artistic typification, which is always associated with the liberation of the displayed phenomenon from the random, unimportant and emphasizing, focusing attention on the essential. Creating a typical image can go in different ways:

a) through a generalization of widespread phenomena: “... you need to observe many similar people in order to create one literary type” (L.N. Tolstoy);

b) by bringing barely emerging but important phenomena of reality to a high and logical degree of manifestation in an artistic image. For example, according to I.S. Turgenev, the basis for the image of Bazarov was that “still fermenting principle, which later received the name of nihilism.” The typical is expressed most fully, multifacetedly and clearly in the images of epic and drama (see 1st meaning). But in a unique form, the typical is also embodied in the lyrics: in it, through individual experiences, typical moods that are most characteristic of people of a certain society or era are conveyed. The general, typical always manifests itself through the specific, individual. However, depending on the artistic method and individual style of the writer, the degree of concretization, the very relationship between the individual and general principles in the artistic image is different.

TRAGEDY - one of the genres of drama (see 1st meaning); a work with an insoluble conflict between the high aspirations of a spiritually strong personality and the objective impossibility of their implementation. T. most often ends with the death of the hero, who has not deviated from his humanistic ideals, which leads the viewer to catharsis (purification of the soul through compassion for the hero). T. originated in antiquity (Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides), and received great development during the periods of the Renaissance (Shakespeare) and classicism (Cornel, Racine). In Russian literature of the 18th century. T. is associated with the name of A.P. Sumarokov; in the XJX century. - with the names of romantics and A.S. Pushkin, who first expressed “people's thought” (“Boris Godunov”) in T., created a unique genre of “small tragedies.” In business since the middle of the 19th century. in Russian literature, T. as a genre gives way to the novel, which uses tragic situations, for example, in the works of F. M. Dostoevsky.

TRADITHIAAndINNOVATIONin literature, two dialectically interconnected aspects of the literary process: T. - the transfer to subsequent eras of the previous ideological and artistic experience of literature, and N. - the enrichment of literary T. with new characters, ideas, techniques, etc. etc. Thus, the image of the “superfluous man” is traditional for Russian literature, but at various periods of its development it also bears innovative features. For example, Evgeny Onegin in A.S. Pushkin’s novel of the same name is a “bored egoist,” and Pechorin in M.Yu. Lermontov’s “Hero of Our Time” is a “suffering egoist”; one in his own way; one is inactive in character, while the other is unusually active, although his actions do not ultimately have a great purpose.

FORMALISM- a movement in literature and literary criticism, the defining aesthetic principle of which is the absolutization of form as an end in itself of art while ignoring content as an extra-artistic category. One should not confuse the writer’s high demands on form (as evidenced by the drafts of A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, etc.) and F., in which the main function of art - the reflection of reality - is destroyed. “Form without content is vulgarity, often quite specious...” (V.G. Belinsky). In Russian literature, F. most clearly manifested itself in the 10-20s. in extreme manifestations of futurism, symbolism, etc., for example, in the abstruse language of V. Khlebnikov and A-Kruchenykh. Many writers (V.V. Mayakovsky, A.A. Blok, V.Ya. Bryusov), overcoming purely formalistic tendencies, enriched literature with a variety of artistic techniques that contribute to the expression of new ideas and moods.

FUTURISM- Russian F., which emerged in the 1910s, on the one hand, was a vivid manifestation of formalism (in its extreme manifestations), on the other hand, it enriched literature with new ideas, moods, and artistic techniques. Its representatives: V. Khlebnikov, V. Kamensky, the Burliuk brothers and others. F.’s program asserted the “inherent value” of the form of poetry, regardless of its content, as well as (in contrast to symbolism) anti-aestheticism, i.e. denial of beauty in general, which was manifested in the language of their works, named collections (“A Slap in the Face of Public Taste”, “Dead Moon”), etc. F. advocated the unlimited freedom of the artist, which was manifested, for example, in the abolition of punctuation marks, in word creation, reaching the point of absurdity (see: abstruse language). Over time, the artistic practice of some F. poets increasingly contradicted his program. V.V. Mayakovsky, N.N. Aseev and others, formally starting out as futurists, later became the largest original poets.

ARTISTRYliterature - has two meanings:

1. Figurative form of reflection of reality.

2. The degree of poetic perfection of the work. X. depends on the combination of a number of features: on the importance of the theme, the persuasiveness of the characters, the skill of the writer and, of course, on the significance and truthfulness of the artistic images and ideas of the work: “If the idea is false, there can be no talk of X.” (N.G. Chernyshevsky).

LYRICAL CYCLE- genre education, which has a special artistic possibility of the emergence of additional meanings hidden in the order of arrangement of poems, their leitmotifs, a single or changing emotional tone, etc. Thus, Ts.L. is not reduced to the totality of meanings of individual poems, but is something more in terms of content(“Denisevsky cycle” by F.I. Tyutchev, “Snow Mask” by A.A. Blok).

ELEGY- one of the genres of lyrics; a work that expresses the mood of sadness and sadness caused by reflections on life. E. in Russian literature flourished in the era of romanticism in lyric poetryV.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkov and especially E.A. Baratynsky (“Disbelief”), found in A.S. Pushkin (“I wander along the noisy streets”), M.Yu. Lermontov (“I go out I’m alone on the road”).N.A. Nekrasov turned Elegy into a means of exposing ugly social phenomena (“Elegy”).

EPIGRAM- a short poem that maliciously ridicules a person or social phenomenon. For example, A.S. Pushkin addressed the following E. to Count I.S. Vorontsov:

Half my lord, half merchant,

Half-sage, half-ignorant,

Semi-scoundrel, but there is hope

Which will be complete at last.

In the literature of the 19th century. E. was a sharp weapon in the social and literary struggle. E. can also be of a comic nature.

EPOS- a literary genre in which the subject of the image is, as a rule, important social phenomena. The image is primarily of a narrative (event) nature. Events in E. are depicted as occurring independently of the will of the author-narrator, in their self-development. The author-narrator is, as it were, an observer, narrating what is happening from the third person. But in addition to this historically traditional form of presentation of material for E., striving for omniscience (for example, about the life of the hero, his soul, fate, etc.) and universal coverage of reality, gradually in E. a form of narration from the narrator (from “I” - a witness or participant in events). In order to report events, E. also uses the experience of drama, introducing messages about what happened into the system of dialogues and monologues. The writer 8 E. acts as an analyst of the objective life process, resurrecting the root causes that determined the character and behavior of the hero. Over time, epic genres (epic, novel, story, short story, etc.) lose their generic purity, i.e. Dialogues and monologues (dramatic techniques) are widely used, conveying the emotional state of the characters, as well as the author’s lyrical digressions. This contributes to the development of forms that are transitional in terms of gender (for example, lyric-epic: N.V. Gogol’s poem “Dead Souls”). Due to the mastery of various methods of presenting material (subordinate to the main one, that is, narration), E. provides the writer with great opportunities for depicting a person and reality.

EPIC- the largest genre of epic, existing in two genre varieties:

1. Classical E. - a monumental work of national heroic character, created on the basis of the cyclization of folk tales and songs. K.E. (or epic) as a genre is created in the era of the early formation of nationalities, reflecting an understanding of the world in the spirit of folklore and mythological images.For example: “The Iliad” by Homer, “The Song of the Nibelungs”, cycles of Russian epics about the heroes Ilya Muromets, Mikul Selyaninovich, Alyosha Popovich, etc..

2.E. modern times (epic novel) - a large-scale work depicting events of national significance.For example: “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Quiet Don” by M.A. Sholokhov.

AESTHETICS- the science of art and aesthetic qualities of reality. E. - “philosophy of art” (Hegel). The main question of E. is the relationship between aesthetic consciousness and social existence. Based on the understanding of this issue, scientists dealing with aesthetic problems reveal the general laws of art (its origin, essence, connection with other forms of consciousness), features of the artistic image, the interaction of content and form in art, the main aesthetic categories (beautiful, ugly, tragic, comic) etc. Writers of various literary movements, movements, and artistic methods have different aesthetic views.For example, symbolists see the ideal in the mystical spiritual foundations of the world, and realists - in a plausible, seemingly real reality (cf., the images of the Beautiful Lady in A.A. Blok’s cycle “Poems about the Beautiful Lady” and Tatyana Larina in the novel by A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin").

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M.: Education, 1988. - 335 p.

The book consists of two sections. The first section - "A Brief Dictionary of Literary Terms" (3rd edition, revised, 2nd edition published in 1985) - will help answer questions related to understanding a wide variety of phenomena in fiction (romanticism, realism, critical...

Kozhevnikov V.M. (ed.) Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary (LES)

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The publication contains 752 pages. Year of publication - 1987. This is a fundamental edition of the “Soviet Encyclopedia” (now the publishing house “Big Russian Encyclopedia”), which contains systematized information about a set of terms and concepts used in literary criticism, folkloristics, literary criticism, and also partially in whether...

Dictionary

literary terms

Used Books

Bushko O.M. School dictionary of literary terms. – Kaluga: Publishing house. "Golden Alley", 1999

Esin A.B., Ladygin M.B., Trenina T.G. Literature: A short reference book for schoolchildren. 5-11 grades – M.: Bustard, 1997

Meshcheryakova M.I. Literature in tables and diagrams. – M.: Rolf, 2001

Chernets L.V., Semenov V.B., Skiba V.A. School dictionary of literary terms. – M.: Education, 2007

Autology – an artistic technique of figuratively expressing a poetic idea not in poetic words and expressions, but in simple everyday ones.

And everyone looks with respect,
How again without panic
I slowly put on my pants

And almost new

From the point of view of the sergeant major,

Canvas boots...

A.T. Tvardovsky

Allegory - allegorical image of an abstract concept or phenomenon through a concrete image; personification of human properties or qualities. The allegory consists of two elements:
1. semantic - this is any concept or phenomenon (wisdom, cunning, kindness, childhood, nature, etc.) that the author seeks to depict without naming it;
2. figurative-objective - this is a specific object, a creature depicted in a work of art and representing a named concept or phenomenon.

Alliteration - repetition in poetic speech (less often in prose) of the same consonant sounds in order to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech; one of the types of sound recording.
Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.
The majestic cry of the waves.
A storm is coming. It hits the shore
A black boat alien to enchantment.
K.D.Balmont

Amphibrachium - a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the second syllable - stressed among unstressed ones - in the foot. Scheme: U-U| U-U...
The midnight blizzard was noisy
In the forest and remote side.
A.A.Fet

Anapaest - a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the last, third, syllable in the foot. Scheme: UU- | UU-…
People's houses are clean, bright,
But in our house it’s cramped, stuffy...
N.A. Nekrasov.

Anaphora - unity of command; repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of several phrases or stanzas.
I love you, Petra's creation,
I love your strict, slender appearance...
A.S. Pushkin.

Antithesis - a stylistic device based on a sharp contrast of concepts and images, most often based on the use of antonyms:
I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god!
G.R.Derzhavin

Antiphrase(s) – using words or expressions in a clearly contrary sense. "Well done!" - as a reproach.

Assonance - repeated repetition in poetic speech (less often in prose) of homogeneous vowel sounds. Sometimes assonance refers to an imprecise rhyme in which the vowels coincide, but the consonants do not coincide (hugeness - I’ll come to my senses; thirst - it’s a pity). Enhances the expressiveness of speech.
The room became dark.
The window obscures the slope.
Or is this a dream?
Ding dong. Ding dong.
I.P. Tokmakova.

Ballad - a narrative song with a dramatic development of the plot, the basis of which is an unusual incident, one of the types of lyric-epic poetry. The ballad is based on an extraordinary story, reflecting the essential moments of the relationship between man and society, people among themselves, the most important features of a person.

Bard – a poet-singer, usually a performer of his own poems, often set to his own music.

Fable – a short poetic story-allegory of a moralizing nature.

Blank verse - unrhymed verses with metric organization (i.e., organized through a system of rhythmically repeating accents). Widely distributed in oral folk art and was actively used in the 18th century.
Forgive me, maiden beauty!
I will part with you forever,
Young girl, I’ll cry.
I'll let you go, beauty,
I'll let you go with ribbons...
Folk song.

Epics - Old Russian epic songs and tales, glorifying the exploits of heroes, reflecting historical events of the 11th - 16th centuries.

Barbarism – a word or figure of speech borrowed from a foreign language. The unjustified use of barbarisms pollutes the native language.

Vers libre - a modern system of versification, which represents a kind of border between verse and prose (it lacks rhyme, meter, traditional rhythmic ordering; the number of syllables in a line and lines in a stanza can be different; there is also no equality of emphasis characteristic of blank verse. Their poetic features speech remains divided into lines with a pause at the end of each line and weakened symmetry of speech (the emphasis falls on the last word of the line).
She came in from the cold
Flushed,
Filled the room
The aroma of air and perfume,
In a ringing voice
And completely disrespectful to classes
Chatting.
A.Blok

Hero lyrical - the image of the poet (his lyrical “I”), whose experiences, thoughts and feelings are reflected in the lyrical work. The lyrical hero is not identical to the biographical personality. The idea of a lyrical hero is of a summary nature and is formed in the process of familiarization with the inner world that is revealed in lyrical works not through actions, but through experiences, mental states, and manner of verbal self-expression.

Literary hero - character, protagonist of a literary work.

Hyperbola - a means of artistic representation based on excessive exaggeration; figurative expression, which consists in an exorbitant exaggeration of events, feelings, strength, meaning, size of the depicted phenomenon; an outwardly effective form of presenting what is depicted. Can be idealizing and humiliating.

Gradation - stylistic device, arrangement of words and expressions, as well as means of artistic representation in increasing or decreasing importance. Types of gradation: increasing (climax) and decreasing (anti-climax).
Increasing gradation:
Orata's bipod is maple,
The damask boots on the bipod,
The bipod's snout is silver,
And the horn of the bipod is red and gold.
Epic about Volga and Mikula
Descending gradation:
Fly! less fly! disintegrated into a grain of sand.
N.V.Gogol

Grotesque – a bizarre mixture in the image of the real and the fantastic, the beautiful and the ugly, the tragic and the comic - for a more impressive expression of creative intent.

Dactyl - a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the first syllable in the foot. Scheme: -UU| -UU...
Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers!
The azure steppe, the pearl chain
You rush as if, like me, you are exiles,
From the sweet north to the south.
M.Yu.Lermontov

Artistic detail – detail that emphasizes the semantic authenticity of the work with material, eventual authenticity - concretizing this or that image.

Dialogue - exchange of remarks, messages, live speech between two or more persons.

Drama – 1. One of three types of literature , defining works intended for stage execution. It differs from the epic in that it has not a narrative, but a dialogic form; from the lyrics - in that it reproduces the world external to the author. Divided intogenres : tragedy, comedy, and also drama itself. 2. Drama is also called a dramatic work that does not have clear genre characteristics, combining techniques of different genres; sometimes such a work is simply called a play.

Unity of people – the technique of repeating similar sounds, words, linguistic structures at the beginning of adjacent lines or stanzas.

Wait for the snow to blow

Wait for it to be hot

Wait when others are not waiting...

K. Simonov

AND

Lives of the Saints - a description of the lives of people canonized by the church (“The Life of Alexander Nevsky”, “The Life of Alexy the Man of God”, etc.).

Tie – an event that determines the occurrence of a conflict in a literary work. Sometimes it coincides with the beginning of the work.

Beginning – the beginning of a work of Russian folk literature - epics, fairy tales, etc. (“Once upon a time...”, “In the distant kingdom, in the thirtieth state...”).

Sound organization of speech - targeted use of elements of the sound composition of the language: vowels and consonants, stressed and unstressed syllables, pauses, intonation, repetitions, etc. It is used to enhance the artistic expressiveness of speech. The sound organization of speech includes: sound repetitions, sound writing, onomatopoeia.

Sound recording - a technique for enhancing the imagery of a text by constructing phrases and lines of poetry in a sound manner that would correspond to the reproduced scene, picture, or expressed mood. In sound writing, alliteration, assonance, and sound repetitions are used. Sound recording enhances the image of a certain phenomenon, action, state.

Onomatopoeia - a type of sound recording; the use of sound combinations that can reflect the sound of the described phenomena, similar in sound to those depicted in artistic speech ("thunder rumbles", "horns roar", "cuckoos crow", "echoes of laughter").

AND

The idea of a work of art - the main idea that summarizes the semantic, figurative, emotional content of a work of art.

Impressionism - a direction in art of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which asserted that the main task of artistic creativity is the expression of the artist’s subjective impressions of the phenomena of reality.

Improvisation – direct creation of a work in the process of performance.

Inversion - violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of a phrase, giving it special expressiveness; an unusual sequence of words in a sentence.
And the maiden's song is barely audible

Valleys in deep silence.

A.S. Pushkin

Interpretation – interpretation, explanation of ideas, themes, figurative systems and other components of a work of art in literature and criticism.

Intrigue – system, and sometimes the mystery, complexity, mystery of events, on the unraveling of which the plot of the work is built.

Historical songs – a genre of folk poetry that reflects the people's understanding of genuine historical events in Rus'.

Literary canon - a symbol, image, plot, born of centuries-old folklore and literary traditions and which has become, to a certain extent, normative: light is good, darkness is evil, etc.

Comedy – a dramatic work that uses satire and humor to ridicule the vices of society and man.

Composition – arrangement, alternation, correlation and interrelation of parts of a literary work, serving the most complete embodiment of the artist’s plan.

Leitmotif - an expressive detail, a specific artistic image, repeated many times, mentioned, passing through a separate work or the entire work of the writer.

Lyrics - one of the main types of literature, reflecting life through the depiction of individual (single) states, thoughts, feelings, impressions and experiences of a person caused by certain circumstances. Feelings and experiences are not described, but expressed. The center of artistic attention is the image-experience. The characteristic features of the lyrics are poetic form, rhythm, lack of plot, small size, a clear reflection of the experiences of the lyrical hero. The most subjective type of literature.

