Turkish War 1853 1856. Crimean War: briefly about the causes, main events and consequences

Crimean War.

Causes of the war: in 1850, a conflict began between France, the Ottoman Empire and Russia, the reason for which was disputes between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy regarding the rights to the Holy Places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. Nicholas I was counting on the support of England and Austria, but he miscalculated.

Progress of the war: in 1853, Russian troops were introduced into Moldova and Wallachia, met with a negative reaction from Austria, which took a position of unfriendly neutrality, demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops and moved its army to the border with Russia. In October 1853, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia.

The first stage of the war - November 1853 - April 1854: Russian-Turkish campaign. November 1853 – Battle of Sinop. Admiral Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet, and in parallel there were Russian actions in the Caucasus. England and France declared war on Russia. The Anglo-French squadron bombarded Russian territories (Kronstadt, Sveaborg, Solovetsky Monastery, Kamchatka).

Second stage: April 1854 - February 1856 Russia against the coalition of European powers. September 1854 - the allies began landing in the Evpatoria area. Battles on the river Alma in September 1854, the Russians lost. Under the command of Menshikov, the Russians approached Bakhchisarai. Sevastopol (Kornilov and Nakhimov) was preparing for defense. October 1854 - the defense of Sevastopol began. The main part of the Russian army undertook diversionary operations (the battle of Inkerman in November 1854, the offensive at Yevpatoriya in February 1855, the battle on the Black River in August 1855), but they were not successful. August 1855: Sevastopol was captured. At the same time, in Transcaucasia, Russian troops managed to take the strong Turkish fortress of Kars. Negotiations began. March 1856 - Paris peace. Part of Bessarabia was torn away from Russia; it lost the right to patronize Serbia, Moldova and Wallachia. The most important thing is the neutralization of the Black Sea: both Russia and Turkey were prohibited from keeping a navy in the Black Sea.

There is an acute internal political crisis in Russia, due to which reforms have begun.

39. Economic, socio-political development of Russia at the turn of the 50-60s. XiX century Peasant reform of 1861, its content and significance.

In the 50s, the need and hardships of the masses noticeably worsened, this happened under the influence of the consequences of the Crimean War, the increasing frequency of natural disasters (epidemics, crop failures and, as a consequence, famine), as well as the increasing oppression from the landowners and the state in the pre-reform period. Recruitment, which reduced the number of workers by 10%, and requisitions of food, horses and fodder had a particularly severe impact on the economy of the Russian village. The situation was aggravated by the arbitrariness of the landowners, who systematically reduced the size of peasant plots, transferred peasants to households (and thus deprived them of land), and resettled serfs to worse lands. These acts assumed such proportions that the government, shortly before the reform, was forced to impose a ban on such actions by special decrees.

The response to the worsening situation of the masses was the peasant movement, which in its intensity, scale and forms was noticeably different from the protests of previous decades and caused great concern in St. Petersburg.

This period was characterized by mass escapes of landowner peasants who wanted to enlist in the militia and thus hoped to gain freedom (1854-1855), unauthorized resettlement to war-ravaged Crimea (1856), a “sober” movement directed against the feudal system of wine farming (1858-1859 ), unrest and escapes of workers during the construction of railways (Moscow-Nizhny Novgorod, Volga-Don, 1859-1860). It was also restless on the outskirts of the empire. In 1858, Estonian peasants took up arms in their hands (“Machtra War”). Major peasant unrest broke out in 1857 in Western Georgia.

After the defeat in the Crimean War, in the context of a growing revolutionary upsurge, the crisis at the top intensified, manifested, in particular, in the intensification of the liberal opposition movement among part of the nobility, dissatisfied with military failures, the backwardness of Russia, who understood the need for political and social changes. “Sevastopol hit stagnant minds,” wrote the famous Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky about this time. The “censorship terror” introduced by Emperor Nicholas I after his death in February 1855 was virtually swept away by a wave of glasnost, which made it possible to openly discuss the most pressing problems facing the country.

There was no unity in government circles on the issue of the future fate of Russia. Two opposing groups formed here: the old conservative bureaucratic elite (head of the III department V.A. Dolgorukov, Minister of State Property M.N. Muravyov, etc.), which actively opposed the implementation of bourgeois reforms, and supporters of reforms (Minister of Internal Affairs S.S. Lanskoy, Ya.I. Rostovtsev, brothers N.A. and D.A. Milyutin).

The interests of the Russian peasantry were reflected in the ideology of the new generation of revolutionary intelligentsia.

In the 50s, two centers were formed that led the revolutionary democratic movement in the country. The first (emigrant) was headed by A.I. Herzen, who founded the “Free Russian Printing House” in London (1853). Since 1855, he began publishing the non-periodical collection “Polar Star”, and since 1857, together with N.P. Ogarev, the newspaper “Bell”, which enjoyed enormous popularity. Herzen's publications formulated a program of social transformation in Russia, which included the liberation of peasants from serfdom with land and for ransom. Initially, the publishers of Kolokol believed in the liberal intentions of the new Emperor Alexander II (1855-1881) and placed certain hopes on wisely carried out reforms “from above.” However, as projects for the abolition of serfdom were being prepared, illusions dissipated, and a call to fight for land and democracy was heard loudly on the pages of London publications.

The second center arose in St. Petersburg. It was headed by leading employees of the Sovremennik magazine N.G. Chernyshevsky and N.A. Dobrolyubov, around whom like-minded people from the revolutionary democratic camp rallied (M.L. Mikhailov, N.A. Serno-Solovyevich, N.V. Shelgunov and others). The censored articles of N.G. Chernyshevsky were not as frank as the publications of A.I. Herzen, but they were distinguished by their consistency. N.G. Chernyshevsky believed that when the peasants were liberated, the land should be transferred to them without ransom; the liquidation of autocracy in Russia would occur through revolutionary means.

On the eve of the abolition of serfdom, a demarcation emerged between the revolutionary-democratic and liberal camps. Liberals, who recognized the need for reforms “from above,” saw in them, first of all, an opportunity to prevent a revolutionary explosion in the country.

The Crimean War presented the government with a choice: either to preserve the serfdom that existed in the country and, as a consequence of this, ultimately, as a result of a political, financial and economic catastrophe, lose not only the prestige and position of a great power, but also threaten the existence of the autocracy in Russia, or to carry out bourgeois reforms, the primary of which was the abolition of serfdom.

Having chosen the second path, the government of Alexander II in January 1857 created a Secret Committee “to discuss measures to organize the life of the landowner peasants.” Somewhat earlier, in the summer of 1856, in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, comrade (deputy) minister A.I. Levshin developed a government program for peasant reform, which, although it gave serfs civil rights, retained all the land in the ownership of the landowner and provided the latter with patrimonial power on the estate. In this case, the peasants would receive allotment land for use, for which they would have to perform fixed duties. This program was set out in imperial rescripts (instructions), first addressed to the Vilna and St. Petersburg governors-general, and then sent to other provinces. In accordance with the rescripts, special committees began to be created in the provinces to consider the case locally, and the preparation of the reform became public. The Secret Committee was renamed the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs. The Zemstvo Department under the Ministry of Internal Affairs (N.A. Milyutin) began to play a significant role in preparing the reform.

Within the provincial committees there was a struggle between liberals and conservatives over the forms and extent of concessions to the peasantry. Reform projects prepared by K.D. Kavelin, A.I. Koshelev, M.P. Posen. Yu.F. Samarin, A.M. Unkovsky, differed in the political views of the authors and economic conditions. Thus, the landowners of the black earth provinces, who owned expensive land and kept peasants in corvee labor, wanted to retain the maximum possible amount of land and retain workers. In the industrial non-black earth obroch provinces, during the reform, landowners wanted to receive significant funds to rebuild their farms in a bourgeois manner.

The prepared proposals and programs were submitted for discussion to the so-called Editorial Commissions. The struggle over these proposals took place both in these commissions and during the consideration of the project in the Main Committee and in the State Council. But, despite the existing differences of opinion, in all these projects it was about carrying out peasant reform in the interests of the landowners by maintaining landownership and political dominance in the hands of the Russian nobility, “Everything that could be done to protect the benefits of the landowners has been done,” - Alexander II stated in the State Council. The final version of the reform project, which had undergone a number of changes, was signed by the emperor on February 19, 1861, and on March 5, the most important documents regulating the implementation of the reform were published: “Manifesto” and “General Provisions on Peasants Emerging from Serfdom.”

In accordance with these documents, peasants received personal freedom and could now freely dispose of their property, engage in commercial and industrial activities, buy and sell real estate, enter the service, receive an education, and conduct their family affairs.

The landowner still owned all the land, but part of it, usually a reduced land plot and the so-called “estate settlement” (a plot with a hut, outbuildings, vegetable gardens, etc.), he was obliged to transfer to the peasants for use. Thus, Russian peasants received liberation with land, but they could use this land for a certain fixed rent or serving corvee. The peasants could not give up these plots for 9 years. For complete liberation, they could buy the estate and, by agreement with the landowner, the allotment, after which they became peasant owners. Until this time, a “temporarily obligated position” was established.