Litota – 1. The technique of downplaying a phenomenon or its details is a reverse hyperbole (the fabulous “boy as big as a finger” or “a little man... in big mittens, and himself as big as a fingernail” by N. Nekrasov). 2. Reception of the characterization of a particular phenomenon not by a direct definition, but by the negation of the opposite definition:

The key to nature is not lost,

Proud work is not in vain...

V.Shalamov

Memoirs – the author's memories of real events in which he took part or witnessed.

Metaphor - figurative meaning of a word, based on the use of one object or phenomenon to another by similarity or contrast; a hidden comparison based on the similarity or contrast of phenomena, in which the words “as”, “as if”, “as if” are absent, but implied.
Bee for field tribute
Flies from a wax cell.
A.S. Pushkin
Metaphor increases the accuracy of poetic speech and its emotional expressiveness. A type of metaphor is personification.
Types of metaphor:
1. lexical metaphor, or erased, in which the direct meaning is completely destroyed; “it’s raining”, “time is running”, “clock hand”, “doorknob”;
2. a simple metaphor - built on the convergence of objects or on one of their common features: “hail of bullets”, “talk of waves”, “dawn of life”, “table leg”, “dawn is blazing”;
3. realized metaphor - literal understanding of the meanings of the words that make up the metaphor, emphasizing the direct meanings of the words: “But you don’t have a face - you’re only wearing a shirt and trousers” (S. Sokolov).
4. expanded metaphor - the spread of a metaphorical image over several phrases or the entire work (for example, A.S. Pushkin’s poem “The Cart of Life” or “He couldn’t sleep for a long time: the remaining husk of words clogged and tormented the brain, stabbed in the temples, there’s no way was to get rid of it" (V. Nabokov)
A metaphor is usually expressed by a noun, a verb, and then other parts of speech.

Metonymy - rapprochement, comparison of concepts by contiguity, when a phenomenon or object is designated using other words and concepts: “a steel speaker is dozing in a holster” - a revolver; “led swords at a plentiful pace” - led warriors into battle; “The little owl began to sing” - the violinist began to play his instrument.

Monologue – the speech of one of the literary heroes, addressed either to himself, or to others, or to the public, isolated from the remarks of other heroes, having independent meaning.

Motive - 1. The smallest element of the plot; the simplest, indivisible element of a narrative (a stable and endlessly repeating phenomenon). Numerous motifs make up various plots (for example, the motif of the road, the motif of the search for the missing bride, etc.). This meaning of the term is more often used in relation to works of oral folk art.

Neologisms – newly formed words or expressions.

Novella – a short piece of prose comparable to a short story. The novella is more eventful, the plot is clearer, the plot twist leading to the denouement is clearer.

ABOUT

Oh yeah - a poem of an enthusiastic nature (solemn, glorifying) in honor of some
either persons or events.

Oxymoron, or oxymoron - a figure based on a combination of words with opposite meanings for the purpose of an unusual, impressive expression of some new concept, representation: hot snow, a stingy knight, lush nature withering.

Personification - the depiction of inanimate objects as animate, in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings: the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel.
What are you howling about, night wind,
Why are you complaining so madly?
F.I.Tyutchev

Feature article - a literary work based on facts, documents, and observations of the author.

Parallelism - one of the types of repetition (syntactic, lexical, rhythmic); a compositional technique that emphasizes the connection between several elements of a work of art; analogy, bringing together phenomena by similarity (for example, natural phenomena and human life).
In bad weather the wind
Howls - howls;
Violent head
Evil sadness torments.
V.A.Koltsov

Parcellation - dividing a statement with a single meaning into several independent, isolated sentences (in writing - using punctuation marks, in speech - intonation, using pauses):
Well? Don't you see that he's gone crazy?
Say it seriously:
Insane! What kind of nonsense is he talking about here!
The sycophant! father-in-law! and so menacing about Moscow!
A.S.Griboyedov

Scenery - in literature - the depiction of pictures of nature in a literary work as a means of figurative expression of the author’s intention.

Periphrase - using a description instead of your own name or title; descriptive expression, figure of speech, substitute word. Used to decorate speech, replace repetition, or carry the meaning of allegory.

Pleonasm - unjustified verbosity, the use of words that are unnecessary to express thoughts. In normative stylistics, Pleonasm is considered as a speech error. In the language of fiction - as a stylistic figure of addition, serving to enhance the expressive qualities of speech.
“Elisha had no appetite for food”; “some boring guy... lay down... among the dead and personally died”; “Kozlov continued to lie silent, having been killed” (A. Platonov).

Tale – a work of epic prose, gravitating towards a sequential presentation of the plot, limited to a minimum of plot lines.

Repetition - a figure consisting of the repetition of words, expressions, song or poetic lines in order to attract special attention to them.
Every house is alien to me, every temple is not empty,
And everything is the same and everything is one...
M. Tsvetaeva

Subtext – the meaning hidden “under” the text, i.e. not expressed directly and openly, but arising from the narrative or dialogue of the text.

Permanent epithet - a colorful definition, inextricably combined with the word being defined and forming a stable figurative and poetic expression (“blue sea”, “white stone chambers”, “red maiden”, “clear falcon”, “sugar lips”).

Poetry - a special organization of artistic speech, which is distinguished by rhythm and rhyme - poetic form; lyrical form of reflection of reality. The term poetry is often used to mean “works of different genres in verse.” Conveys the subjective attitude of the individual to the world. In the foreground is the image-experience. It does not set the task of conveying the development of events and characters.

Poem - a large poetic work with a plot and narrative organization; a story or novel in verse; a multi-part work in which the epic and lyrical principles merge together. The poem can be classified as a lyric-epic genre of literature, since the narration of historical events and events in the lives of the heroes is revealed in it through the perception and assessment of the narrator. The poem deals with events of universal significance. Most poems glorify some human acts, events and characters.

Tradition – oral narration about real persons and reliable events, one of the varieties of folk art.

Prototype – a real person who served as a model for the author to create the image of a literary hero.

Play - a general designation for a literary work intended for stage performance - tragedy, drama, comedy, etc.

Interchange – the final part of the development of a conflict or intrigue, where the conflict of the work is resolved and comes to a logical figurative conclusion.

Poetic meter - a consistently expressed form of poetic rhythm (determined by the number of syllables, stresses or feet - depending on the system of versification); diagram of the construction of a poetic line. In Russian (syllabic-tonic) versification, there are five main poetic meters: two-syllable (iamb, trochee) and three-syllable (dactyl, amphibrach, anapest). In addition, each size can vary in the number of feet (4-foot iambic; 5-foot iambic, etc.).

Story - a small prose work of a mainly narrative nature, compositionally grouped around a separate episode or character.

Realism – an artistic method of figuratively reflecting reality in accordance with objective accuracy.

Refrain - repetition of a verse or a series of verses at the end of a stanza (in songs - chorus).

We are ordered to go into battle:

"Long live freedom!"

Freedom! Whose? Not said.

But not the people.

We are ordered to go into battle -

"Allied for the sake of nations"

But the main thing is not said:

Whose for the sake of banknotes?

D.Bedny

Rhythm - constant, measured repetition in the text of the same type of segments, including minimal ones, - stressed and unstressed syllables.

Rhyme - sound repetition in two or more verses, mainly at the end. Unlike other sound repetitions, rhyme always emphasizes the rhythm and division of speech into verses.

A rhetorical question is a question that does not require an answer (either the answer is fundamentally impossible, or is clear in itself, or the question is addressed to a conditional “interlocutor”). A rhetorical question activates the reader’s attention and enhances his emotional reaction.
"Rus! Where are you going?"
"Dead Souls" by N.V. Gogol
Or is it new for us to argue with Europe?
Or is the Russian unaccustomed to victories?
"To the slanderers of Russia" A.S. Pushkin

Genus - one of the main sections in the taxonomy of literary works, defining three different forms: epic, lyric, drama.

Novel - an epic narrative with elements of dialogue, sometimes including drama or literary digressions, focusing on the history of an individual in a social environment.

Romanticism – a literary movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, which opposed itself to classicism as a search for forms of reflection that were more in line with modern reality.

Romantic hero – a complex, passionate personality, whose inner world is unusually deep and endless; it is a whole universe full of contradictions.

WITH

Sarcasm – caustic, sarcastic ridicule of someone or something. Widely used in satirical literary works.

Satire – a type of literature that exposes and ridicules the vices of people and society in specific forms. These forms can be very diverse - paradox and hyperbole, grotesque and parody, etc.

Syllabic-tonic versification - syllabic stress system of versification, which is determined by the number of syllables, the number of stresses and their location in the poetic line. It is based on the equality of the number of syllables in a verse and the orderly change of stressed and unstressed syllables. Depending on the system of alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, two-syllable and three-syllable sizes are distinguished.

Symbol - an image that expresses the meaning of a phenomenon in objective form. An object, an animal, a sign becomes a symbol when they are endowed with additional, extremely important meaning.

Synecdoche – artistic technique of substitution for the sake of expressiveness - one phenomenon, subject, object, etc. – correlated with it by other phenomena, objects, objects.

Oh, you are heavy, Monomakh’s hat!

A.S. Pushkin.

Comparison - a pictorial technique based on a comparison of a phenomenon or concept (object of comparison) with another phenomenon or concept (means of comparison), with the goal of highlighting any particularly important artistic feature of the object of comparison:
Full of goodness before the end of the year,
Days are like Antonov apples.
A.T. Tvardovsky

Versification - the principle of rhythmic organization of poetic speech. Versification can be syllabic, tonic, syllabic-tonic.

Poem - a small work created according to the laws of poetic speech; usually a lyrical work.

Poetic speech - a special organization of artistic speech, differing from prose in its strict rhythmic organization; measured, rhythmically organized speech. A means of conveying expressive emotions.

Foot - a stable (ordered) combination of a stressed syllable with one or two unstressed syllables, which are repeated in each verse. The foot can be two-syllable (iambic U-, trochee -U) and three-syllable (dactyl -UU, amphibrachium U-U, anapest UU-).

Stanza - a group of verses repeated in poetic speech, related in meaning, as well as in the arrangement of rhymes; a combination of verses that forms a rhythmic and syntactic whole, united by a certain rhyme system; additional rhythmic element of verse. Often has complete content and syntactic structure. The stanza is separated from one another by an increased interval.

Plot - a system of events in a work of art, presented in a certain connection, revealing the characters of the characters and the writer’s attitude to the depicted life phenomena; subsequence. The course of events that makes up the content of a work of art; dynamic aspect of a work of art.

Tautology - repetition of the same words that are close in meaning and sound.
Everything is mine, said gold,
Damask steel said everything mine.
A.S. Pushkin.

Subject - a circle of phenomena and events that form the basis of the work; object of artistic depiction; what the author is talking about and what he wants to attract the attention of readers to.

Type - a literary hero who embodies certain features of a particular time, social phenomenon, social system or social environment (“extra people” - Eugene Onegin, Pechorin, etc.).

Tonic versification - a system of versification based on the equality of stressed syllables in poetry. The length of the line is determined by the number of stressed syllables. The number of unstressed syllables is arbitrary.

The girl sang in the church choir

About all those who are tired in a foreign land,

About all the ships that went to sea,

About everyone who has forgotten their joy.

A.A.Blok

Tragicomedy – a drama that combines features of both tragedy and comedy, reflecting the relativity of our definitions of the phenomena of reality.

Trails - words and expressions used in a figurative sense in order to achieve artistic expressiveness of speech. The basis of any trope is a comparison of objects and phenomena.

Default - a figure that gives the listener or reader the opportunity to guess and reflect on what could be discussed in a suddenly interrupted utterance.
But is it me, is it me, the sovereign’s favorite...
But death... but power... but the people's disasters....
A.S. Pushkin

The final - part of the composition of a work that ends it. It may sometimes coincide with the denouement. Sometimes the ending is an epilogue.

Trochee - two-syllable poetic meter with stress on the first syllable.
The storm covers the sky with darkness, -U|-U|-U|-U|
Whirling snow whirlwinds; -U|-U|-U|-
Then, like a beast, she will howl, -U|-U|-U|-U|
Then he will cry like a child... -U|-U|-U|-
A.S. Pushkin

Aesopian language - various ways to figuratively express this or that thought that cannot be expressed directly, for example, due to censorship.

Exposition – the part of the plot immediately preceding the plot that provides the reader with background information about the circumstances in which the conflict of the literary work arose.

Expression - emphasized expressiveness of something. Unusual artistic means are used to achieve expression.

Elegy - a lyrical poem that conveys deeply personal, intimate experiences of a person, imbued with a mood of sadness.

Ellipsis - a stylistic figure, an omission of a word whose meaning can be easily restored from the context. The meaningful function of ellipsis is to create the effect of lyrical “understatement,” deliberate negligence, and emphasized dynamism of speech.
The beast has a den,
The way for the wanderer,
For the dead - drogues,
To each his own.
M. Tsvetaeva

Epigram - a short poem ridiculing a person.

Epigraph – an expression prefixed by the author to his work or part of it. An epigraph usually expresses the essence of the author's creative intent.

Episode – a fragment of the plot of a literary work that describes a certain integral moment of action that makes up the content of the work.

Epilogue – a conclusion made by the author after presenting the narrative and completing it with a denouement - to explain the plan with a message about the further fate of the heroes, affirming the consequences of the phenomenon described in the work.

Epistrophe – repetition of the same word or expression in a long phrase or period, focusing the reader’s attention, in poetry - at the beginning and end of stanzas, as if surrounding them.

I won't tell you anything

I won't alarm you at all...

A. Fet

Epithet - an artistic and figurative definition that emphasizes the most significant feature of an object or phenomenon in a given context; used to evoke in the reader a visible image of a person, thing, nature, etc.

I sent you a black rose in a glass

Golden as the sky, Ai...

A.A.Blok

Epiphora - a figure opposite to anaphora, repetition of the same elements at the end of adjacent segments of speech (words, lines, stanzas, phrases):
Baby,
We are all a little bit of a horse,
Each of us is a horse in our own way.
V.V. Mayakovsky

Essay - a literary work of small volume, usually prosaic, of free composition, conveying the author’s individual impressions, judgments, and thoughts about a particular problem, topic, particular event or phenomenon. It differs from an essay in that in an essay the facts are only a reason for the author’s thoughts.

Iambic - two-syllable poetic meter with stress on the second syllable.
An abyss has opened, full of stars U-|U-|U-|U-|
The stars have no number, the bottom of the abyss. U-|U-|U-|U-|

DICTIONARY OF LITERARY TERMS AND REFERENCE MATERIALS 1

ACCENT VERSE- a type of tonic verse in which only the number of stresses in a line is regulated, and the number of unstressed syllables fluctuates freely. For example, from V.V. Mayakovsky:

monument during life
is due according to rank.

I would pawn
dynamite -
come on,
tease!

I hate it

all kinds of carrion!

all life!

ALLEGORY(Greek allegoria - allegory) - an artistic technique based on the depiction of an abstract idea, an abstract concept through a concrete image, thought. The relationship between an image and its meaning is established by similarity. For example, an olive branch in the hands of a person has long been an allegorical image of the world, the image of the goddess Themis (a blindfolded woman with scales in her hands) is an allegorical image of justice; the snake entwining the bowl is an allegory of medicine; baby with bow and arrow - Cupid - allegory of love, etc.

In oral folk art, the images of some animals are allegorical. The fox is an analogue of cunning, the hare - cowardice, the lion - strength, the owl - wisdom, etc.

As an allegory, allegory is most closely related to metaphor and is often considered as a widespread metaphor, or as a series of metaphorical images combined into a closed whole, into a single complex image.

For example, A.S. Pushkin, in the poem “In the depths of the Siberian ores...” created an allegorical image of freedom, which “will joyfully welcome at the entrance” the Decembrist convicts.

M.Yu. Lermontov in the poem “The Poet” found an allegorical image of “a blade covered with the rust of contempt” in order to compare it with a poet who has lost his “purpose”.

ALLITERATION(from Latin a1 - to, with and litera - letter) - repetition of identical, homogeneous consonants, creating euphony, “musicality,” intonational expressiveness.

For example, in K. Balmont’s poem “Moisture” the sound effect is created due to the alliteration “l”:

The swan swam away into the darkness,

In the distance, turning white under the moon,

The waves caress the oar,

Lily is fond of moisture.

One of the functions of alliteration is onomatopoeia. In the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov’s “Borodino” sounds “z”, “zh”, “ch”, “r”, “s” convey the dynamics of the battle; whistle of buckshot, bursting of cannonballs, etc.:

You will never see such battles!..

Banners were worn like shadows,

The fire sparkled in the smoke,

Damask steel sounded, buckshot screamed,

The soldiers' hands are tired of stabbing,

And prevented the cannonballs from flying
A mountain of bloody bodies.

AMPHIBRACHIUS- in syllabic-tonic versification, a three-syllable foot in which the middle syllable is stressed (-  -) "reasonable". In Russian poetry, amphibrachs have been used since the beginning of the 19th century. For example, A. S. Pushkin used amphibrachs in the poem “I look like crazy at the black shawl...”, in “Song about the prophetic Oleg”, N. A. Nekrasov in the song “In a moment of despondency, O Motherland! ..” from the poem “Who Lives Well in Rus',” etc.

ANAPAEST- in syllabic-tonic versification, a three-syllable foot in which the last syllable is stressed (   -): "Human". In Russian poetry he first appeared in A.P. Sumarokov (ode “Against the Villains”). Used, for example, N.A. Nekrasov in the poems “Troika”, “You and I are stupid people...”, A.A. Fet (“I won’t tell you anything...”), A.T. Tvardovsky (“I was killed near Rzhev...”), etc.

ANAPHORA(Greek anaphora - carrying out) - unity of beginning, repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of several stanzas, verses or hemistiches. Anaphora, like any kind of repetition of individual words or expressions in general, gives the verse poignancy and expressiveness, emphasizing its important semantic points. So, in the stanza of A.A. Block:

Again with age-old melancholy
Feather grass bent down to the ground,

Again beyond the foggy river
You call me from afar.

The anaphoric “again” emphasizes the “eternity” of Russian melancholy
and the incessant voice that calls the poet somewhere.