The new sizes of allotments and payments of peasants were recorded in special documents, “statutory charters”. which were compiled for each village over a two-year period. The amounts of these duties and allotment land were determined by “Local Regulations”. Thus, according to the “Great Russian” local situation, the territory of 35 provinces was distributed into 3 stripes: non-chernozem, chernozem and steppe, which were divided into “localities”. In the first two stripes, depending on local conditions, “higher” and “lower” (1/3 of the “highest”) allotment sizes were established, and in the steppe zone - one “decreed” allotment. If the pre-reform size of the allotment exceeded the “highest” one, then pieces of land could be produced, but if the allotment was less than the “lowest” one, then the landowner had to either cut off the land or reduce duties. Cut-offs were also made in some other cases, for example, when the owner, as a result of allocating land to the peasants, had less than 1/3 of the total land of the estate left. Among the cut-off lands there were often the most valuable areas (forest, meadows, arable land); in some cases, landowners could demand that peasant estates be moved to new locations. As a result of the post-reform land management, stripes became characteristic of the Russian village.

Statutory charters were usually concluded with an entire rural society, the “world” (community), which was supposed to ensure mutual responsibility for the payment of duties.

The “temporarily obligated” position of the peasants ceased after the transfer to redemption, which became mandatory only 20 years later (from 1883). The ransom was carried out with the assistance of the government. The basis for calculating redemption payments was not the market price of land, but the assessment of duties that were feudal in nature. When the deal was concluded, the peasants paid 20% of the amount, and the remaining 80% was paid to the landowners by the state. The peasants had to repay the loan provided by the state annually in the form of redemption payments for 49 years, while, of course, accrued interest was taken into account. Redemption payments placed a heavy burden on peasant farms. The cost of the purchased land significantly exceeded its market price. During the redemption operation, the government also tried to get back the huge sums that were provided to landowners in the pre-reform years on the security of land. If the estate was mortgaged, then the amount of the debt was deducted from the amounts provided to the landowner. The landowners received only a small part of the redemption amount in cash; special interest notes were issued for the rest.

It should be borne in mind that in modern historical literature, issues related to the implementation of the reform are not fully developed. There are different points of view about the degree of transformation during the reform of the system of peasant plots and payments (currently these studies are being carried out on a large scale using computers).

The reform of 1861 in the internal provinces was followed by the abolition of serfdom on the outskirts of the empire - in Georgia (1864-1871), Armenia and Azerbaijan (1870-1883), which was often carried out with even less consistency and with greater preservation of feudal remnants. Appanage peasants (belonging to the royal family) received personal freedom based on decrees of 1858 and 1859. “By the Regulations of June 26, 1863.” the land structure and conditions for the transition to redemption in the appanage village were determined, which was carried out during 1863-1865. In 1866, a reform was carried out in the state village. The purchase of land by state peasants was completed only in 1886.

Thus, peasant reforms in Russia actually abolished serfdom and marked the beginning of the development of the capitalist formation in Russia. However, while maintaining landownership and feudal remnants in the countryside, they were unable to resolve all the contradictions, which ultimately led to a further intensification of the class struggle.

The response of the peasantry to the publication of the “Manifesto” was a massive explosion of discontent in the spring of 1861. The peasants protested against the continuation of the corvee system and the payment of dues and plots of land. The peasant movement acquired a particularly large scale in the Volga region, Ukraine and the central black earth provinces.

Russian society was shocked by the events in the villages of Bezdna (Kazan province) and Kandeevka (Penza province) that took place in April 1863. Peasants outraged by the reform were shot there by military teams. In total, over 1,100 peasant unrest occurred in 1861. Only by drowning the protests in blood did the government manage to reduce the intensity of the struggle. The disunited, spontaneous and devoid of political consciousness protest of the peasants was doomed to failure. Already in 1862-1863. the scope of the movement was significantly reduced. In the following years it declined sharply (in 1864 there were fewer than 100 performances).

In 1861-1863 During the period of intensification of the class struggle in the countryside, the activity of democratic forces in the country intensified. After the suppression of peasant uprisings, the government, feeling more confident, attacked the democratic camp with repression.

Peasant reform of 1861, its content and significance.

The peasant reform of 1861, which abolished serfdom, marked the beginning of the capitalist formation in the country.

Main reason Peasant reform resulted in a crisis of the feudal-serf system. Crimean War 1853–1856 revealed the rottenness and impotence of serf Russia. In the context of peasant unrest, which especially intensified during the war, tsarism moved to abolish serfdom.

In January 1857 A Secret Committee was formed under the chairmanship of Emperor Alexander II “to discuss measures to organize the life of the landowner peasants,” which at the beginning of 1858. was reorganized into the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs. At the same time, provincial committees were formed, which began developing projects for peasant reform, considered by the Editorial Commissions.

February 19, 1861 In St. Petersburg, Alexander II signed the Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom and the “Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom,” consisting of 17 legislative acts.

The main act - “General Regulations on Peasants Emerging from Serfdom” - contained the main conditions of the peasant reform:

1. peasants received personal freedom and the right to dispose of their property;

2. the landowners retained ownership of all the lands they owned, but were obliged to provide the peasants with “homestead residence” and field allotment for use “to ensure their livelihood and to fulfill their duties to the government and the landowner”;

3. For the use of allotment land, peasants had to serve corvee or pay quitrent and did not have the right to refuse it for 9 years. The size of the field allotment and duties should have been recorded in the statutory charters of 1861, which were drawn up by landowners for each estate and verified by the peace intermediaries;

-peasants were given the right to buy out an estate and, by agreement with the landowner, a field allotment; until this was done, they were called temporarily obligated peasants.

The “general situation” determined the structure, rights and responsibilities of peasant public (rural and volost) government bodies and the court.

4 “Local Regulations” determined the size of land plots and the duties of peasants for their use in 44 provinces of European Russia. The first of them is “Great Russian”, for 29 Great Russian, 3 Novorossiysk (Ekaterinoslav, Tauride and Kherson), 2 Belarusian (Mogilev and part of Vitebsk) and part of Kharkov provinces. This entire territory was divided into three stripes (non-chernozem, chernozem and steppe), each of which consisted of “localities”.

In the first two bands, depending on the “locality,” the highest (from 3 to 7 dessiatines; from 2 3/4 to 6 dessiatines) and the lowest (1/3 of the highest) amounts of per capita taxes were established. For the steppe, one “decreed” allotment was determined (in the Great Russian provinces from 6 to 12 dessiatines; in Novorossiysk, from 3 to 6 1/5 dessiatines). The size of the government tithe was determined to be 1.09 hectares.

Allotment land was provided to the “rural community”, i.e. community, according to the number of souls (men only) at the time of drawing up the charter documents who had the right to the allotment.

From the land that was in the use of peasants before February 19, 1861, sections could be made if the peasants' per capita allotments exceeded the highest size established for a given “locality”, or if the landowners, while maintaining the existing peasant allotment, had less than 1/3 of the estate's land left. Allotments could be reduced by special agreements between peasants and landowners, as well as upon receipt of a gift allotment.

If peasants had plots of less than a small size, the landowner was obliged to cut off the missing land or reduce duties. For the highest spiritual allotment, a quitrent was established from 8 to 12 rubles per year or corvee - 40 men's and 30 women's working days per year. If the allotment was less than the highest, then the duties were reduced, but not proportionally.

The rest of the “Local Provisions” basically repeated the “Great Russian Provisions”, but taking into account the specifics of their regions.

The features of the peasant reform for certain categories of peasants and specific areas were determined by 8 “Additional Rules”: “Arrangement of peasants settled on the estates of small-scale owners, and on benefits to these owners”; “People of the Ministry of Finance assigned to private mining plants”; “Peasants and workers serving work at Perm private mining plants and salt mines”; “Peasant peasants serving work in landowner factories”; "The peasants and courtyard people in the Land of the Don Army"; "Peasant peasants and courtyard people in the Stavropol province"; "Peasant peasants and courtyard people in Siberia"; "People who emerged from serfdom in the Bessarabian region."

The Manifesto and “Regulations” were published on March 5 in Moscow and from March 7 to April 2 in St. Petersburg. Fearing the dissatisfaction of the peasants with the conditions of the reform, the government took a number of precautions: it redeployed troops, sent members of the imperial retinue to places, issued an appeal from the Synod, etc. However, the peasants, dissatisfied with the enslaving conditions of the reform, responded to it with mass unrest. The largest of them were the Bezdnensky and Kandeevsky peasant uprisings of 1861.

As of January 1, 1863, peasants refused to sign about 60% of the charters. The purchase price of the land significantly exceeded its market value at that time, in some areas -

2–3 times. In many regions, peasants sought to receive gift plots, thereby reducing allotment land use: in the Saratov province by 42.4%, Samara - 41.3%, Poltava - 37.4%, Ekaterinoslav - by 37.3%, etc. The lands cut off by the landowners were a means of enslaving the peasants, since they were vitally necessary for the peasant economy: watering place, pasture, haymaking, etc.

The peasants' transition to ransom lasted for several decades, on December 28, 1881. a law on compulsory redemption was issued on January 1, 1883, the transfer to which was completed by 1895. In total, by January 1, 1895, 124 thousand redemption transactions were approved, according to which 9,159 thousand souls in areas with communal farming and 110 thousand households in areas with household farming were transferred to redemption. About 80% of buyouts were mandatory.

As a result of the peasant reform (according to 1878), in the provinces of European Russia, 9860 thousand souls of peasants received an allotment of 33728 thousand dessiatines of land (on average 3.4 dessiatines per capita). U115 thousand. landowners were left with 69 million dessiatines (an average of 600 dessiatines per owner).

What did these “average” indicators look like after 3.5 decades? The political and economic power of the tsar rested on the nobles and landowners. According to the 1897 census in Russia there were 1 million 220 thousand hereditary nobles and more than 600 thousand personal nobles, to whom the title of nobility was given, but not inherited. All of them were owners of land plots.