In M. Tsvetaeva’s poem, anaphora sets the rhythm of the sequential semantization of the name “Blok”, “encrypted” in the system of comparisons:

Your name is a bird in your hand,

Your name is like a piece of ice on the tongue.

One single movement of the lips.

Your name is five letters.

ANIMALISM(from Latin animal - animal) - a direction in literature, which is based on the image of animals and the relationship between man and animal. An animal as an object of image, along with other phenomena of the surrounding world, acquires a value-semantic and aesthetic characteristic. For example, in the animalistic poetry of S.A. Yesenin (“Cow”, “Song of the Dog”, “Fox”), the animal, while maintaining objective, natural features, becomes the unconditional and full-fledged lyrical object of the work.

ANTAGONISTS- irreconcilable opponents. For example: Chatsky and Famusov (“Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboyedov), Bazarov and Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov (“Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev), Satin and Luka (“At the Lower Depths” by M. Gorky), Yuri Zhivago and Pavel Strelnikov (“Doctor Zhivago” by B.L. Pasternak), etc.

ANTITHESIS(Greek antithesis - opposition) - a stylistic figure consisting of a sharp opposition of concepts or images. Most often, the antithesis is expressed openly - through antonym words, emphasizing the contrast of the depicted phenomena. For example, in Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin” it is said this about the opposite characters of Onegin and Lensky:

They got along.

Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other.

The figure of antithesis can serve as a construction principle for individual parts of works of art in poetry and prose. For example, the story of the transformation of the landowner Plyushkin into a “hole in humanity” in “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol shows how stinginess turns into wastefulness.

The titles of many works are also based on antithesis: “War and Peace”, “Crime and Punishment”, “Shield and Sword”, “Cunning and Love”, “Red and Black”, etc.

ASSONANCE(from lat. assonare) - repetition of the same vowels. Assonance is a vivid means of expressiveness of poetic language. An example of the use of assonance is an excerpt from a poem by A. S. Pushkin:

Do I wander along the noisy streets,

I enter a crowded temple,

Am I sitting among crazy youths,

I indulge in my dreams.

In this passage, the vowel “u” sounds, giving the verse a dull melodiousness.

ASSOCIATION- a special form of communication between several representations, in which one of the representations causes another. For example, Ranevskaya’s remark: “Oh, my garden! After a dark, stormy autumn and cold winter, you are young again, full of happiness, the heavenly angels have not abandoned you...” - associatively gives rise to the image of Eden - a blooming garden, where a person who knew no sin was blissful.

ARCHAISMS- obsolete words that have been completely forced out of modern usage or replaced by others denoting the same concepts. In fiction they are used as an expressive device to convey the flavor of an era, speech characteristics of a character, giving speech solemnity or irony, etc. For example: “With one push, drive away a living boat...” (A.A. Fet), “And the dark shelter of solitude...”, “From the eyes of the hypocritical mob...” (A.S. Pushkin).

APHORISM(Greek aphorismos - saying) - a saying that expresses some generalized thought that reveals the general and typical in reality, in a laconic, artistically sharpened form. An aphoristic manner of writing and speaking means a condensed, abrupt way of expression. Aphorisms are scattered in abundance in the play by A.S. Griboyedov’s “Woe from Wit”: “I would be glad to serve, being served is sickening”, “Happy people don’t watch the clock”, “He who is poor is not a match for you”, etc.

BALLAD(from Latin ballo - dancing) - a genre of lyric poetry that is narrative in nature. The ballad is based on an unusual incident. The ballad received particular development in the poetry of sentimentalism and romanticism. In Russian literature, the founder of the ballad as a plot genre was V.A. Zhukovsky (“Lyudmila”, “Svetlana”, “Tsar of the Forest”, etc.). Following him were samples of Russian balladdals A.S. Pushkin (“Song of the prophetic Oleg”, etc.), M.Yu. Lermontov (“Borodino”, “Dispute”, “Tamara”, etc.), I.Ya. Kozlov, A.K. Tolstoy, V.Ya. Bryusov and others.

The ballad genre in the poetry of the Soviet period is represented by the works of N.S. Tikhonova (“The Ballad of the Blue Bag”, “The Ballad of Nails”), followed by S. Yesenin (“The Ballad of Twenty-Six”), E.G. Bagritsky (“Watermelon”, “Smugglers”), etc.

FABLE is a short moralizing story in poetic form. The characters in an allegorical fable plot are often animals, inanimate objects, but often people. The structure of a fable presupposes a narrative and a conclusion from it, i.e. a certain provision (rule, advice, instruction) attached to the narrative and often representing the final word of one of the characters. In Russian literature of the 18th - 19th centuries, the masters of the fable genre were A.I. Sumarokov, I.I. Dmitriev, I.A. Krylov. Of the modern fabulists, the most famous is S.V. Mikhalkov.

BLANK VERSE- unrhymed verse. The name comes from the fact that the endings of the verse, where consonance (rhyme) is usually placed, remain sonically blank (“white”). Nevertheless, blank verse is organized intonationally and rhythmically. “The Sea” by V.A. is written in blank verse. Zhukovsky, “Again I visited...” A.S. Pushkin, poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'” by N.A. Nekrasova.

Ver libre - cm. FREE VERSE.

ETERNAL IMAGES- images whose general artistic meaning goes far beyond their specific historical content and the era that gave birth to them. Eternal images capture the most general, essential aspects of human nature, express typical, constant, recurring conflicts and situations in the history of human society. Classic examples of eternal images are Don Quixote, Prometheus, Hamlet, Don Juan, Faust. In Russian literature, Molchalin, Khlestakov, Plyushkin, Judushka Golovlev and similar images live for many years and even centuries in the minds of several generations, since they generalize typical, stable traits of human characters.

ETERNAL DARKNESS- the most significant themes for humanity in all eras and constantly repeated in all national literatures are the themes of life and death, light and darkness, love, freedom, duty, etc. For example, in M. A. Bulgakov’s novel “The Master and Margarita” there are eternal themes the struggle between good and evil, cowardice, betrayal, mercy, love and creativity become the subject of reflection by the writer and his heroes.

HYPERBOLA(Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a stylistic figure consisting of a clear exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object or phenomenon. Hyperbole can consist of both quantitative exaggeration (for example, “a thousand times”, “an entire eternity”, etc.) and figurative expression, combined with other stylistic devices, forming hyperbolic metaphors, comparisons, personifications, etc.

Hyperbole is often found in Russian songs and ditties. In the spirit of popular reception, N.A. uses hyperbole. Nekrasov:

I saw how she squints:

With a wave, the mop is ready.

N.V. Gogol became famous for his hyperboles (“A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper”), V.V. Mayakovsky (“... I tell you: the smallest speck of living dust is more valuable than everything that I do and have done!”), etc.

Hyperbole is often used to indicate exceptional properties or qualities of people, natural phenomena, events, things. For example, in the poem “Mtsyri” by M. Yu. Lermontov, a young man defeats a predatory leopard, not inferior to him in strength and dexterity:

And I was terrible at that moment;

Like a desert leopard, angry and wild,

I was on fire and screaming like him;

As if I myself was born
In the family of leopards and wolves
Under the fresh forest canopy.

GRADATION- a chain of homogeneous members with a gradual increase or decrease in their semantic or emotional significance. For example: “I called you, but you didn’t look back, / I shed tears, but you didn’t descend...” (A. Blok) - ascending gradation. “He brought mortal resin / And a branch with withered leaves...” (A.S. Pushkin) - descending gradation.

GROTESQUE(French grotesque - whimsical, comical) - extreme exaggeration, giving the image a fantastic character. The grotesque violates the boundaries of plausibility, imparts conventionality to the image and takes the image beyond the limits of the probable, deforming it. The basis of the grotesque is the unthinkable, the impossible, but necessary for the writer to achieve a certain artistic effect. Grotesque is a fantastic hyperbole. Hyperbole is closer to reality, grotesque - to a nightmare, fantastic dream, vision. For example, the dream of Tatyana Larina (A.S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”) is filled with grotesque images of monsters:

One with horns and a dog's face,

Another with a rooster's head,

There's a witch with a goat beard,

Here the frame is prim and proud,

There's a dwarf with a ponytail, and here
Half crane and half cat.

Tatyana sees with horror a fantastic dance in the “wretched hut”: “a crab riding on a spider”, “a skull on a goose neck / Spinning in a red cap”, “the mill is dancing in a crouch / And its wings are crackling and flapping.”

The satirical function of the grotesque is relevant in Russian literature: N.V. Gogol (“The Nose”), M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (fairy tales, “The History of a City”), V.V. Mayakovsky repeatedly resorts to the grotesque (“Mystery-bouffe”, “Bedbug”, “Bathhouse”, etc.). Uses grotesque A.T. Tvardovsky (“Terkin in the Next World”), A. A. Voznesensky (“Oza”),

DACTYL- in syllabic-tonic versification, a three-syllable foot in which the first syllable is stressed (-  ): "tree". M. Yu. Lermontov's poem “Clouds” is written in dactyl: Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers!

The azure steppe, the pearl chain
You rush as if like me, exiles
From the sweet north to the south.

DECADENCE(from Latin decadentia - decline) - a general name for the crisis phenomena of culture of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, marked by moods of hopelessness and rejection of life. Decadence is characterized by mysticism, belief in supernatural forces; extreme individualism and glorification of death and decay; the pursuit of external beauty * pretentiousness of literary form. Certain decadent tendencies were reflected in the literature of modernism (in symbolism, futurism, imagism, abstractionism, surrealism).

DIALOGUE(from Greek dialogos) - a form of oral speech, a conversation between two or more persons. In drama, dialogue is the main means of developing action, the main way of depicting characters. In lyric poetry, dialogue is used to reveal the positions of the participants in a dispute, as, for example, in the poem by A.S. Pushkin “Conversation between a bookseller and a poet”, N.A. Nekrasov "Poet and Citizen". This tradition is followed by O. Chukhontsev (“Poet and editor (of a certain kind).”

DISTICH(or couplet) - the simplest form of a stanza, consisting of two lines connected by a common rhyme (aa, vv, etc.). For example, in the poem by A.A. Block:

Singing dream, blooming color,

Vanishing day, fading light.

Opening the window, I saw lilacs.

It was in the spring - on a flying day.

The flowers began to breathe - and onto the dark cornice
The shadows of jubilant robes moved.

The melancholy was suffocating, the soul was busy,

I opened the window, trembling and trembling.

And I don’t remember where I breathed on my face from,

Singing, burning, she went up onto the porch.

DIARY- literary form in the form of regular records kept in chronological order. A significant feature of the diary is its subjective form: the story of events is always told in the first person, the choice of topic always clearly depends on the personal interests of the author. A literary work sometimes uses the diary of a literary hero (for example, “Pechorin’s Diary” in “A Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov, the diary of Doctor Bormental in “The Heart of a Dog” by M.A. Bulgakov). The form of a diary serves to psychologically reveal the inner world of a character or author.

DOLNIK- a poetic meter that preserves the rhythmic pattern of a three-syllable meter, but the number of unstressed syllables between two stressed syllables fluctuates (unstressed syllables “fall out”). A group of syllables united by one beat is called a beat, and depending on the number of such beats, a given dolnik is called a bilobular, trilobular, etc. The use of a dolnik was first noted in the 19th century (M.Yu. Lermontov, A.A. Fet). The dolnik came into active circulation at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries in the works of A.A. Bloka, A.A. Akhmatova, A. Bely and others.

For example, from A. A. Blok:

You'll get lost in the thick grass,

You will enter a quiet house without knocking...

DRAMA(from Greek drama - action) - 1. One of the types of fiction (along with epic and lyric poetry). Drama is intended to be staged. The main element of a dramatic work is the depicted action, sometimes an action-deed expressed in stage directions, sometimes an action-word. The only means of depicting the characters in a drama is their own speech (dialogues, monologues, remarks). The actual author's commentary on the play (description of the setting, atmosphere of the action, behavior, gestures of the characters) is limited, as a rule, to stage directions. The nature of the plot of a drama is unique - it has much narrower limits than an epic (in terms of the number of characters, time span, etc.).

2. Dramatic genre, which is a play with an acute conflict that finds its own, but not tragic or comedic, resolution in the finale. Drama as a genre combines tragic and comic principles, which is why it is often called the middle genre. There are everyday, psychological, symbolic, heroic, romantic, social and philosophical drama. An example of drama in Russian literature can be “The Thunderstorm” by A.N. Ostrovsky, “At the Bottom” by M. Gorky.

GENRE(from the French genre - genus, type) - a historically established and developing type of work of art. In modern literary criticism, the term is used to designate the literary types into which the genus is divided. For example, epic genres - novel, story, short story, short story, essay, etc. Lyrical genres include ode, friendly message, epigram, elegy, satire, sonnet, etc. Dramatic - tragedy, comedy, drama, melodrama, vaudeville, etc. In the classification of genres, an important role is played by the historical development of literature, manifested in literary movements. Thus, classicism and romanticism are characterized by a strict ordering of genres, and within the realistic movement, rigid genre systems practically do not exist (for example, a novel in verse, a poem in prose, a poem in prose as synthetic forms).

TIE- the beginning of a contradiction (conflict) that forms the basis of the plot, the initial episode, the moment that determines the subsequent development of the action of a work of art. Usually the plot is given at the beginning of the work, but can be introduced elsewhere. For example, Chichikov’s decision (N.V. Gogol “Dead Souls”) to buy the souls of dead peasants is reported at the end of the first volume of the poem.

TITLE (TITLE OF THE WORK)- the most important component of a work, located outside its main part, but occupying the strongest position in it; the first element with which the reader begins to become acquainted with the text.

The main functions of titles are:

Nominative (nominative) is the historically established initial function of titles. By naming the text, the author distinguishes it from other works;

Informative - a universal function, since every title, to one degree or another, carries information about the text and reflects the content of the work;

Retrospective - the title requires returning to it after reading the work, since the title not only expresses the content of the literary work, but should also interest and intrigue the reader;

Expressive-appellative - the title can reveal the author’s position, as well as psychologically prepare the reader for the perception of the text.

The title introduces the reader to the world of the work:

Expresses the main theme, outlines the main plot lines, defines the main conflict (“Who lives well in Rus'” by N.A. Nekrasov, “Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev, “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Requiem” "A. A. Akhmatova);

Names the main character of the work (“Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin, “Oblomov” by I.A. Goncharov);

Highlights the cross-cutting character of the text (“Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Old Woman Izergil” by M. Gorky);

Indicates the time of action (“October 19” by A.S. Pushkin, “Noon” by F.I. Tyutchev, “Evening” by A.A. Fet, “Winter Night” by B.L. Pasternak, “In August forty-four.. ." V. O. Bogomolova);

Indicates the main spatial coordinates (“I go out alone on the road...” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “In a restaurant” by A. A. Blok, “Quiet Don” by M. A. Sholokhov);

Creates the effect of anticipation (“Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol, “Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboyedov).

Titles are built according to certain structural models, which are based on general linguistic syntactic patterns, but at the same time have their own specific features inherent only to titles.

Titles can be presented:

In a word (“The Thunderstorm” by A. N. Ostrovsky, “Gooseberry” by A. P. Chekhov);

A coordinating combination of words (“Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky, “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov);

Subordinating phrase (“The Man in a Case” by A.P. Chekhov, “The Gentleman from San Francisco” by I.A. Bunin);

Sentence (“An extraordinary adventure that happened with Vladimir Mayakovsky in the summer at the dacha” by V.V. Mayakovsky, “War is thundering somewhere” by V. Astafiev).

The title can be a trope (“Cloud in Pants” by V.V. Mayakovsky, “The Living Corpse” by L.N. Tolstoy), a reminiscence (“The Lord’s Summer” by I.S. Shmelev, “Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk” by N.S. Leskova), etc.

SOUND RECORDING- a system of sound repetitions of certain elements of the sound composition of the language: consonants and vowels, stressed and unstressed syllables, pauses, various types of intonation, etc.

In the system of sound writing, alliteration, assonance, and onomatopoeia play an important role.

For example, in a poem by A. Voznesensky:

We are the opponents of the dim,

We are accustomed to width -

Is it a Tula samovar?
Or Tu-104.

ZOOMORPHIC TRANSFORMATIONS(from the Greek zoon - animal, morphe - form) - the transformation of a person into an animal or the appearance of any characteristic zoological signs in him. For example, the famous sorcerer Prince Vseslav of Polotsk, the hero of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” turned into a wolf and managed to cover vast distances from Kyiv to Tmutorokan in one night, competing in his swift running with the pagan sun god Khors himself.

IDEOLOGIST- an exponent or defender of the ideology of a social class, socio-political system or direction.

A unique idea of the hero-ideologist is formed by M.M. Bakhtin, analyzing the novels of F.M. Dostoevsky. The character of a hero-ideologist is determined not so much by the influence of the social environment as by the essence of the idea professed by a person. For Dostoevsky, the reason for Raskolnikov’s crime (“Crime and Punishment”) is in his theory, and not in his poverty (although the latter is not discounted, and the theory itself has social origins).

The hero-ideologist occupies a very special place in Dostoevsky’s novels. To the self-development/character characteristic of a character in a realistic work, freedom and completeness in the expression of ideas are added.

IDEA(Greek idea - concept, representation) - the main idea of a work of art, expressing the author’s attitude to reality. It is possible to understand the idea of a work only in the totality and interaction of all the artistic images of the work. For example, the main idea of A. S. Pushkin’s poem “Arion” is the lyrical hero’s loyalty to the ideals of Decembrism.

IMAGINISM(from the French image - image) - a trend in Russian decadence. Imagists asserted the priority of the self-valued image, form over meaning, idea. Adherents of imagism saw the task of creativity in inventing previously unprecedented images and words. At one time, S. A. Yesenin joined the Imagists.

INVERSION(from Latin inversion - rearrangement) - a stylistic figure consisting of a violation of the generally accepted word order. For example, in “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin:

He passes the doorman with an arrow
He flew up the marble steps...

Inversion allows you to update the meaning of a word, giving speech special expressiveness.