Of these: about 60 thousand were small-scale nobles, each had 100 acres; 25.5 thousand - average landowners, had from 100 to 500 acres; 8 thousand large nobles, who had from 500 to 1000 acres: 6.5 thousand - the largest nobles, who had from 1000 to 5000 acres.

At the same time, there were 102 families in Russia: princes Yusupov, Golitsyn, Dolgorukov, counts Bobrinsky, Orlov, etc., whose holdings amounted to more than 50 thousand dessiatines, that is, about 30% of the landowners' land fund in Russia.

The largest owner in Russia was Tsar Nicholas I. He owned huge tracts of so-called cabinet and appanage lands. Gold, silver, lead, copper, and timber were mined there. He rented out a significant part of the land. The king's property was managed by a special ministry of the imperial court.

When filling out the questionnaire for the census, Nicholas II wrote in the column about profession: “Master of the Russian land.”

As for peasants, the average allotment of a peasant family, according to the census, was 7.5 dessiatines.

The significance of the peasant reform of 1861 was that it abolished feudal ownership of workers and created a market for cheap labor. The peasants were declared personally free, that is, they had the right to buy land, houses, and enter into various transactions in their own name. The reform was based on the principle of gradualism: within two years, statutory charters were to be drawn up, defining the specific conditions for the liberation of peasants, then the peasants were transferred to the position of “temporarily obligated” until the transition to redemption and in the subsequent 49-year period, paying the debt to the state that bought the land for peasants from landowners. Only after this should land plots become the full property of the peasants.

For the liberation of peasants from serfdom, Emperor Alexander II was called the “LIBERER” by the people. Judge for yourself, what was more here - truth or hypocrisy? Note that of the total number of peasant unrest that occurred throughout the country in 1857–1861, 1340 out of 2165 (62%) protests occurred after the announcement of the 1861 reform.

Thus, the peasant reform of 1861 was a bourgeois reform carried out by serf owners. This was a step towards turning Russia into a bourgeois monarchy. However, the peasant reform did not solve the socio-economic contradictions in Russia, preserved landownership and a number of other feudal-serf remnants, led to a further aggravation of the class struggle, and served as one of the main reasons for the social explosion of 1905–1907. XX century.

The strength of Russian weapons and the dignity of the soldier made a significant impression even in lost wars - there have been others like this in our history. Eastern, or Crimean, War 1853-1856. belongs to their number. But at the same time, admiration went not to the winners, but to the vanquished - the participants in the defense of Sevastopol.

Causes of the Crimean War

Russia took part in the war on one side and a coalition consisting of France, Turkey, England and the Kingdom of Sardinia on the other. In the domestic tradition, it is called Crimean - its most significant events took place on the territory of the Crimean peninsula. In foreign historiography, the term “Eastern War” has been adopted. Its reasons are purely practical, and all participants did not object to it.

The real impetus for the clash was the weakening of the Turks. Their country at that time was nicknamed “the sick man of Europe,” but strong states laid claim to the “division of inheritance,” that is, the possibility of using Turkish possessions and territories to their advantage.

The Russian Empire needed free passage of the military fleet through the Black Sea straits. She also claimed to be the patron of the Christian Slavic peoples who wanted to free themselves from the Turkish yoke, primarily the Bulgarians. The British were especially interested in Egypt (the idea of ​​the Suez Canal had already matured) and the possibilities of convenient communication with Iran. The French did not want to allow the military strengthening of the Russians - Louis Napoleon Bonaparte III, the nephew of Napoleon I, who was defeated by ours, had just appeared on their throne (officially from December 2, 1852) (accordingly, revanchism intensified).

Leading European states did not want to allow Russia to become their economic competitor. France could lose its position as a great power because of this. England feared Russian expansion in Central Asia, which would lead the Russians straight to the borders of the “most valuable pearl of the British crown” - India. Turkey, having repeatedly lost to Suvorov and Potemkin, simply had no choice but to rely on the help of the European “tigers” - otherwise it could simply fall apart.

Only Sardinia had no special claims against our state. She was simply promised support in the confrontation with Austria for her alliance, which was the reason for her entry into the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Claims of Napoleon the Less

Everyone was not against fighting - everyone had purely pragmatic reasons for this. But at the same time, the British and French were clearly superior to ours in technical terms - they had rifled weapons, long-range artillery and a steam flotilla. The Russians were ironed and polished,
they looked great in parades, but fought with smoothbore junk on wooden sailboats.

Under these conditions, Napoleon III, nicknamed by V. Hugo “Little” for his obvious inability to compete with his uncle’s talents, decided to speed up events - it’s not for nothing that in Europe the Crimean War is considered “French”. The reason he chose was a dispute over the ownership of churches in Palestine, which were claimed by both Catholics and Orthodox. Both were not separated from the state at that time, and Russia was directly obliged to support the claims of Orthodoxy. The religious component well masked the ugly reality of the conflict over markets and bases.

But Palestine was under Turkish control. Accordingly, Nicholas I reacted by occupying the Danube principalities, vassals of the Ottomans, and Turkey then, with good reason, declared war on Russia on October 4 (16 in European calendar) 1853. France and England just have to be “good allies” and do the same on March 15 (March 27) next year.

Battles during the Crimean War

Crimea and the Black Sea acted as the main theater of military operations (it is noteworthy that in other regions - the Caucasus, the Baltic, the Far East - our troops acted mostly successfully). In November 1853, the Battle of Sinop took place (the last great sailing battle in history), in April 1854, Anglo-French ships fired at Odessa, and in June the first skirmish took place near Sevastopol (shelling of fortifications from the sea surface).

Source of maps and symbols - https://ru.wikipedia.org

It was the main Black Sea port of the empire that was the target of the Allies. The essence of the fighting in Crimea was to capture it - then the Russian ships would be “homeless.” At the same time, the allies remained aware that it was fortified only from the sea, and had no defensive structures from land.

The landing of Allied ground forces in Yevpatoria in September 1854 was precisely aimed at capturing Sevastopol from land by a roundabout maneuver. The Russian commander-in-chief, Prince Menshikov, organized the defense poorly. A week after the landing, the landing force was already in the vicinity of the current hero city. The Battle of Alma (September 8 (20), 1854) delayed his advance, but overall it was a defeat for the domestic troops due to unsuccessful command.

But the Sevastopol defense showed that our soldier had not lost the ability to do the impossible. The city remained under siege for 349 days, withstood 6 massive artillery bombardments, although the number of its garrison was approximately 8 times less than the number of those who stormed (the ratio is 1:3 is considered normal). There was no fleet support - outdated wooden ships were simply sunk on the fairways, trying to block the enemy's passages.

The notorious defense was accompanied by other famous, iconic battles. It is not easy to describe them briefly - each is special in its own way. So, what happened near (October 13 (25), 1854) is considered the decline of the glory of the British cavalry - this branch of the army suffered heavy, ineffective losses. Inkerman (October 24 (November 5) of the same year) showed the advantages of French artillery over Russian and our command’s poor understanding of the enemy’s capabilities.

On August 27 (September 8), 1855, the French took possession of the fortified height dominating the policy, and 3 days later they occupied it. The fall of Sevastopol marked the defeat of our country in the war - no more active hostilities were conducted.

Heroes of the First Defense

Nowadays, the defense of Sevastopol during the Crimean War is called - in contrast to the Second, the period of the Great Patriotic War. However, there are no fewer bright characters in it, and maybe even more.

Its leaders were three admirals - Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin. All of them died defending the main city of Crimea and were buried in it. Brilliant fortifier, engineer-colonel E.I. Totleben survived this defense, but his contribution to it was not immediately appreciated.

Artillery Lieutenant Count L.N. Tolstoy fought here. Then he published the documentary “Sevastopol Stories” and immediately became the “whale” of Russian literature.

The graves of three admirals in Sevastopol, in the Vladimir Cathedral-burial vault, are considered city amulets - the city is invincible as long as they are with it. The symbol that now adorns the new 200-ruble banknote is also considered a symbol.

Every autumn, the surroundings of the hero city are shaken by cannonade - this is where historical reconstructions take place at the battle sites (Balaklavsky, and others). Participants in historical clubs not only demonstrate equipment and uniforms of those times, but also act out the most striking episodes of clashes.

At the sites of the most significant battles, monuments to the dead were erected (at different times) and archaeological research is being conducted. Their goal is to become more familiar with the life of a soldier.

The British and French willingly take part in reconstructions and excavations. There are monuments to them - after all, they are also heroes in their own way, and that confrontation was not entirely fair for anyone. And in general, the war is over.

The war between the Russian im-pe-ri-ey and the koa-li-tsi-ey countries (Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-nia, France, Osman-skaya im-pe -ria and Sar-din-ko-ro-lion-st-vo), caused by the collision-but-ve-ni-em of their in-te-re-sov in the basin-not Black -th m., on Kav-ka-ze and Bal-ka-nakh. Og-ra-ni-chen-nye military. the action was carried out in the same way on Bal-ti-ka, Bel-lom and the Pacific Ocean.