INTERPRETATION is the cognitive and creative development of the artistic content of a work, the result of which is the comprehension of its semantic and aesthetic integrity.

Interpretation of a literary work involves:

Treating the text as a whole that artistically reproduces reality;

Recognition of the possibility of variable interpretation of the text based on the polysemy of the artistic image;

The need for a dialogical relationship with the author of the interpreted text, built on the principles of trust and criticality;

Inclusion of mechanisms of emotional-figurative and logical-conceptual comprehension of the text.

For example, B.M. Gasparov interprets the content and structure of A. Blok’s poem “The Twelve” in the light of the theory of carnival by M.M. Bakhtin. The action of the work, as the researcher reveals, takes place on Christmastide. It is this time of action, which leaves the imprint of the Yuletide carnival on the events taking place in the poem, that explains, according to B.M. Gasparov, the possibility of the appearance of the image of Christ in the poem about the revolution. Everything that happens on the streets of the winter city, as the interpreter believes, resembles a theatrical performance. Among the characters, popular-generalized images stand out - the “long-sexed” one, the bourgeois, the lady in karakul, the writer-vitia. Their movements (sliding, falling, hobbling) resemble the mechanical movements of dolls in a farce show. The atmosphere of a carnival performance is created by “voices” from the street (screams of prostitutes, shouts of a patrol, gunfire, etc.). The element of folk theater is given in parallel to the organized stage action and creates the effect of destroying the boundaries between “literary” and “real” life. The through-line leitmotif of the poem (“They walk into the distance with a sovereign step”) is organized according to the principle of a procession of mummers; in the finale it turns into an apotheosis parade with a popular print and decorative figure of Christ, in whose hands a blood-red flag flutters like an Easter banner. The procession following Christ is perceived as his “retinue”, consisting of God’s “angels”, or twelve apostles. B. M. Gasparov points out the apocalyptic nature of the carnival: the “end of the world” is negation, the destruction of the familiar world, but this is a “fun” destruction.

Modern researchers Peter Weil and Alexander Genis offer their interpretation of the main conflict of the novel by I.S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons". The main ideological opponents, in their opinion, are the “civilizer” Bazarov and the “guardian of traditions” Kirsanov. Bazarov believes that somewhere there is a “formula of prosperity and happiness” that needs to be found and offered to humanity, and for this “it is worth sacrificing some insignificant little things.” The “Civilizer” does not intend to create anything anew, it plans to destroy what already exists. The world, “reduced to a formula, turns into chaos,” and Bazarov becomes the bearer of this chaos. The uniqueness of Bazarov’s “formula” is opposed by the “diversity of the system,” which is personified by Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov. This hero of Turgenev is convinced that well-being and happiness lie in something else - accumulation, summation, preservation. According to interpreters, the main conflict of the work lies in the collision of the “civilizing impulse with the order of culture.” Since the pathos of destruction and reconstruction turned out to be unacceptable for Turgenev, he forces Bazarov to “lose.”

INTERIOR(French interieur - internal) - the internal space of a building or room in a building; in a work of art - a depiction of the furnishings of the premises in which the characters live and act. The interior can be full of various details and object details.

Such, for example, is the interior of Manilov’s house (N.V. Gogol’s “Dead Souls”): “beautiful furniture, covered with dandy silk fabric”, “a dandy candlestick made of dark bronze with three antique graces, with a dandy mother-of-pearl shield”; “the walls were painted with some kind of blue paint, like gray, four chairs, one armchair, a table on which lay a book with a bookmark,” etc.

IRONY(from the Greek eironeia - pretense, mockery) - one of the author’s ways of assessing what is depicted, an allegory expressing ridicule. Irony is not laughter, but mockery, and the narrator can be outwardly serious. Ingenuously expressed irony turns into a joke, evil irony into sarcasm.

For example: “... he, apparently, was born into the world already completely ready, in a uniform and with a bald spot on his head” (N.V. Gogol), “... and with immensely wide and thick, light brown and gray sideburns , of which each would have three beards” (I.A. Goncharov).

A.S. Pushkin in the novel “Eugene Onegin” uses an ironic phrase to characterize one of the guests at Tatyana Larina’s name day:

Gvozdin, an excellent owner,

Owner of poor men.

In the novel “Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev characterizes the Kirsanovs’ servant Peter as “a man of the newest improved generation,” ironizing the views of “children.” N.V. Gogol in “Dead Souls” calls the prosecutor “the father and benefactor of the entire city,” although it immediately turns out that he is a bribe-taker and a grabber.

“ART FOR ART” (“PURE ART”)- the general name of aesthetic concepts that affirm the self-integrity of artistic creativity and the independence of art from socio-political circumstances and conditions. For example:

Not for everyday worries,

Not for gain, not for battles,

We were born to inspire

For sweet sounds and prayers.

(A.S. Pushkin. “The Poet and the Crowd”)

Quatrain (Quatrain)- a stanza consisting of four lines connected by common rhymes, having a complete meaning. The quatrain uses various types of rhyme: abba, abab, aabb. The most common is cross (abab).

For example, a poem by A.S. Pushkin’s “Winter Road” consists of seven quatrains:

Through the wavy mists
The moon creeps in

To the sad meadows

She sheds a sad light.

On the winter, boring road
Three greyhounds are running,

Single bell
It makes a tiresome noise...

CLASSICISM(from Latin classicus - exemplary) - artistic direction and style in art and literature of the 17th - early 19th centuries, which is characterized by high civic themes, strict adherence to certain creative norms and rules (for example, the rules of the “three unities”: time, place , actions), reflection of life in ideal images, as well as an appeal to the ancient heritage as the norm. Representatives of classicism in Russian literature were V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokov, G.R. Derzhavin.

CONTEXT- the speech or situational environment of the entire work or part of it, within which the meaning and significance of a word, phrase, etc. is most accurately revealed. For example: about the uniqueness of the metaphorical image of a dagger in the poem of the same name by A.S. Pushkin can be judged by considering him in the general context of dagger motifs in Russian poetry (“Dagger” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Dagger” by V.Ya. Bryusov, etc.).

ENDING- the final component of the entire work or any part of it. In poetry - the final line, often aphoristic. For example: “And, going around the seas and lands, / Burn the hearts of people with a verb!” (A.S. Pushkin. “Prophet”); “Living life is not a field to cross” (B. Pasternak. “Hamlet”), In dramaturgy - the hero’s remark “at the end of the curtain” at the end of any act or the entire play. For example: “Famusov. "Oh! My God! What will Princess Marya Aleksevna say?” (A.S. Griboyedov. “Woe from Wit”), “Satin (quietly). “Eh... ruined the song... fool!” (M. Gorky. “At the Bottom”), In prose - the final maxim, landscape, etc. “The wind blew and exposed from under the rags the dry chest of the old woman Izergil, who was falling asleep more and more deeply. I covered her old body and lay down on the ground next to her. It was quiet and dark in the steppe. Clouds kept crawling across the sky, slowly, boringly... The sea rustled dully and sadly” (M. Gorky. “Old Woman Izergil”).

COMEDY(Greek coraoidia, from coraos - cheerful crowd and oide - song) - one of the main types (genres) of drama as a type of literature, depicting situations in life and characters that cause laughter. Comedy forms a negative attitude towards the aspirations, passions of the characters or the methods of their struggle. Comedy, as a special form of the comic, most accurately captures and conveys its most important shades - humor, irony, sarcasm, satire. Vivid examples of comedy in Russian literature are “The Minor” by D.I. Fonvizina, “The Inspector General” N.V. Gogol; A. S. Griboedov (“Woe from Wit”) and A. P. called their plays comedies. Chekhov (“The Cherry Orchard”),

COMPOSITION(Latin compositio - composition, linking) - a set of techniques and means used by the author to construct a work, reveal and organize images, their connections and relationships.

The composition includes the arrangement of characters; the order of reporting the events in the plot (plot composition); alternation of plot and extra-plot components of the narration, change of narration techniques (author's speech, first-person narration, dialogues and monologues of characters, various types of descriptions: landscapes, portraits, interiors), as well as the ratio of chapters, parts, stanzas, turns of phrase.

Chronological rearrangements of individual events can be especially significant in a work of art (M.Yu. Lermontov “Hero of Our Time”). Compositional techniques such as silence or recognition, delayed exposure, lack of exposure or resolution may be important for understanding the author’s intention and idea of the work.

The following types of composition are distinguished: vertex (“Gypsies” by A. S. Pushkin); mirror (“Eugene Onegin” by A. S. Pushkin); ring (“Troika” by N. A. Nekrasov); open (“Lady with a Dog” by A.P. Chekhov); concentric (“Fathers and Sons” by I. S. Turgenev).

CONFLICT(from Latin conflictus - collision) - a clash, a struggle, on which the development of the plot in a work of art is built. In drama, conflict is the main force, the spring driving the development of dramatic action, and the main means of revealing characters. In works of art, there is often a combination of “external” conflict - the hero’s struggle with forces opposing him - with “internal” psychological conflicts - the hero’s struggle with himself, with his delusions and weaknesses. Thus, Eugene Onegin (A.S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”) comes into conflict with the nobility and provincial landowners, with other characters - Lensky, Tatyana Larina; finally, with himself, trying to get rid of the blues, internal discontent.

WINGED WORDS- widely used apt figurative sayings of historical figures, literary characters, etc. For example: “We’re making noise, brother, we’re making noise...” (A.S. Griboyedov). “Extraordinary ease of thought...” (N.V. Gogol). Winged words often take the form of aphorisms. For example: “Inspiration is not for sale, but you can sell a manuscript” (A.S. Pushkin); “Man - that sounds proud!” (M. Gorky).

CLIMAX(from Latin oilmen - peak) - the moment of highest tension in the development of action, maximally aggravating the artistic conflict. Thus, in M. Sholokhov’s story “The Fate of a Man,” the culminating episodes are those in which the hero learns about the death of his family.

A literary work can have several climactic moments. For example, in the novel by I.S. Turgenev's "Fathers and Sons" in the storyline Evgeny Bazarov - Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov, the climax is the duel scene. In the Bazarov-Odintsov storyline, the climax is the scene when the hero confesses his love to Anna Sergeevna and rushes to her in a fit of passion. In the novel by M.Yu. Lermontov “Hero of Our Time” and in the poem by A.T. Tvardovsky's "Vasily Terkin" each chapter has its own culmination.

LEGEND(from Latin legenda - something that should be read or recommended to be read) is a term used in several meanings. In a broad sense - an unreliable narrative about the facts of reality, containing elements of heroism and fantasy, in a narrower sense - the prosaic genre of folklore; a narrative about miraculous persons and events, which is, however, perceived as reliable.

Sometimes writers and poets include folklore or fictional legends in their works. Thus, the legend about Ataman Kudeyar is included in the poem by N.A. Nekrasov “Who Lives Well in Rus'”, and the legend of the Grand Inquisitor - in the novel “The Brothers Karamazov” by F.M. Dostoevsky. The legends about Larra and Danko are included in M. Gorky’s story “The Old Woman Izergil”.

LYRICS(from the Greek lyrikos - pronounced to the sounds of the lyre) - one of the three types of fiction (along with epic and drama). This is a type of poetic creativity that expresses feelings and experiences about an event or fact, while epic tells, consolidates external reality, events and facts in words, and drama does the same, but not on behalf of the author, but through direct conversation, dialogue between themselves actors. The lyrics reflect individual states of character at certain moments in life, the author’s own “I”; the speech form of lyrics is an internal monologue, mainly poetic.

LYRICAL HERO- the hero of a lyrical work, whose experiences, thoughts and feelings it reflects. The image of the lyrical hero is not identical to the image of the author, although it covers the entire range of lyrical works created by the poet; Based on the image of the lyrical hero, a holistic idea of the poet’s work is created. However, in most of their works A.S. Pushkin, N.A. Nekrasov, F.I. Tyutchev, A.A. Feg is a lyricist without a lyrical hero. The author's image in their lyrical works seems to be merged with a real personality - the personality of the poet himself. For example, in the poem “Again I Visited...” Pushkin, and not the lyrical hero, expresses thoughts about the future, about “a young, unfamiliar tribe.” Y. Tynyanov identified three poets in whom the author’s “I” is embodied in the image of a lyrical hero - M.Yu. Lermontova, A.A. Blok, V.V. Mayakovsky.

We should talk about a lyrical hero when, in a poem written in the first person, the lyrical subject, to one degree or another, differs from the poet, the author of the poem. The poet, as it were, gets used to someone else’s role, puts on a “lyrical mask.” For example, “The Prisoner” by A.S. Pushkin, “Prophet” M.Yu. Lermontova and others.

LYRICAL DISTRACT (AUTHOR'S DISCLOSURE)- form of author's speech; the word of the author-narrator, distracted from the plot description of events in order to comment and evaluate them or for other reasons not directly related to the action of the work. Lyrical digressions are characteristic of lyric-epic works; digressions in epic works are called author's digressions. For example, there are lyrical digressions in “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin, “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol, copyright - in “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Vasily Tyorkin” by A.T. Tvardovsky.

LYROEPIC GENRE- a type of literary work that combines the features of epic and lyricism: a plot narration of events is combined with emotional lyrical digressions. Most often, the work takes on a poetic form (“Svetlana” by V.A. Zhukovsky, “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin, “Mtsyri” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” by N.A. Nekrasov, “ Cloud in Pants" by V.V. Mayakovsky, "Requiem" by A.A. Akhmatova, etc.). The following genres of lyric epic are distinguished: epic, ballad, poem.

LITERARY DIRECTION- a concept that characterizes the unity of the most significant creative features of literary artists in a certain historical period. This unity usually arises and develops on the basis of a common artistic position, worldview, aesthetic views, and ways of displaying life. Literary movements include classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, and realism.

"EXTRA MAN"- a conventional name for a number of heterogeneous heroes, endowed with a consciousness of their own uselessness, suffering from the lack of a clear goal in life, aware of their “social uselessness.”

The “superfluous man” in Russian literature of the 19th century is presented as a nationally unique phenomenon of great social significance. The creators of this type gave it a multifaceted characterization, revealed its contradictory essence, pointed out its positive and negative meaning, and determined the ideological meaning and aesthetic significance of this “iconic” literary phenomenon.

It is traditionally believed that “superfluous people” in Russian literature are represented by two groups of characters: the first includes heroes of the 20-30s. XIX century - Onegin (“Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin), Pechorin (“Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov) and some others, to the second - heroes of the 40-50s. XIX century - Beltov (“Who is to blame?” by A.I. Herzen), Agarin (“Sasha” by N.A. Nekrasov), Rudin (“Rudin” by I.S. Turgenev) and some others.

A.S. Pushkin and M.Yu. Lermontov synthesized in their characters the features of the “superfluous man” of all previous Russian literature (the first contours of heroes of this type were outlined in “A Knight for an Hour” by N.M. Karamzin, “The Russian Werther” by M.V. Sushkov, “Theon and Aeschines” by V. .A. Zhukovsky, “Eccentric” by K.F. Ryleev, “Strange Man” by V.F. Odoevsky, “Wanderer and Homebody” by K.N. Batyushkov, etc.) and outlined the main vectors for the further development of this type.

In the 20-30s. XIX century the meaning and content of the image of the “superfluous person” consists in a forced, historically conditioned refusal of activity. The “superfluous people” of this period, possessing extraordinary intelligence and energy, cannot act due to objective reasons, so their strength is wasted on satisfying individualistic desires. The trouble of Onegin and Pechorin is not inability, but in the impossibility of fulfilling their “high destiny.” However, their positive meaning is not in real activity, but in the level and quality of their consciousness and self-awareness in comparison with the environment. Rejection of existing living conditions, protest in the form of non-participation in any form of activity determine the special position of the “superfluous person” in Russian society in the era of noble revolutionism and the reaction that followed it.

In the 40-50s. XIX century With changes in socio-historical living conditions, the type of “superfluous person” also changes. After a seven-year reaction, broader opportunities for activity appear, and the goals and objectives of the struggle become clearer. Opens a gallery of “extra people” from the 40s and 50s. Beltov. This is a hero with a “painful need for action,” noble, gifted, but capable only of “multilateral inaction” and “active laziness.” Then the “superfluous person” becomes an “ideologist” - he promotes advanced ideas and influences the minds of people. The honorable role of “sower” is given to Agarin - his noble ideas fall on fertile soil, and young Sasha will no longer stop only at “proclaiming” her views, but will go further. Rudin’s special place among the “superfluous people” of that time is determined by the fact that his aspirations were aimed not at personal, but at the common good. Having risen to the denial of evil and injustice, he, with the power of his sincere words, influences the hearts of those who are young, full of strength and ready to join the fight. His word is his historical deed.

60s The 19th century brought fundamental changes to the hierarchy of literary heroes. The origin and appearance on the historical arena of a new social force - the revolutionary-democratic intelligentsia - clarifies the aspects and directions of the individual’s activities. A necessary condition for “usefulness” is the inclusion of the individual in real social practice. This requirement was reflected in a number of programmatic publications of the “sixties” (N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov, D.I. Pisarev, etc.). Noting the numerous weaknesses and shortcomings of the “superfluous man” of Russian literature of the 19th century, the revolutionary democrats of the 60s. paid tribute to everything positive that these heroes carried within themselves.

Other modifications of this type (Oblomov I.A. Goncharova, “paradoxolist” F.M. Dostoevsky, Likharev and Laevsky A.P. Chekhov) cannot be considered “classical” due to the incommensurability of social significance and the nature of their influence on public consciousness.

"SMALL MAN"- a conventional name for a number of heterogeneous heroes occupying the bottom niche in the social hierarchy and united by common psychological and behavioral traits (wounded pride combined with awareness of one’s own humiliation, understanding of the injustice of the social structure, an acute sense of personal insecurity). The main plot of works about “little people” is usually the story of the hero’s resentment or insult by the powers that be; the main opposition is the opposition “little man” - “significant person”.