K ser. 19th century Great Britain and France have you cut Russia off from nearby markets and under your influence -the Osman Empire. Ross. right spheres of influence in the Middle East, and then decided to restore the ut-ra-chen positions with direct pressure on the OS -man-sky im-per-ria. Great Britain and France are helping to re-establish the conflict, counting on the os-la beat Russia and seize Crimea, the Caucasus and other territories from it. Formal in-house for K. v. were there disputes between the right-to-glorious and some-lich. spirit-ho-ven-st-vom because of the Holy places in Pa-les-sti-ne, which are under the protection of Russia and France, but in fact it was about the establishment of a pre-ob-la-giving influence on the OS-lab-len-naya Os-man- Empire, which was hoping for help from the West. countries in maintaining state dominion in Balkans. In Feb. 1853 Extraordinary Envoy of the Emperor. No-bark I adm. A. S. Men-shi-kov demanded from Port-you to confirm the expectation of the pro-tek-ra-ta of Russia over all the rights of glory -mi in the Os-man Empire. Under-keep-li-vae-my Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-ni-ey and France tour. pra-vi-tel-st-vo from-klo-ni-lo grew. but-that and gave-lo permission to enter the English-French. es-kad-ry in the Dar-da-nel-ly strait. In connection with this, Russia is ra-zo-ra-la di-plo-ma-tich. from the Ottoman Empire and on June 21 (July 3) sent troops into the Danube princes - Mol-da-viyu and Wa-la-hiyu. Sub-der-zhan-ny Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-ni-ey and France, tour. sul-tan Ab-dul-Med-jid 27 Sep. (Oct. 9) you're growing up. troops from the principalities, and 4(16) Oct. announced a war with Russia on October 20. (1 Nov.) in turn, announced the war of the Ottoman Empire. By the beginning of the war, the Danube princes were growing up. army (83 thousand people) under command. gene. from art. M. D. Gor-cha-ko-va (from 1854 - Field General I. F. Pas-ke-vi-cha). In Kav-ka-ze it means. part grew up troops were involved in the Caucasus War of 1817-64, and to cover the Russian tour. borders of the sfor-mi-ro-van 30-thousandth building (general-l. V. O. Be-but-tov). In Crimea, hand in hand. Men-shi-ko-va, na-know-no-go co-manager of the Crimean AR-mi-ey and the Black Sea Fleet, na-ho-di- elk only 19 thousand people. In zap. region for covering the Russian-Austrian borders and in the north of the pas deux a large contingent of troops (256 thousand people) was left, still approx. 500 thousand people wasp-ta-va-elk inside. regions of Russia.

They didn’t have any specific plans for waging a war against them. Ross. The government believed that one’s goals could be achieved de-mon-st-ra-tsi-ey. strength, that’s why after entering the Danube, the princes did not undertake any active actions -lo. This gave the Ottoman Empire the opportunity to complete its strategy. deployment of your army by the end of September. Basic power tour. troops (143 thousand people) under command. Omer-pa-shi (Austrian Lat-tas, who transferred to the Turkish service) were with-the-to-the-people on Du-nai- com theater of operations. To the Caucasus. The theater of operations of the Ana-to-liy army of Ab-di-pa-shi (approx. 100 thousand people). Despite the numerical superiority, the tour. co-man-do-wa-nie expected to enter into the war with-yuz-ni-kov, that’s why in the campaign of 1853 on Du-nai- com theater of operations military action-st-viya shi-ro-ko-go time-ma-ha not po-lu-chi-li. To the Caucasus. Military theater of operations the action began in October. 1853 out-of-west on-pas-de-ni-em and grab-that tour. howl-ska-mi grew. according to St. Nicholas. Ch. power tour. army under command. Ab-di-pa-shi (approx. 20 thousand people) is on-stu-pa-li on Alek-san-d-ro-pol (Gyum-ri), and the 18-thousandth building is Ali-pa-shi - to Akhal-tsikh. In the battles near Ba-yan-du-ra (near Alek-san-d-ro-po-lem) and near Akhal-tsi-kh the re-do-vye grew in rows. troops launched a tour. howl-skam and os-ta-no-vi-li their pro-movement. In the Bash-ka-dyk-lar-sky battle of 1853, there was thunder. power tour. army on Kav-ka-ze. Ross. Black Sea Fleet from the na-cha-la K. century. us-on-foot-but act-st-vo-val on the sea. com-mu-ni-ka-tsi-yah pro-tiv-ni-ka, block-ki-ro-val tour. fleet in ports. Ross. es-kad-ra under command. Vice Adm. P.S. Na-hi-mo-va 18(30) Nov. in the Si-nop battle of 1853, the tour was completely destroyed. es-kad-ru. This one grew up. the fleet won dominance on the Black Sea and lost the tour. troops on Kav-ka-ze support from the sea. At the same time, military. the weakness of the Osman Empire before the op-re-de-li-la entry into the war of Vel-li-ko-bri-ta-nia and France , which on December 23, 1853 (January 4, 1854) brought the united allied fleet into the Black Sea. Pro-test of Russia against na-ru-she-niya between-zh-du-nar. the convention about the pro-li-you was rejected, growing up. government ra-zo-ra-lo di-plo-ma-tich. relations with these countries.