The first sketch of the image of the “little man” appeared in Russian literature in the 13th century. Daniil Zatochnik (“Prayer of Daniil Zatochnik”), protesting against the tendency to evaluate a person by his wealth and class, complains that he lives in poverty and sadness, suffers under the “work yoke” of a master who constantly humiliates him. In the hero’s prayer addressed to the prince, one can hear the voice of a man who has experienced all the vicissitudes of fate and passionately thirsts for justice.

The gallery of classic “little people” is opened by Samson Vyrin (“The Station Agent” by A.S. Pushkin). “A real martyr of the fourteenth class,” insulted and humiliated, he dies due to the inability to defend his paternal rights, his human dignity.

In the 30-50s. In the 19th century, the theme of the “little man” was developed mainly in line with the story of a poor official. The humble and unrequited Akaki Akakievich (“The Overcoat” by N.V. Gogol) is “a creature not protected by anyone, not dear to anyone, not interesting to anyone.” He not only suffers from a despotic, indifferent and disrespectful attitude towards himself, but also tries to protest. The theft of a new overcoat, a wall of indifference on the part of those who, on duty, were supposed to help the hero, cause a kind of rebellion - in a state of unconsciousness, Bashmachkin addresses the “most terrible words” to the “significant person”, and after death he triumphs over the offender.

Writers of the natural school developed two directions in the depiction of the “little man” - accusatory-satirical and compassionate-sympathetic. They saw the psychological duality of this type and characterized a phenomenon that was later called the “ideological underground.” In the works of the natural school, close attention is paid to the motives of honor, pride, and “ambition” of the “little man.” These tendencies culminate in F.M.'s Poor People. Dostoevsky. Makar Devushkin is able to rise to the understanding that “in heart and thoughts he is a man.” He protests against identifying himself with Gogol’s character; his awareness of the injustice of the social order gives rise to a painful and contradictory combination of humility and rebellion in his soul.

In the 60s XIX century, the “little man” begins to lose its generic characteristics and gradually exhausts its original content. Democratic writers waged an active struggle for the right of an individual to independently control his own destiny, and the “little man” in their works manifests himself as an individual, ready to fight for his happiness and actively resist circumstances.

By the 80s. the destructuring of the image of the “little man” was continued in the works of A.P. Chekhov (“Death of an Official”, “Thick and Thin”, “On a Nail”, etc.). His heroes are no longer “small”, but “small people” and do not evoke sympathy from the reader.

In a broad sense, “little man” continued to exist in the literature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. But the heroes of A. Kuprin, L. Andreev, I. Shmelev, A. Serafimovich, S. Skitalets are capable of conscious protest against the humiliation of their human dignity, are ready to make an independent moral choice, to refuse the fate of the “little man” prepared for them. Therefore, due to the exhaustion of species characteristics, the term “little man” cannot be used in relation to these characters.

MEDITATIVE LYRICS(from Latin meditatio - in-depth and purposeful reflection) - a special genre-thematic variety of poetry, representing in-depth reflection, individualized contemplation, aimed at comprehending the hidden laws of existence. Meditative lyrics are related to philosophical ones, but do not merge with them. For example: “Am I wandering along noisy streets...” (A. S. Pushkin), “I go out alone on the road...” (M.Yu. Lermontov), “On a haystack at night in the south...” (A. A. Fet). Examples of meditative lyrics are found in A.A. Bloka, I.F. Annensky, N.A. Zabolotsky.

METAPHOR(Greek metaphora - transfer) - a type of trope, which is based on the transfer of a name by similarity or analogy. Similar features can be color, shape, nature of movement, any individual properties of an object: “the unburning fire of unthinkable love” (V.V. Mayakovsky), “the fire of dawn” (A.A. Blok).

In language and in artistic speech, there are two main models according to which metaphors are formed. The first is based on animation, or personification (the clock is ticking, the year has flown by, feelings are fading), the second is based on reification (iron will, deep sadness, tongues of flame, the finger of fate). Poem by F.I. Tyutchev “There is in the primordial autumn...” is built on an alternation of metaphors:

Where the cheerful sickle walked and the ear fell,

Now everything is empty - space is everywhere, -

Only a web of thin hair
Glistens on the idle furrow...

Metaphors can become the basis for creating symbolic images. For example, in the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov's “Sail” metaphors are the basis of the symbolic image of the sail:

What is he looking for in a distant land?

What did he throw in his native land?..

Alas! he is not looking for happiness
And he’s not running out of happiness!

And he, the rebellious one, asks for a storm,

As if there is peace in the storms!

If a metaphor is revealed over a large segment of text or an entire work, then it is called expanded. Mayakovsky’s poem “A Cloud in Pants” deploys the well-known metaphor “nerves were diverging”:

like a sick person out of bed,
the nerve jumped.

And so, -
first walked
barely,
then he ran in
excited,
clear.

Now he and the new two
rushing about with desperate tap dancing.

When a metaphorical expression is taken in its literal sense, a new understanding of it arises. This phenomenon is called the realization of a metaphor. This technique is used to build the ending of V.V. Mayakovsky’s poem “The Sedentaries,” in which the everyday metaphor “he is torn to pieces” is realized.

METONYMY(Greek metonymia - renaming) - a type of trope, which is based on the transfer of a name by contiguity.

Unlike metaphor, which is formed as a result of similarity, metonymy is based on a real connection, on real relationships between objects. These relations, which make two objects of thought logically adjacent to each other, can be of different categories. In the novel “Eugene Onegin” A. S. Pushkin used metonymic allegory: “I read Apuleius willingly, / But I did not read Cicero” (the author and his work), “The language of Petrarch and love” (signs of the subject and the subject itself), “Parterre and armchairs - everything is in full swing” (object and person), “Everything for a plentiful whim / Scrupulous London sells” (object and space).

MONOLOGUE (from the Greek monos - one and logos - word, speech) is a type of artistic speech. In a literary work, a monologue is the speech of a character addressed to himself or to others, but, unlike dialogue, independent of their remarks. In plays and epic works, monologues are a form of speech by characters. In the comedy by A. S. Griboedov “Woe from Wit” the main characters - Chatsky and Famusov - pronounce monologues reflecting their worldview (“And who are the judges?..”, “There is an insignificant meeting in that room...”, “That’s it... then, you are all proud!..”, etc.). Most lyric poems are a lyrical monologue.

MOTIVE(from the Greek moveo - I move, set in motion) - the simplest unit of plot development. Any plot is an interweaving of closely related motifs. A motif is a recurring set of feelings and ideas of the author. Traditional in literature are the motifs of the road, death, exile, escape, etc. For example, the main motive of M. Yu. Lermontov’s lyrics is the motive of loneliness (“Sail”, “Clouds”, “Both boring and sad...”, “I go out alone on the road...”, etc.).

NATURAL SCHOOL- the conventional name of one of the stages in the development of critical realism in Russian literature (40s of the 19th century). It is characterized by a focus on the “natural,” i.e., a strictly truthful, unartificial depiction of reality. The natural school united many talented writers of that time - N.V. Gogol, I.A. Goncharova, F.M. Dostoevsky, N.A. Nekrasova and others - and played an important role in the formation and development of Russian literature.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY- philosophy of nature, speculative interpretation of nature, considered in its integrity. For example: the poetry of F. I. Tyutchev is characterized by a special philosophy of nature, or natural philosophy, since the poet makes the entire universe the subject of artistic depiction, relates every moment of existence to eternity, invades the boundaries of philosophy and the forbidden spheres of higher knowledge.

NEOLOGISMS(Greek neos - new and logos - word) - words, phrases or expressions created to designate a new object or phenomenon, as well as new meanings of old words. It is necessary to distinguish between linguistic (general) and individual author's neologisms, i.e. those that entered into linguistic use as a result of socio-political, scientific, cultural changes, and those created by the authors in order to enhance the impact of the literary word on the reader. The poems of V.V. are rich in individual author’s neologisms. Mayakovsky: “third class black from being black”, “his obscenity” (capital), “hundred-thousand-saber cavalry”, “drygonestvo” (about a ballerina), etc.

NOVELLA(Italian novella - story) - epic genre, a type of story. It features a sharp, exciting plot and an unexpected ending. Sometimes a short story is called a chapter from a novel, since it is characterized by an extraordinary semantic capacity, a desire to reveal the fate of the hero in a laconic form. These are “Ionych” by A.P. Chekhov, “Mr. from San Francisco”, “Clean Monday” by I.A. Bunin, “The Fate of Man” by M.A. Sholokhov.

"NEW PEOPLE"- the conventional name of the heroes who became the embodiment of a new type of public figure that appeared in Russia in the 60s. XIX century among the various intelligentsia. This term was introduced into literary use by N.G. Chernyshevsky. Dmitry Lopukhov, Alexander Kirsanov, Vera Pavlovna, Katya Polozova, the Mertsalovs and many other heroes of the novel “What is to be done?” are in no way similar to their literary predecessors - “superfluous” and “small” people.

Geroev N.G. Chernyshevsky, who received a labor education, is distinguished by a thirst for knowledge; they are most interested in natural sciences. Materialists and socialists, they have a program for the reconstruction of society on new, reasonable principles, they have mastered the economic theory of organizing collective labor (social-labor and household communes without exploitation on the basis of equality).

New moral and ethical standards determine their relationships with other characters in the novel. The actions of the “new man” are based on correctly understood expediency; their actions are regulated by the theory of “reasonable egoism” or, as it is also called, the theory of utility and benefit. People of moral perfection, heroes of N.G. Chernyshevsky embody that life “norm” to which every “ordinary” person should strive.

Since “new people” are the embodiment of “reasonable” ideas about life, the concept of personality presented in the novel by N.G. Chernyshevsky, was called “rationalistic”.

By showing the reader a new “hero of the times,” the author partly answered the question posed in the title of the work: in order to live with dignity in the present and bring a happy future closer, one must be a “new man.”

It is believed that the heroes of other works of the 60s are modifications of the “new man”. (“Fathers and Sons”, “On the Eve” by I.S. Turgenev, “Difficult Time” by V.A. Sleptsov, etc.). Like the classic “new people,” the characters in these novels are characterized by a heightened sense of self-esteem, a desire to deny the existing order, high intelligence, and political and social certainty of ideals. The main content of the life of the “new man” of the 60s. becomes work for the good of the future, animated by willpower. However, Turgenev’s Bazarov no longer has a clear program for creating the future (“First we need to clear the place...”), and the Bulgarian Insarov is fighting against external enemies for the freedom of his own homeland. Therefore, the question of who will fight the “internal Turks” remains open in these works.

The further literary fate of the “new man” is difficult to trace: his generic characteristics are blurred so much that the heroes of parodies of N.G.’s novel also become “new”. Chernyshevsky, and the heroes of the famous “anti-nihilistic” novels, and the heroes of the literature of socialist realism. Therefore, it is traditionally believed that the “classical” representatives of this literary type are commoners of the 60s, ideologists and practitioners seeking to radically change the life structure of Russian society.

OH YEAH(from the Greek ode - song) - a lyrical work dedicated to the depiction of major historical events or persons, touching on significant themes of religious and philosophical content, saturated with a solemn tone and pathetic inspiration of the author. The ode used lofty, bookish vocabulary, archaisms, and allegories. This genre of poetry reached its true flowering in the 18th century. - in the era of classicism - in the works of M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin (“Monument”). In the XIX - XX centuries. The ode genre has undergone significant changes in both content and style. The ode was also addressed by A.S. Pushkin (“Liberty”), V.V. Mayakovsky (“Ode to the Revolution”), O.E. Mandelstam (“Twilight of Freedom”), etc.

OXYMORON(Greek oxymoron - witty stupidity) - a stylistic figure consisting of a deliberate combination of definitions and concepts that are incompatible in meaning. This is a verbal antithesis, as a result of which unexpected images arise. “Eloquent silence”, “getting away with it” are oxymorons of everyday speech. In lyrics, oxymorons reflect the complexity of the emotional world of the lyrical hero or the inconsistency of the phenomena of reality. For example, “I love nature’s magnificent withering...” (A.S. Pushkin), “the wretched luxury of an outfit” (N.A. Nekrasov), “it’s fun for her to be sad, so elegantly naked” (A.A. Akhmatova). The title of a literary work is often based on an oxymoron - “The Living Corpse” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Hot Snow” by Yu.V. Bondarev, etc.

PERSONALIZATION- a type of trope that denotes the image of an inanimate or abstract object as animate (capable of thinking, feeling, speaking). For example, a vivid personification image was created by A.S. Pushkin in the poem “To the Sea”. In the poet's depiction, the sea is a living creature capable of sadness, anger, and willfulness. Therefore, it is so natural to compare the sea with Byron - the singer of the sea and the man created by its “spirit”. An internal spiritual kinship connects the poet himself with the sea: the sea is a “friend” who is sad with him, its “reviews”, “dull sounds” and “abyss voices” are understandable to the poet.

FEATURE ARTICLE- a “small” epic genre, based not on the depiction of a conflict, like the short story genre, but on a descriptive depiction of some socially or morally significant phenomenon or event. There are travel, documentary, portrait, “physiological”, and psychological essays.

SYNTACTIC PARALLELISM(from the Greek parallesmos - walking side by side) - a similar syntactic structure of two (or more) sentences or other fragments of text. Parallelism is used in works of oral folk art (epics, songs, ditties, proverbs) and literary works close to them in their artistic features (“Song about the merchant Kalashnikov” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” by N.A. Nekrasov, “Vasily Terkin” by A.T. Tvardovsky). Parallelism as a compositional technique is widespread in lyrics:

And, devoted to new passions,

I couldn't stop loving him:

So an abandoned temple is still a temple,

A defeated idol is still God!

(M. Lermontov)

When horses die, they breathe,

When the grasses die, they dry up,

When the suns die, they go out,

When people die, they sing songs.

(V. Khlebnikov)

PARONYMY(Greek raga - near, with, outside and onyma - name) - a technique of artistic speech that consists in establishing connections between words that are similar in sound, sharpening poetic associations. Paronyms create expressive consonances that emphasize the uniqueness of semantic relationships between words. For example: “Siberians! Rumor doesn’t lie, -/ Even though the people are from the forest, from the pine trees, / Even though they are a national team, they are selective...” (A.T. Tvardovsky).

PATHOS(from the Greek pathos - passion, feeling) - the ideological and emotional mood of a work of art or all creativity; passion that permeates the work and gives it a unified stylistic coloring. There are heroic, civil, lyrical, tragic and other types of pathos.

For example, in the poem by A.A. The Russia bloc interprets the fate of the country as tragic. The corresponding pathos permeates the lines:

Russia, poor Russia,

I want your gray huts,

Your songs are windy to me -

Like the first tears of love!

SCENERY(French paysage, from pays - country, locality) - an image of pictures of nature that performs various functions in a work of art depending on the style and artistic position of the writer. There are the following types of landscape: lyrical, romantic, symbolic, psychological. Depending on the type of literature, a landscape can carry different meanings. Thus, in lyric poetry, pictures of nature reflect the moods and experiences of the lyrical hero. For example, the feeling of loneliness of the lyrical hero in the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov’s “Clouds” are set off by “heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers,” and the joyful mood of the lyrical hero in the poem by A.S. Pushkin’s “Winter Morning” is associated with the following landscape:

Under blue skies
Magnificent carpets.

Glistening in the sun, the snow lies;

The transparent forest alone turns black,

And the spruce turns green through the frost,

And the river glitters under the ice.

In epic works, nature is often an independent object of depiction. Nature influences not only the actions of people, but also their psychological state. For example, the landscape placed in the chapter “Oblomov’s Dream” (I.A. Goncharov “Oblomov”) shows the state of peace, calm and harmony of the protagonist, immersed in the feelings of his childhood.

PERIPHRASE (PERIPHRASE)(from the Greek pariphrasis - retelling) - a trope that denotes the replacement of the direct name of a person, object or phenomenon with a description of their essential features or an indication of their essential features. For example: “king of beasts” instead of lion; "pea coat" instead of detective; "Foggy Albion" instead of England. Instead of saying that Onegin settled in his uncle’s room, A.S. Pushkin writes in his novel “Eugene Onegin”:

He settled in that peace,

Where is the village old-timer?
For about forty years he was quarreling with the housekeeper,

I looked out the window and squashed flies.

CHARACTER(French personnage, from Latin persona - personality, person) - a character in a work of art or stage performance. In any work, characters are divided into central (main), secondary and episodic.

Animals (fables, fairy tales), inanimate objects and fantastic creatures can also act as characters - if they reveal human character traits.

The central characters are depicted in more detail; they are the main participants in the events; often the idea of the work is connected with them. The portrayal of minor characters is more concise, their characteristics are less detailed, and their role in the plot of the work is limited to participation in a small number of events. Episodic characters often serve to create the background, the setting of the action. They can be outlined with just a few strokes. So, in the novel by M.A. Bulgakov's "The Master and Margarita" the central characters are Pontius Pilate, Yeshua Ha-Nozri, the Master, Margarita, Woland. Minor characters - Kaifa, Varenukha, Rimsky, Styopa Likhodeev, episodic characters - Annushka, accountant Sokov, Baron Meigel, etc.

In dramatic works, non-stage characters are also distinguished - those people who are not on stage and who therefore are not characters in the literal sense. However, they are mentioned in conversations or remarks, they are spoken about with approval or condemnation. For example, off-stage characters in the play by A.S. Griboyedov's "Woe from Wit" are the nephew of Princess Tugoukhovskaya, Skalozub's brother, Maxim Petrovich, Princess Marya Aleksevna, etc.

SONG- a small lyrical work intended for singing; usually couplet (strophic). It is necessary to distinguish between folk song and song as a genre of written poetry. In oral folk art, the following types of song genres have developed: lyrical, historical, comic, love, dance, ritual and calendar (submarine, Maslenitsa, vesnyanka, harvest, etc.), etc. Folklore songs themselves may also be included in a literary work (“Song of the Girls” in the third chapter of “Eugene Onegin”) or, more often, stylizations of folk songs (songs in N.A. Nekrasov’s poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'”). Ancient Cossack songs are organically included in the structure of M.A.’s novel. Sholokhov “Quiet Don”, symbolizing the common destinies of the Cossacks of all times. .

STORY- “medium” in terms of volume and coverage of life material, the epic genre (along with the “large” genre of the novel and the “small” genre of the story). The leading genre feature of the story is moral descriptiveness, that is, the writers’ primary attention to depicting the life and customs of a certain social environment. For example, “The Overcoat” by N.V. Gogol, “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” by A.I. Solzhenitsyn.

REPEAT- repetition of compositional elements, words, phrases and other text fragments in a work of art. There are sound repetitions (assonance and alliteration, rhyme), anaphora, epiphora, refrain, chorus, etc. Repetition can emphasize the key meaning of a particular word to characterize a person’s state or his attitude to something, emphasizing or strengthening it emotionally. For example, in the poem “Railway” by N.A. Nekrasov, using the anaphorically repeated verb “carried out,” emphasizes the strength and patience of the Russian people:
The Russian people have endured enough

He also took out this railway -

He will endure whatever God sends...

SUBTEXT- a hidden meaning, different from the direct meaning of the statement, which is restored based on the context. In the theater, subtext can be revealed through silence, intonation, irony, gesture, and facial expressions. Subtext is more typical for realistic works based on psychologism.

Subtext is of great importance in the works of F. M. Dostoevsky and M. Gorky. The system of subtextual meanings in the dramaturgy of A.P. Chekhov is especially developed.

PORTRAIT(from the French portrait - image, portrait) - an image of the hero’s appearance (facial features, figures, postures, facial expressions, gestures, clothes) as one of the means of characterizing him; type of description. A portrait gives the writer ample opportunities to characterize not only the appearance, but also the inner world of a person, since a person’s appearance always reveals to a greater or lesser extent his views on life, character, and psychological characteristics.

The history of the literary portrait goes back to ancient times and reflects the artist’s process of understanding the world, the search for ways to create an individual human character.

In the early stages of the development of literature, the personal element in the portrait was unexpressed. Folklore heroes were endowed with a conditionally symbolic appearance: “red” maidens, “kind” fellows, “mighty” heroes, etc.

In the literature of Ancient Rus', a generalized abstract portrait performed an evaluative function, indicating, as a rule, the social status of the hero.

Classicists created two stereotypes: an “idealizing” portrait of a noble hero and a portrait of a hero of low birth.

The portrait of sentimentalists is already psychological; it is designed to help see in the hero, first of all, a “sensitive” soul.

For the romantics, the portrait was exotically colorful, conveying the contrasting qualities of a bright, independent, chosen personality: “... his wide forehead was yellow like the forehead of a scientist, gloomy like a cloud covering the sun on the day of a storm, his lips were thin, pale, stretched and compressed somehow - with a convulsive movement, and a whole future shone in the eyes...” (M.Yu. Lermontov. “Vadim”).

In realistic literature, a portrait is characterological: the hero’s appearance reflects his character traits, individual social, family, age and other traits.

The portrait gives an idea of the writer’s aesthetic ideal and allows us to identify the author’s understanding of the category of beauty.

A portrait can be a one-time description or consist of several descriptions with varying degrees of distance from each other. Concentrated portraits are typical for episodic characters, while dispersed ones are typical for the main ones.

The structure of a portrait can be simple or complex. Portraits of a simple structure include detailed portraits, consisting of a description of one portrait feature, and sketch portraits, consisting of a description of several details. In portraits of a complex structure, portrait components are presented in a complex, for example: “It was a young woman of about twenty-three, all white and soft, with dark hair and eyes, with red, childishly plump lips and delicate hands. She was wearing a neat cotton dress; the new blue scarf lay lightly on her rounded shoulders” (I.S. Turgenev. “Fathers and Sons”).

A more complex type is a comparison portrait. The author resorts to this type of portrait characterization in cases where he needs to evoke certain associations in the reader. In the story by N.S. Leskov’s “The Enchanted Wanderer,” the narrator introduces the main character, Ivan Severyanovich Flyagin: “... he was in the full sense of the word a hero, and at the same time a typical simple-minded, kind Russian hero, reminiscent of grandfather Ilya Muromets in the wonderful painting by Vereshchagin and in the poem by Count A. TO. Tolstoy."

An even more complex form is the impression portrait. With an almost complete absence of portrait details, it leaves a vivid impression on the reader and encourages them to speculate on the image created by the author of the text. This is the portrait created by A.A. Fetom:

You're all on fire. Your lightning
And I am decorated with sparkles;

Under the shadow of gentle eyelashes
Fire from heaven is not scary to me.

But I'm afraid of such heights

What has your soul given to me?

When the reader first meets the hero, an expositional portrait is usually given. F.M. Dostoevsky, clearly wanting to win the reader over to his hero, introduces Rodion Raskolnikov: “By the way, he was remarkably good-looking, with beautiful dark eyes, dark blond, above average height, thin and slender.”

In a leitmotif portrait, some individualized detail is assigned to a character, which is repeated throughout the entire narrative. For example, the leitmotiv detail in Matryona’s portrait sketches (“Matryonin’s Dvor” by A.I. Solzhenitsyn) becomes a “radiant”, “kind” smile. The portrait of the “enlightened” Magryona becomes a means of revealing the heroine’s inner world, in which calm, peace and goodness reign.

A psychological portrait expresses one or another state of a character. There was something “... very strange” about Marmeladov (F.M. Dostoevsky. “Crime and Punishment”); his gaze seemed to even glow with enthusiasm - perhaps there was both meaning and intelligence - but at the same time there seemed to be a flicker of madness.”

Two types of psychological portrait have emerged:

1) a portrait that emphasizes the correspondence between the hero’s appearance and his inner world; 2) a portrait that contrasts with the hero’s inner world. For example, in the novel “A Hero of Our Time” there is revealed a discrepancy between Pechorin’s external appearance (feigned indifference, coldness, calmness) and his true spiritual qualities, the passion of his nature. Often the portrait contains the author’s assessment of the character (for example, the portrait of Olga in “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin or Helen in “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy).

MESSAGE- a work written in the form of a letter or address to any person (persons). For example, messages from A.S. Pushkin “To a Poet Friend”, “To Chaadaev”, “I.I. Pushchina"; messages from S.A. Yesenin “Letter to Mother”, “Letter to a Woman”, “Letter to Grandfather”, “Letter to Sister”, etc.

POEM(from Greek poiem - to create, poiema - creation) - a lyric-epic work with a narrative or lyrical plot. The originality of the poem is based on the combination of narrative characteristics of characters, events, etc. and their disclosure through the perception and assessment of the lyrical hero, the narrator, who plays an active role in the poem.

Depending on the artistic position of the author and artistic techniques, heroic, romantic, lyrical-psychological, philosophical, historical and other poems are distinguished (“The Bronze Horseman” by A.S. Pushkin, “Mtsyri” and “Song about the merchant Kalashnikov” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” by N.A. Nekrasov, “The Twelve” by A.A. Blok, “Requiem” by A.A. Akhmatova).

POETICS(from the Greek poietike - poetic art) - a section of literary theory that studies the structure of literary works and the system of visual and expressive means used in them. The term “poetics” also denotes a system of artistic means characteristic of a writer, certain genres, or literary movements of an era.

RECEPTION- constructive principle of organizing a literary work: plot-compositional, genre, stylistic.

For example, techniques in the field of composition: the introduction of extra-plot elements, changing points of view; stylistic devices: metaphors, inversions, repetitions, etc.

PARABLE- moral teaching in allegorical form. By its nature, a parable is close to a fable, but the meaning of a parable is always deeper, more philosophical. The legends about Larra and Danko (“The Old Woman Izergid” by A.M. Gorky) are of a parable nature, in which the author touches on the philosophical problem of the extraordinary personality of man and her place in society.

PROLOGUE(from the Greek prologos - preface) - the introductory part of a work of art, which sets out the events that precede in time the events of the plot. The prologue episodes are not part of the plot action, but are necessary for understanding it. In addition, the prologue can give detailed characteristics of the characters, show their past, and express the author’s position.

For example, the poem by A.S. Pushkin’s “The Bronze Horseman” opens with a prologue in which the poet creates a multifaceted image of St. Petersburg and expresses the author’s attitude towards the “city of Peter.”

SPACE AND TIME- conventional forms of understanding existence. They are the most important characteristics of the picture of the world created by the author, determine the rhythm and tempo of the text, and ensure a holistic perception of it by the reader.

Various forms of organization of space and time in a work are provided by the specifics of the artistic direction, the genre features of the text, the method of constructing the plot, etc.

In folklore, space and time are universal: the events depicted occur “everywhere” and at the same time “nowhere,” “always” and at the same time “never.”

Classicism requires adherence to the unity of time, place and action, strict regulation of spatio-temporal relations.

The romantic worldview, which gave rise to the idea of “two worlds,” significantly expanded the possibilities of this category. Since the object of close attention of romantics is not so much the external, but rather the internal world of the individual, it is this that becomes the center of spatio-temporal coordinates.

In realistic art, the concept of linear time has become a priority, according to which time for everyone moves equally in a straight line from the past through the present to the future.

The “Copernican revolution” was carried out by the authors of the “great” novels of the 19th century. The main characteristics of artistic time are duration or brevity, static or dynamic, discontinuity or continuity, etc. Artistic space is determined by closedness or unlimitedness, proportionality or deformation, integrity or fragmentation, etc.

Depending on the degree of artistic convention, space and time can be abstract or concrete. The action in fairy tales takes place “in a certain kingdom”, “in a certain state”, and in fables - in general “in the world” (“For me those talents are worthless, / In which the Light is of no use, / Although sometimes the Light marvels at them”) and “always” (“How many times have they told the world/That flattery is vile and harmful; but everything is not for the future,/And the flatterer will always find a corner in the heart”).

Specific space connects the depicted world with toponyms (from the Greek topos - place and entanglement - name, title) of the real world. The specification of space is used to create generalized images of the “world”, “city”, “village”, “estate”, etc. Spatial coordinates placed in the text of the story by I.A. Bunin’s “Clean Monday” (Ordynka, Red Gate, Griboyedovsky Lane, Okhotny Ryad, “Prague”, “Hermitage”, Rogozhskoye Cemetery, Novodevichy Convent, Marfo-Mariinskaya Convent, etc.), contribute to the creation of the image of Moscow at the beginning of the 20th century. Expanding the space-time framework of the work, they inscribe the specific space of Moscow into the general space of Russian History.

The degree of specificity of time in different works varies. Depending on the relationship between real and artistic time, eventless, or “zero” time (the author’s descriptions of the interior, landscape, portrait of characters) and eventful time are distinguished. Event time can be chronicle-everyday (the same type of events are repeated many times over time: from year to year, day after day) and event-plot (the passage of time determines the most important changes in the lives of the heroes).

The ideological and artistic function of chronicle-everyday time is the reproduction of stable forms of existence (for example, the noble cultural, everyday and family way of life in the novels by I. A. Goncharov “Oblomov” and I. S. Turgenev “The Noble Nest”). Event-plot time allows us to show the hero’s life as a “self-manifestation” of an individual personality in space (ideological and moral quests of Andrei Bolkonsky and Pierre Bezukhov; the life of Ivan Flyagin, the main character of N. S. Leskov’s story “The Enchanted Wanderer”, traced from childhood to spiritual “growing up” " etc.).

In the literature of the 20th century, the spatio-temporal organization of the artistic world becomes more complex. Along with traditional types of organization of time and space (“Quiet Don” by M.A. Sholokhov), new ones appear: A single state in the dystopia of E.I. Zamyatin “We”, Chevengur in the novel of the same name by A.P. Platonova, Yershalaim in “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov, “absurd”, “internal” space, which became the realities of the text, and not reality in “School of Fools” by S. Sokolov, “Moscow - Petushki” by V.V. Erofeeva.

Other concepts are also used to denote the connection between space and time - chronotope and space-time continuum.

INTERCLOSURE- an element of the plot that presupposes the outcome of events, the resolution of contradictions (conflict) between the characters. Usually the denouement is located at the end of the work, but sometimes, in accordance with the author’s intention, in the middle and even at the beginning (for example, in I.A. Bunin’s story “Easy Breathing”). In the comedy A.S. Griboyedov's "Woe from Wit" the denouement is the scene after the ball in Famusov's house, in which Chatsky's conflict with Famusov's society ends (although not resolved).

Sometimes the denouement indicates the intractability of the main conflict, in this case they talk about the open ending of the work (“Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin, “The Cherry Orchard” by A.P. Chekhov, “Quiet Don” by M.A. Sholokhov, etc.) .

SIZE POEM- a way of organizing the sound composition of a poetic work. It is determined by the number of syllables (in syllabic versification), the number of stresses in a line (in tonic versification), and the number of stressed syllables (in syllabic-tonic versification). In syllabic-tonic versification, two-syllable (trochee, iambic) and three-syllable (dactyl, anapest, amphibrachium) poetic meters are distinguished.

STORY- a “small” epic genre, characterized by a small volume and concise depiction of life phenomena. As a consequence, there is a small number of characters, the short duration of events, and a simple composition (the center of the work is only one episode from the life of the main character). The stories are such works as “Student”, “Man in a Case”, “Death of an Official” by A.P. Chekhov, “Clean Monday” by I.A. Bunin, “The Fate of Man” by M.A. Sholokhov.

REALISM(from Late Latin realis - material, real) - an artistic method (and literary direction), following which the writer objectively, reliably depicts life in typical characters acting in typical circumstances. The main task of a realist writer is to study the social connections of man and society. In a work of art - a historically specific depiction of characters and circumstances in their interdependence. The most important stages in the development of realism as an artistic method: educational (D.I. Fonvizin, I.A. Krylov), critical (N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov and others), socialist (M. Gorky, M.A. Sholokhov and others).

REALITY- a word denoting an object, concept or phenomenon characteristic of the history, culture, life of a particular people or country. For example: “throne” (“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”), “gorenka” (“Who Lives Well in Rus'”), “chief of the head” (“Overcoat”), “camp”, “ration” (“One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” ),

REASONER- an artistic character prone to constant declarations (official or solemn program statements) and recitations. For example, the sounding boards are Pravdin in the play by D.I. Fonvizin “The Minor”, Chatsky in the comedy by A.S. Griboyedov “Woe from Wit”, Kuligin in the play by A.N. Ostrovsky "The Thunderstorm".

REMARK(from French remarque - remark, note) - explanations with which the playwright precedes or accompanies the course of action in the play. The stage directions contain indications of the place and time of action, movements, gestures, facial expressions, and intonations of the characters. For example, in A. P. Chekhov’s play “The Cherry Orchard”:

F and r s (comes to the door, touches the handle). Locked. We left... (Sits on the sofa.) They forgot about me... It’s okay... I’ll sit here... But Leonid Andreich, I suppose, didn’t put on a fur coat, he went in a coat... (Sighs with concern.) It’s me I didn’t look... It’s young and green! (He mutters something that cannot be understood.) Life has passed, as if he had never lived... (Lies down.) I’ll lie down... You don’t have strength, there’s nothing left, nothing... Oh, you. ..klutz! (Lies motionless.)

Since the end of the 19th century, stage directions in the dramas of A.P. Chekhov, M. Gorky and others play an increasingly important role, revealing the author’s assessment of a character or episode.

REMINISCENCES- “references” present in literary texts to previous cultural and historical facts, works or their authors. As a reproduction of a fragment of “alien text” at any level (plot, figurative, quotative, metric, etc.), reminiscences can be included consciously or arise independently of the will of the author, involuntarily.

Reminiscences can be quotes or their retelling; names of works, often used in the meaning of artistic centers; names of characters that have become symbols; events that perform the functions of a visual medium; borrowings in which the plot scheme, arrangement of characters, their features and characters are subtly changed by the author.

For example, in the poem “There is melodiousness in the sea waves...” by F.I. Tyutchev uses the image of the “thinking reed”, which belongs to B. Pascal (“Thoughts”). For B. Pascal, this metaphor is a sign of the necessary presence of man in the natural world. For F.I. Tyutchev, this image helps explain the tragedy of existence by the “discord” between man and nature, as a result of which the “thinking reed” can only bitterly complain and protest: “And the thinking reed grumbles...”.

In the works of A.A. Blok used the biblical reminiscence of “carrying your cross.” Introducing it into the figurative system of the poem “Kite” allows the author to highlight the traditional meaning of “submission to fate”: “Grow, submit, bear the cross.” In the poem “Russia,” this image leads to the appearance of other shades (“And I carefully carry my cross”), which contributes to the emergence of a new, symbolic meaning of the text: the suffering prepared for the lyrical hero is not only initially inevitable, but also holy. He is ready to consciously accept them and “carefully” bear them.

Connections of several reminiscences form “reminiscence nests”. So, for example, the second line of the poem by O.E. Mandelstam: “I read the list of ships until the middle...” (“Insomnia. Homer. Tight sails...”) - refers the reader to the second song of the Iliad (“The Dream of Boeotius, or the list of ships”). The list given by Homer contains the names of 1186 ships sailing against Troy. This explains the appearance in the text of O.E. Mandelstam of images associated with the category of time and with movement (the gaze of the lyrical hero, who is in a state of insomnia, glides along the lines of the Iliad, and they seem to him to be floating in the sky like a brood of cranes, a wedge, a train). The images of cranes give rise to a second layer of reminiscences (“foreign land”, “wedding train”). The purpose of the campaign is announced in the third stanza: “If not for Helen, / What is Troy for you alone, Achaean men?” The entire reminiscent nest allows us to clarify the main idea of the text - everything in the world is “moved by love”, and one should obey this universal law, as the proud and courageous Achaeans once obeyed it.

“Polygenetic Reminiscences” refers the reader not to one, but to a number of sources. For example, lines from a poem by M.I. Tsvetaeva’s “Who is created from stone, who is created from clay...” evokes in the reader associations associated with the content of some myths about the creation of man from earth and clay, apocryphal legends about the creation of Adam, and introduces biblical motifs of baptism by water.

REPLICA(from the French replique - objection) - a dialogical form of the actor’s statement; the interlocutor's response phrase, followed by the speech of another character.

RHYTHM(from the Greek rhythmos - tact, proportionality) - periodic repetition of any elements of the text at certain intervals. In literary works, rhythm is created by the repetition of phonetic elements: sounds, pauses, stresses, syllables, combinations of stressed and unstressed syllables, as well as words, series of words, syntactic structures.

A RHETORICAL QUESTION(from Greek rhetor - speaker) - one of the stylistic figures; a structure of speech in which a statement is expressed in the form of a question. A rhetorical question does not require an answer; it only enhances the emotionality and expressiveness of the statement.

For example, in the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "Death of a Poet":
Killed!., why sobs now,

Empty praise unnecessary chorus
And the pathetic babble of excuses?

Fate has reached its conclusion!

Weren't you the one who persecuted me so viciously at first?
His free, bold gift
And they inflated it for fun
A slightly hidden fire?

RHYME(from the Greek rhythmos - proportionality) - repetition of individual sounds or sound complexes connecting the endings of two or more lines. Individual sounds (“love is blood”) can be repeated in lines, words (“young is a hammer”) are a simple rhyme, and groups of words are a compound rhyme. Rhymes are divided into exact (if all sounds coincide) and inaccurate (if there is a phonetic coincidence or similarity of individual sounds). Depending on the location of stress in rhyming words, rhymes are masculine (with stress on the last syllable: deception - fog), feminine (with stress on the penultimate syllable: glory - fun), dactylic (with stress on the third syllable from the end of the line: boys - fingers ), hyperdactylic (with emphasis on the fourth syllable from the end of the line: opalovaya - pinning).

RHYME- arrangement of rhyming lines in a verse. There are three main types of rhyme: paired (adjacent) - aabb, cross - abab and ring (encircling) - abba.

NOVEL(French romans - narrative) - an epic genre, a prose work of large form, revealing the history of several, sometimes many human destinies over a long period of time. This is one of the freest literary forms, suggesting a huge number of modifications: historical, picaresque, knightly, love, psychological, philosophical, adventure, detective, fantasy, etc. novel. The novel is capable of synthesizing a wide variety of genre trends and even entire genres. For example, a “novel in verse”, a chronicle novel, an autobiographical novel, a novel in letters, an epic novel, etc.

The most significant works in the novel genre were created in the 19th century - “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin, “Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev, “Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky", "Oblomov" by I.A. Goncharova, etc.

ROMANTICISM(French romantisme) - an artistic method and literary movement that developed at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. The Romantics, rejecting the everyday life of their contemporary civilized society as boring and colorless, strove for everything unusual - mysticism, fantasy, mystery. They contrasted base practicality with sublime feelings and passions, a rich spiritual life (art, philosophy, religion), and the desire for the ideal. For romantics, a person is a small universe, a microcosm, a bright individuality. The hero of romanticism is a strong, free person who struggles with routine, an exceptional hero in exceptional circumstances. Russian romantics turned to oral folk art, used folklore images, plots, and means of artistic representation (V.A. Zhukovsky “Svetlana”, M.Yu. Lermontov “Mtsyri”), features of romanticism are noticeable in the lyrics of A.S. Pushkina, M.Yu. Lermontov, F.M. Tyutchev, A. A. Fet, early stories of M. Gorky, etc.

NOVEL-EPIC- a genre of epic that combines the features of a novel and an epic. Such a work with particular completeness covers a particular historical era in a multi-layered plot. The fate of the individual in his individual moral quest (a feature of the novel) is closely connected with the fate of the country and people (a feature of the epic); characters are formed and evolve under the influence of major historical events. Works of this genre include “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Quiet Don” by M.A. Sholokhov, “Walking through torment” by A.N. Tolstoy.

SARCASM(from the Greek sarkasmos - mockery) - angry, caustic, open mockery of the person depicted, the highest degree of irony. This is, for example, the epigram of A. S. Pushkin “On Arakcheev”:
Oppressor of all Russia,

Governors tormentor
And he is the teacher of the Council,

And he is a friend and brother to the king.

Full of anger, full of revenge,

Without a mind, without feelings, without honor,

Who is he? Devoted without flattery

Penny soldier.

SATIRE(from Latin satira - overflowing dish, mishmash) - 1. Type of comic: merciless ridicule of socially harmful phenomena and human vices. Satirical laughter has a lot of shades, and the range of satirical works is unusually wide: from “satire on morals” by N.V. Gogol (“The Inspector General”, “Dead Souls”) and A.N. Ostrovsky (“The Thunderstorm”) to the political satire of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“The History of a City,” fairy tales). Behind satirical laughter there is always a certain position of the writer, an understanding of what the subject being ridiculed should be like if it were devoid of comic contradictions. The author's position is expressed through criticism, denial of the very subject of the image or its individual properties. Satire determines the specificity of many literary genres: fables, epigrams, pamphlets, feuilletons, comedies.

2. The genre of lyric poetry, which arose in antiquity. The main genre feature of satire is ridicule of a wide variety of life phenomena. Genre signs of satire are found in the final 16 lines of the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov “The Death of a Poet”, in the poem by V. V. Mayakovsky “The Sedentaries”.

FREE VERSE, or VERS LIBRE(French vers iibre) - a type of verse that is devoid of rhyme and meter and retains only one feature that distinguishes it from prose - a given division into correlated and commensurate lines, which is marked in the text by their graphic arrangement. For example:

She came in from the cold

Flushed,

Filled the room
The aroma of air and perfume,

And completely disrespectful to classes
Chatting.

(A. A. Blok)

SENTIMENTALISM(from the French sentiment - feeling, sensitivity) - an artistic method and literary movement that developed in the second half of the 18th century. Sentimentalism contrasted classicism with an increased interest in the human personality (regardless of class), its feelings and experiences, and inner life. Pictures of nature were of great importance for symbolism, against the background of which the state of the hero’s soul was revealed with particular emotionality. The founder of sentimentalism in Russia was N.M. Karamzin (story “Poor Liza”),

SYMBOL(from the Greek symbolon - conventional sign, sign) - a multi-valued allegorical image based on the similarity, resemblance or commonality of objects and phenomena of life. Using symbols, the artist does not show things, but only hints at them, forces us to guess the meaning of the unclear, to reveal “hieroglyphic words.” Thus, the symbol always has a figurative meaning; this is a trope. Unlike an allegory, a symbolic image does not have a straightforward, rational meaning. He always retains lively, emotional associations with a wide range of phenomena.

There are two main types of symbols. The first type includes symbols that have a basis in cultural tradition - image-symbols of the sea, sail, road, path, sky, blizzard, fire, cross, etc.

The second type includes symbols created without reference to cultural tradition. Such symbols arose within one literary work or a series of works. These are the symbols of the cherry orchard in the play by A.P. Chekhov's "The Cherry Orchard", the leopard in the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov “Mtsyri”, the madly rushing Rus'-troika in the poem by N.V. Gogol "Dead Souls". A symbol of life and faith, a metaphor for the soul in the novel by B.L. Pasternak "Doctor Zhivago" is a candle.

SYMBOLISM- a literary movement of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, the main principle of which is the artistic expression of ideas and images through symbols. Symbolists avoided naming the object directly, but preferred to hint at its content and meaning with the help of allegory, metaphor, sound writing, etc. Symbolism is usually divided into two movements - the “senior” symbolists, whose work began in the 1890s. (V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, etc.), and the “younger”, whose creative life began in the 1900s. (A. Blok, A. Bely, V. Ivanov, etc.).

SYNECDOCHE(ancient Greek synekdoche - correlation) - one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, based on transfer by quantity: 1) a part is called instead of the whole, for example, in N.V. Gogol’s “Dead Souls” Chichikov addresses a man: “Hey, beard! How can we get from here to Plyushkin?” Here the meanings of “man with a beard” and “beard” are combined; 2) the singular number is called instead of the plural, for example, in M.Yu. Lermontov: “And it was heard until dawn / how the Frenchman rejoiced.”

SYNCRETISM(from the Greek synkretismos - connection, unification) - the inseparability of various types of cultural creativity. In modern science it is considered as a tendency towards the formation of a new unified picture of the world, based on an understanding of the interdependence and interconnectedness of everything that exists.

For example, in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” God shows Igor the path from Polovtsian captivity to the Russian land, but the text of the monument repeatedly mentions other, pagan deities (Dazhdbog, Stribog, Chore, Veles, etc.), which indicates the specificity of the syncretic Christian- pagan worldview of the author of the work.

General principles for constructing artistic images in comedy by D.I. Fonvizin's "Minor" is determined by the value orientations and aesthetic attitudes of satire (comedy) and ode (tragedy).

The blurring of boundaries between individual works and their combination into lyrical cycles determines the poetry of A.A. Akhmatova creating a new independent work. Thus, in the collection “The Rosary,” the cycle is formed around one poem, which is central and contains certain combinations of themes.

SKAZ- 1. The principle of narration, based on imitation of the speech manner of a narrator representing any ethnic, professional, socio-historical, class group (N.S. Leskov “Lefty”, “The Enchanted Wanderer”).

2. Genre of folklore, a narrative about modern events or the recent past; unlike a legend, it usually does not contain fantasy elements.

SONNET(Italian sonetto, from Provence sonnet - song) - a lyric poem consisting of fourteen verses, constructed and arranged in a special order.

In an Italian sonnet, 14 verses are grouped into two quatrains and two tercets. Examples of the most common rhyme schemes are:

1) abba, abba, ccd, ede

2) abba, abba, ede, dee

3) abba, abba, cdd, eed

4) abab, abab, cdc, ede

5) abab, abba, ccd, eed, etc.

Another form of sonnet is also known, English, it was developed by W. Shakespeare: three quatrains and a couplet with paired rhyme.

The sonnet genre presupposes a strict sequence in the disclosure of poetic thought: affirmation - doubt - generalization - conclusion.

For example, A.S. Pushkin created three famous sonnets: “The stern Dante did not despise the sonnet...”, “To the Poet” (“Poet! Do not value the people’s love...”), “Madonna.”

COMPARISON(lat. comparatio) - comparison of the depicted object or phenomenon with another object according to a common characteristic. Comparison can be expressed in phrases with comparative conjunctions as if, as if, exactly; instrumental case (“the dust stands in a column”); using negative particles (negative comparison):

The red sun does not shine in the sky,

The blue clouds do not admire him:

Then he sits at a meal wearing a golden crown,

The formidable Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich is sitting.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “Song about the merchant Kalashnikov”)

Some types of tropes - metaphor and metonymy - contain a hidden comparison.

STYLE(from Latin stilus and Greek stylos - writing stick, later - handwriting) - the unity of the figurative system, visual and expressive means, creative techniques, permeating the entire artistic structure. They talk about style in art and literature, about the style of a particular work or genre, about the individual style of the author, as well as about the style of entire eras or artistic movements. Features of the literary style are clearly manifested in the language (selection of vocabulary, methods of organizing speech, etc.).

POEM- a separate line of a poem, as well as the general name of a poetic speech that differs in rhythm.

POEM- a small lyrical work written in poetic form either on behalf of the author (“I remember a wonderful moment...” by A.S. Pushkin), or on behalf of the lyrical hero (“I was killed near Rzhev...” by A.T. Tvardovsky ).

FOOT- a group of syllables consisting of one stressed and one or more unstressed ones; a conventional unit by which the poetic size and length of a verse are determined. In Russian classical verse there are five types of feet, combined into two groups:

Disyllabic (trochaic, iambic);

Trisyllabic (dactyl, amphibrachium, anapest).

STANZA(from the Greek strophe - whirling, revolution, turn) - a combination of verses united by a common rhyme, a stable alternation of various poetic meters, and representing a rhythmic-syntactic whole. A stanza can contain from two to 14 poetic lines. Depending on the number of lines, stanzas are divided into couplets (distich), terzas, quatrains (quatrains), sextins, octaves, etc. The “Onegin” stanza was created by A.S. Pushkin specifically for the novel “Eugene Onegin”. Its block diagram looks like this: ababccddeffegg.

PLOT(from French sujet - subject, content) - a set of events depicted in a literary work, that is, the life of characters in changing circumstances. The plot is the organizing principle of most epic and dramatic works. It can also be present in lyrical works (extremely compressed, sparingly detailed): “I remember a wonderful moment...” A.S. Pushkin; “Troika”, “On the Road”, “Railroad” N.A. Nekrasova, etc. The plots recreate life's contradictions: without conflict in the lives of the characters, it is difficult to imagine a sufficiently expressed plot (for example, “Song about the merchant Kalashnikov...” by M.Yu. Lermontov, the novel “Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev, the drama “The Thunderstorm” A. N. Ostrovsky).

The plot consists of episodes organized in different ways. At the same time, the plot is a holistic, complete event that has a beginning, middle and end, otherwise - exposition, plot, development of action, climax and denouement. A major work, as a rule, contains several storylines that either intertwine, merge, or develop in parallel (for example, in “Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky, “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Quiet Don" by M.A. Sholokhov, "The Master and Margarita" by M.A. Bulgakov).

TAUTOLOGY(Greek tauto - the same and logos - word) - repetition of words that are identical or similar in meaning and sound composition. Used as a means of enhancing emotional impact. For example: “I killed him with my own free will” (M.Yu. Lermontov), “Oh, the box is full” (N.A. Nekrasov).

SUBJECT(from the Greek theme - main idea) - the subject of artistic depiction, a range of issues, events, phenomena, objects of reality, reflected in the work and held together by the author's intention. For example, the subject of the image in the lyrics of M.Yu. Lermontov became the feeling of loneliness of the lyrical hero (“Clouds”, “Sail”, “Both boring and sad...”, etc.). The importance in the lyrics of A.S. Pushkin has a theme of freedom (“Prisoner”, “To Chaadaev”, “To the Sea”, etc.).

Unlike lyrical works, epic and dramatic works are rarely devoted to one topic; most often they are polythematic, that is, they touch on several topics that concern the author. For example, in the story “The Captain's Daughter” by A.S. Pushkin addresses the theme of noble duty and honor, love and friendship, the role of the individual in history, etc. In such cases, it is customary to talk about the theme of the work.

TOPIC- a system of interrelated themes of a work of art.

TERCET(from Latin tres - three) - a stanza consisting of three verses per rhyme. For example, a poem by A.A. Block "Wings":

I will spread my light wings,

I will push apart the walls of air,

I will leave the distant countries.

Wind, sparkling threads,

Starry ice floes, float,

Long blizzards, sigh!

There are slight worries in the heart,

There are star roads in the sky,

Silver-snow palaces...

TERZA RIMA(from Italian terzina) - a stanza of three verses rhyming in such a way that a series of terzinas forms a continuous chain of triple rhymes: aba, bvb, vgv, etc. and closes with a separate line, rhymed with the middle verse of the last terza. For example, in “Song of Hell” by A. A. Blok:

The day has burned out on the sphere of that earth,

Where I looked for ways and shorter days.

There a purple twilight fell.

I'm not there. The path of the underground night
I slide down the ledge of slippery rocks.

The familiar Hell looks into empty eyes.

I was thrown into a bright ball on earth,

In the wild dance of masks and guises
I forgot love and lost friendship...

TYPE(from the Greek typos - image, imprint, sample) - an artistic image endowed with generalized properties of certain social phenomena. A literary type is a prominent representative of a group of people (estate, class, nation, era). For example, Maxim Maksimych (M.Yu. Lermontov “Hero of Our Time”), Captain Tushin (L.N. Tolstoy “War and Peace”), Vasily Terkin (A.T. Tvardovsky “Vasily Terkin”) - a type of Russian soldier; Akaki Akakievich Bashmachkin (N.V. Gogol “The Overcoat”) - the type of “little man”; Evgeny Onegin (A.S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”) - the type of “superfluous man”, etc.

TOPOS(from the Greek topos - place) - artistic images of open natural spaces, as well as “places” for the unfolding of artistic meanings. For example, the Russian land in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is part of the forest-steppe space in the south of Rus' from Kyiv to Kursk, and later - the entire set of East Slavic lands, the territory of the Old Russian people. For the author of the monument, this is a national, historical, geographical and mythological space. Calling on his contemporaries to stand up for the insult of this time, for the Russian land, the creator of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” persistently emphasizes the main idea of the work: the unity of the Russian land, based on the cessation of princely strife and the joint struggle with the steppe inhabitants.

TRAGEDY(from the Greek tragos - goat and ode - song) - one of the types of drama, which is based on a particularly intense, insoluble conflict, most often ending in the death of the hero. The content of the tragedy is determined, as a rule, by a conflict that is exceptional in its significance, reflecting the leading trends in socio-historical development and the spiritual state of humanity. Hence the enlarged, elevated character of the depiction of the hero, called upon to solve issues of world-historical significance. Tragedies are, for example, “Hamlet” by W. Shakespeare, “Boris Godunov” by A.S. Pushkin.

TRAILS(Greek tropos - turnover) - figures of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative meaning in order to achieve greater artistic expressiveness. The transfer of meanings of words is based on their polysemy. There is no trope in the expression “sad mood”, since the words are used in their direct (or primary) meaning. The expression “sad meadows” (A.S. Pushkin “Winter Road”) is a trope, since it merges the mood of the lyrical hero and the dull desert landscape into one image. The main types of tropes are metaphor, metonymy, personification, comparison, hyperbole, irony, etc.

FABULA(Latin fabula - narrative, history) - a chain of events that are narrated in a work, in their time sequence. In other words, the plot is something that can be retold, “what really happened,” while the plot is “how the reader found out about it.” The plot may coincide with the plot, but it may also diverge from it. The plot and plot diverge, for example, in M. Yu. Lermontov’s novel “A Hero of Our Time.”

FANTASTIC(from the Greek phantastice - the ability to imagine) - the world of fanciful ideas and images born of the imagination based on the facts of real life. Science fiction depicts the world as emphatically conventional.

The fairy tale by M.E. is filled with fantastic elements. Saltykov-Shchedrin “The Tale of How One Man Fed Two Generals.” A man who pleases the generals can do anything: cook a handful of soup, build “a ship - not a ship, but such a vessel that you can sail across the ocean,” etc.

Sometimes individual characters or elements of the plot turn out to be fantastic (V.V. Mayakovsky’s plays “The Bedbug” and “Bathhouse”). Fiction can underlie the construction of the artistic world of a work (“Master Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov).

FOLKLORE(from English, folk - people, lore - wisdom) - mass verbal artistic creativity that has become part of the everyday tradition of a particular people. The most important feature of folklore is that it represents the art of the spoken word, since it arose before the advent of writing. The following genres of folklore have emerged: epics, historical songs, fairy tales, traditions, legends, tales, genres of ritual poetry, proverbs, sayings, etc.

PHRASEOLOGISTS- stable combinations of words, the meanings of which are interpreted similarly to the meaning of one word. For example: “And everything is sewn and covered - no one sees or knows anything, only God sees!” (A.N. Ostrovsky).

FUTURISM(from Latin futurum - future) - avant-garde movement in European and Russian art of the 10-20s. XX century, based on the feeling of the collapse of traditional culture and the desire to understand through art the features of an unknown future. Futurist poets abandoned conventional artistic forms to the point of destroying natural language (deformation of the word, destruction of syntax, “telegraphic language,” introduction of mathematical and musical signs into the text, etc.). Two branches formed in Russian futurism: ego-futurism (I. Severyanin) and cubo-futurism (V.V. Mayakovsky). Futurism was also supported by poets who united around the Centrifuge publishing house (B.L. Pasternak, N.N. Aseev).

CHARACTER(Greek character - trait, feature) - a set of stable mental characteristics that form the personality of a literary character. For example, in the stories “The Death of an Official” and “Thick and Thin” by A.P. Chekhov draws similar characters of Chervyakov and the “subtle”: they are characterized by veneration, lackeyness, and fear. The means of revealing character in a work of art are portrait, costume, interior, speech manner, etc. Each literary movement (classicism, romanticism, sentimentalism, realism) reveals its own stable types of characters.

HOREUS- two-syllable poetic metre, in which the stress falls on the first syllable (-  ). For example, from A.S. Pushkin:

The clouds are rushing, the clouds are swirling;

Invisible moon
The flying snow illuminates;

The sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy.

CHRONOTOP(from the Greek chronos - time, topos - place) - the unity of spatial and temporal parameters aimed at expressing a certain meaning; a significant natural relationship between “temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature” (M.M. Bakhtin). For example, the uniqueness of the chronotope in the story by A.P. Chekhov's “Student” (“physical” and “biblical” time-space as the opposition of everyday and existential levels of the work) allows the writer to go beyond the specific historical framework, give the story a universal sound, comment on a specific situation from a broader perspective, and most fully reveal the problems of the work and the capacity of its ideological and artistic content.

ARTISTIC DETAIL(from the French detail - a small component of something, detail, particularity) - the smallest unit of the objective world of a work of art, a memorable feature, detail of appearance, clothing, furnishings, experience or action. For example, in the appearance of Pierre Bezukhov (L.N. Tolstoy’s “War and Peace”), the following details of his appearance attract attention: a smile that makes his face “childish, kind, even stupid and as if asking for forgiveness”; look - “smart and at the same time timid, observant and natural.” Details of the decoration of Eugene Onegin’s office (A.S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”) help Tatyana Larina judge his hobbies and tastes: “And a portrait of Lord Byron, / And a column with a cast-iron doll / Under a hat, with a cloudy brow, / With hands, compressed by the cross."

ARTISTIC TIME- a category of poetics of a work of art, one of the forms (along with space) of being and thinking. Time in a work of art is recreated in words in the process of depicting and developing characters, situations, the hero’s life path, speech, etc. For example, in the novel “A Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov, in order to create a sense of the passage of time, uses the following words and expressions: “One morning I went to them ...”, “in the evening”, “For four months everything went as well as possible ...”, “At that moment two people passed by the well ladies...”, “It’s been three days since I’ve been in Kislovodsk,” etc. The writer deliberately dates each chapter of Pechorin’s Journal, notes the time of day and the duration of the action: “May 13th. This morning the doctor came to see me; his name is Werner, but he is Russian.”

ARTISTIC SPACE- a category of poetics of a work of art, one of the main characteristics of the artistic existence of heroes. Significantly different from real space. The characteristics of artistic space (limitedness-unlimitedness, volume, locality, proportionality, concreteness, etc.) are determined by the method, genre, plot of the work, as well as the creative individuality of the author. For example, A.S. Griboyedov in “Woe from Wit” depicts Moscow at the beginning of the 19th century. in its specific topographical realities (Kuznetsky Bridge, “English Club”, etc.) and draws a psychological portrait of the Moscow nobility (“All Moscow nobility have a special imprint”), In the poem by N.V. Gogol's “Dead Souls” describes the Russian province (for example, the provincial town of NN) in the smallest details of life and customs, but without specific topographical indications. Characterizing in detail the space of Raskolnikov’s closet room, F.M. Dostoevsky in “Crime and Punishment” looks for the origins of the hero’s worldview. In fiction, abstract space is created along with the concrete. It is perceived as universal, rarely has specific features and does not have a significant impact on the characters and behavior of the characters. Sometimes both types of space are combined in one work (for example, in “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov, the concrete space of Moscow and the space of his novel fictionalized by the Master are combined).

ARTISTIC METHOD- a set of the most general principles and features of the figurative reflection of life in art, which are consistently repeated in the work of a number of writers and thereby can form literary movements. Artistic methods (and movements) include classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, modernism, postmodernism.

AESOP'S LANGUAGE(named after the ancient Greek fabulist Aesop) - artistic speech based on forced allegory, secret writing in literature. Aesopian language was used, for example, by M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin in his fairy tales.

EXISTENTIALISM(from Latin exsistentia - existence) - a way of identifying the foundations of the existence of an individual in society and society itself as a whole. Being in existentialism is considered as a kind of direct, undivided integrity of subject and object. The original and authentic being is the subject’s experience of his “being-in-the-world.” Being is interpreted as existence, unknowable by scientific means.

Existential thinking is a characteristic feature of the worldview of Russian writers and poets. For example, for F.M. Dostoevsky, as well as for the existentialists, the problem of human existence in all its manifestations becomes the object of artistic research. The problem of duality, comprehensively developed in the novels of this author, is also extremely relevant for Russian existentialism. An existential worldview is also characteristic of F.I. Tyutchev, who gravitates toward depicting borderline situations and perceives human life as “being for death.”

EXPOSITION(Latin exposition - explanation) - the background of the event or events underlying the literary plot. It can be located at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of the work. There are delayed, diffuse, detailed, direct exposure.

For example, in the poem “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol's exposition is delayed: an explanation of the historical and everyday situation is given after the beginning of the action, and information about Chichikov, the main character, is given at the end of the story; the writer first showed Chichikov’s actions, and then explained the conditions under which such a person could grow up.

ELEGY(Greek elegeia) - lyrical genre; a poem that expresses mainly the motives of sadness, loneliness, disappointment, and reflections on the frailty of life. For example, “I visited again...” A.S. Pushkin, “Both boring and sad...”, “I go out alone on the road...” M.Yu. Lermontov, “There is melodiousness in the sea waves...” F.I. Tyutcheva and others.

EPIGRAM(from the Greek epigramma - inscription) - a genre of satirical poetry, a short poem ridiculing a person or social phenomenon. Epigrams are characterized by brevity, aphorism, and the poet’s personal attitude to the subject of ridicule. For example, from Pushkin:

Half my lord, half merchant,

Half sage, half ignorant,

Half-scoundrel, but there is hope

That it will finally be complete.

EPIGRAPH- a short text in the form of a small quotation from any well-known source (religious, folklore, literary, philosophical, journalistic, etc.). Placed immediately before the text of the work, immediately after the title or before any part of the text.

The epigraph reads:

The epigraph can be double (“Oh rus!.. Oh Rus'!”), triple (“Moscow, Russia’s beloved daughter,/Where can I find someone equal to you?” (Dmitriev), “How can you not love your native Moscow?” (Baratynsky), “ Persecution of Moscow! What does it mean to see the light! / Where is it better? / Where we are not" (Griboyedov); epigraphs in the novel "Eugene Onegin" by A.S. Pushkin).

The epigraph can be structured as a dialogue: “Vanya (in Armenian coachman). Dad! Who built this road?/Dad (“coat with red lining”). Count Pyotr Andreich Kleinmichel, darling!” /Conversation in the carriage” (“Railroad” by N. A. Nekrasov). It can be developed into a system of epigraphs, as, for example, in the story “The Captain's Daughter” by A. S. Pushkin, where the “publisher” directly indicates in the afterword that he “found” a “decent epigraph” for each chapter of Grinev’s manuscript. The truncated folklore epigraph to the entire text (“Take care of your honor from a young age”) defines the main problem of the work. The remaining epigraphs, designed in the form of proverbs, excerpts from folk songs, genuine fragments of works by Russian writers of the 18th century, or author's stylizations written in the “ancient style”, develop the main themes of the story, together with the titles of the chapters, they are either a condensed “summary” of their content, or emphasize any of their characteristic features.

The epigraph becomes a kind of connecting link between the writer and existing literature, between the writer and his reader. The epigraph forms the “horizons of reader expectations.” Understanding the epigraph occurs sequentially in three stages: perception, which preliminarily orients the reader; correlating the epigraph with the text; a new level of understanding of the epigraph, revealing new meanings and expanding the boundaries of text interpretation.

EPILOGUE(from Greek epi - after, logos - word, letters, “afterword”) - the final part of a work of art, which tells about the further fate of the heroes after the events depicted. For example, the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment” ends with an epilogue, in which the author shows Raskolnikov a year and a half after the events described in the main part. He is in hard labor, next to him is Sonya Marmeladova. Briefly tells about the fate of Raskolnikov's relatives - mother, sister Dunya, Razumikhin. A large epilogue, consisting of two parts (the historical life of the country and the private life of the heroes seven years later), completes the epic romance of L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace". The epilogue of The Master and Margarita tells the reader what happens to the heroes of the novel after Woland leaves Moscow. We learn about the round-ups of unfortunate cats and the persecution of suspicious citizens, the fates of Likhodeev, Varenukha, Nikolai Ivanovich and, of course, the poet Bezdomny, who turned into the venerable professor of history Ponyrev, who continues to remain under the magical influence of mysterious history.

EPITHET(Greek epitheton - application) - a figurative definition that gives an artistic description of an object (phenomenon) in the form of a hidden comparison. An epithet refers not only to an adjective (“ruddy dawn”, “timid breathing”, “zealous horse”), but also to an appendix noun; an adverb that metaphorically defines a verb (“frost-voivode”, “tramp wind”, “Petrel soars proudly”).

A special group consists of permanent epithets that were formed in oral folk art and which are used only in combination with a certain word (good fellow, beautiful maiden, greyhound horse, living water, pure field, etc.).

EPOS(Greek epos - word, narrative) - one of three literary genres (along with lyricism and drama), the main feature of which is the narration of events external to the author. The narration in the epic is usually conducted in the past tense, as about events that have already occurred, and on behalf of a real or conditional narrator, witness, participant and, less often, the hero of the events. The epic uses a variety of methods of presentation (narration, description, dialogue, monologue, author's digressions), the author's speech and the speech of the characters. .

HUMOR(from English, humor - humor; disposition, mood, complexity) - a special type of comic that combines ridicule and sympathy, involves a soft smile and a gentle joke, which are based on a positive attitude towards the person depicted. Unlike satire, humor is aimed at the shortcomings of individual people and everyday life that have no social significance. Humor is an essential feature of “The Tale of the Priest and His Worker Balda” by A. S. Pushkin, the early stories of A. P. Chekhov, the poem “Vasily Terkin” by A. T. Tvardovsky, etc.

JAMB- a two-syllable poetic meter in which the stress falls on the second syllable (  -). For example, the poem by A. A. Fet “Learn from them - from the oak, from the birch...”:

Learn from them - from the oak, from the birch.

It's winter all around. Cruel time!

In vain the tears froze on them,

And the bark cracked, shrink.

1 The dictionary is compiled based on the following dictionaries and reference books: Literary Encyclopedia: Dictionary of Literary Terms: In 2 volumes/Ed. N. Brodsky, A. Lavretsky, E. Lunin, V. Lvov-Rogachevsky, M. Rozanov, V. Cheshikhin-Vetrinsky. - M.; L.: Publishing house L.D. Frenkel, 1925 (http://feb-web.ru); Literary encyclopedic dictionary/Under the general. ed. V.M. Kozhevnikova, P.A. Nikolaev.- M.: Sov. encyclopedia, 1987; Dictionary of literary terms. - Edited by: L. I. Timofeev and S. V. Turaev. - M.: Education, 1972; Kvyatkovsky A.P. School poetic dictionary. - M.: Bustard, 2000; Rusova N. Yu. From allegory to iambic: Terminological dictionary-thesaurus of literary criticism, - M.: Flinta: Nauka, 2004; Great Literary Encyclopedia/Krasov-
skiy V. E. et al. - M.: Philol. SLOVO Island: OLMA-PRESS Education, 2003.

Avant-garde - the general name of a number of movements in the art of the 20th century, which are united by social engagement (i.e. commitment to any political movement, often of a socialist orientation).

Alliteration – an expressive means of language: repetition of identical or homogeneous consonant sounds in order to create a sound image: “ It’s like a rumble of thunder - /Heavy, ringing galloping /Across the shaken pavement...» A. Pushkin.

Allusion - the use of a word, phrase, quote as a hint that activates the reader’s attention and allows one to see the connection of what is depicted with any known fact of literary or socio-political life.

Antithesis – expressive means of language: opposition of sharply contrasting concepts and images. For example, A.P. Chekhov’s story “The Thick and the Thin” is built on the principle of contrasting two heroes, on the principle of antithesis.

Dystopia - a genre of epic work that creates a picture of the life of a society deceived by utopian illusions, the main pathos is a warning about the danger of implementing utopian ideas (E. Zamyatin “We”, A. Platonov “The Pit”, A. Kabakov “Defector”).

Association – a psychological phenomenon when, when reading a work, one image, by similarity or opposition, evokes another.

Fiction - a term sometimes used to characterize prose works of low artistic level. V.G. Belinsky understood fiction as “light reading,” contrasting it with serious literature. At the same time, Russian writers, in particular F.M. Dostoevsky, noted the need for the people to have “pleasant and entertaining reading.” Many works of literature of the Soviet period on the “spite of the day” (D. Furmanov “Chapaev”, N. Ostrovsky “How the Steel Was Tempered”, M. Sholokhov “Virgin Soil Upturned”), elevated to the rank of classics, can rightfully be called fiction. Fiction as the “middle” sphere of literary creativity comes into contact with both the “top” and the “bottom” - mass literature.

Graphomania – passion for literary creativity, not supported by talent and recognition of readers.

Discourse – a specific method or specific rules for organizing speech activity (written or oral).

In tonation is a set of expressively significant changes in the sound of the human voice. Physical (acoustic) “carriers” of intonation are the timbre and tempo of the sound of speech, the strength and pitch of the sound. Written text(if it is subjectively colored and expressive) bears a trace of intonation, which is felt primarily in syntax statements.

Intertextuality – “dialogue” between texts (works of art), “the text reads history and fits into it,” i.e. incorporates previous texts and becomes part of the culture.

Intrigue - a movement of the soul, an action, a character, with the goal of searching for the meaning of life, truth, etc. - a kind of “spring” that drives the action in a dramatic or epic work and makes it entertaining.

Catharsis - the purification of the reader’s soul, experienced by him in the process of empathizing with literary characters. According to Aristotle, catharsis is the goal of tragedy, which ennobles the viewer and reader.

Conflict - a clash of opinions, positions, characters in a work, driving its action like intrigue and conflict.

Leitmotif - the main idea of the work, repeatedly repeated and emphasized.

Literary direction – characterized by the commonality of literary phenomena over a certain time. A literary direction presupposes a unity of worldview, aesthetic views of writers, and ways of depicting life in a certain historical period. The literary direction is also characterized by a common artistic method. Literary movements include classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, etc.

Literary process – the evolution of literature – reveals itself in a change in literary trends, in updating the content and form of works, in establishing new connections with other types of art, with philosophy, and science. It proceeds according to its own laws and is not directly related to the development of society.

Popular literature – a polysemantic term that has several synonyms: popular, trivial, para-, tabloid literature; traditionally, this term denotes: the value “bottom” of the literary hierarchy - works classified as marginal sphere of generally accepted literature, rejected as kitsch, pseudoliterature. Often, “maslit” is understood as the entire array of artistic works of a certain cultural and historical period, which are considered as the background to the peak achievements of writers of the first rank.

Method - the general principle of the artist’s creative attitude to knowable reality, i.e. its re-creation; and therefore it does not exist outside of its concrete individual implementation. In this content, this very abstract and now unfashionable category takes on more real outlines, often under the name "style" .

Onomatopoeia (Greek onomatopoieia - production of names) - onomatopoeia, for example, “the beetle was buzzing” - the sound of words reproduces the phenomenon being called.

Plagiarism - literary theft.

Subtext – internal, not verbally expressed meaning of the text. The subtext is hidden and can be restored by the reader taking into account the specific historical situation. Most often present in psychological genres.

Nickname - (Greek pseudonymos from pseudos - fiction, lie and onoma - name) - a fictitious name or surname that replaces the writer’s real one in print. For example, Boris Nikolaevich Bugaev is known under the pseudonym Andrei Bely.

Style – stable features of the use of poetic techniques and means, serving as an expression of the originality and uniqueness of the phenomenon of art. It is studied at the level of a work of art (the style of “Eugene Onegin”), at the level of the individual style of the writer (N. Gogol’s style), at the level of a literary movement (classicism style), at the level of the era (Baroque style).

Fiction - a figment of the author’s imagination (fantasy), the creation of plots and images that have no direct correspondence in previous art and reality. Through fiction, the writer embodies his view of the world, and also demonstrates the embodiment of creative energy.

Essay – an artistic and journalistic work of small volume, containing the author’s thoughts, but not limited by any compositional framework or conditions.

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Dictionary of literary terms for the exam in literature. Dictionary of literary terms and reference materials

Dictionary of literary terms