In the 1854 campaign on the Danube theater of operations, he grew up. co-man-do-va-nie pre-pri-nya-lo to try to up-re-dit with-yuz-ni-kov, destroy the tour. army and change the course of the war. Military the action began on March 11 (23) pere-re-right growing up. troops at one time in the areas of Brai-lo-va, Ga-la-tsa and Iz-mail-la, captured by Isak-chi, Tul-chi, Ma-chi-na , and then Gir-so-vo. The people of Bol-garia grew up with great greetings. voy-ska as os-vo-bo-di-te-ley from the tour. yoke. All in. In Greece, an anti-Turkish revolt flared up, one-on-the-far-neck on-the-station grew. the troops were present, but because of the unresolvedness of M.D. Gor-cha-ko-va. Only on May 4 (16), by order of the imp. No-barking I began to besiege Si-li-st-rii. Pro-vo-loch-ki with the beginning of the campaign to call Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-nii and France to formalize a military li-tich. co-union, develop a plan for joint actions and complete the preparation of ex-pedic. troops. 15-16(27-28). 3.1854 these countries declared war on Russia and Russian tourism. war-na per-re-ros-la in war-well Russia with koa-li-tsi-ey europe. states English-French fleet (34 line ships, 55 fri-ga-tov, mainly pa-rus-but-pa-ro-vye with vin-you-mov-ga-te-la -mi), transferred to active actions on the Black Sea, subjected Odessa and other coastal cities to fire ro-yes, blo-ki-ro-val grew. fleet (14 pa-rus-line ships and 6 fri-gates; 6 pa-ro-ho-dof-re-ga-tov) in Se-va-sto-po-le. At the beginning of April. 1854 Austria together with Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-ni-ey and France you-mov-nu-la ul-ti-ma-tiv-nye tr -bo-va-niya, under Prussian control, grew up according to you. troops from Mol-da-via and Wa-la-hia. I grew up tortured. di-pl-ma-tov do-beat-xia so-gla-sia europ. countries did not have the right to withdraw their fleet from the Black Sea in exchange for accepting their conditions. By the end of August it was growing. ar-miya po-ki-nu-la for-my ter-ri-to-rii, which were ok-ku-pi-ro-va-ny av-st-rii- tsa-mi.

In ju-ne - ju-le ang-lo-fran-co-tour. ex-pedic. troops (62 thousand people, 134 left and 114 siege weapons) under command. French mar-sha-la A. Zh.L. Saint-Arno et Brit. gene. F.J. Rag-la-na met on Wednesday in Var-na, and on September 1-6 (13-18). you were in the Ev-pa-to-riy bay. Attempting to promote the movement against the same river. Al-ma (see Al-min battle of 1854) brought to the age of growth. army, which-paradise went to Se-va-sto-po-lyu, and then to the region of Bakh-chi-sa-paradise, os-ta-viv Se -va-sto-pol without the cover of ground troops. Troops from allied forces approached the city from the south. English-li-cha-not for-hva-ti-li Ba-lak-la-vu, but the French-tsu-zy - Ka-we-sho-wuy bay, where you were created -low bases for ensuring subsequent combat operations. In Se-va-sto-po-le 13(25) September. a siege was announced, the Seva-hundred-Polish defense began in 1854-55. Trying to co-man-do-va-niya to grab Se-va-sto-pol after the 9-day art. the shoot-la, on Oct. 5 (17), ended in failure. The fire grew. ba-ta-ray caused significant damage to the siege art-til-le-ria and co-slaves against-tiv-ka, which for-sta-vi-lo Rag-la- on and gen. F. Kan-ro-be-ra (behind-me-niv-she-go Saint-Ar-no) to stop the assault. Ross. military 13(25) Oct. before-trying to grab the uk-re-p-linen base English. troops in the Ba-lak-la-vy area. Chor-gun detachment (general-l. P.P. Li-p-ran-di) under the cover of the general-m. OP. ka-va-le-rii, one-at-a-time develop tak-tich. suc-infantry failed. The new, general-ny, assault on Se-va-sto-po-lya, na-zn-chen-ny so-yuz-ni-ka-mi on 6 (18) Nov., was torn down by the Inkerman battle in 1854, in which, despite the age, he grew up. troops, the enemy's nickname means. then, and, depending on the assault, went to the long-term wasp of the city.

To the Caucasus. Theater of operations of the Turks with a number of up to 120 thousand people. and in May 1854 they moved to the na-stu-p-le-nie on Alek-san-d-ro-pol-sky and Ku-ta-is-sky on-right-le-ni-yah pro- tive 40-thousand-no-go kor-pu-sa V. O. Be-bu-to-va. Ch. strength of the corps (18 thousand people) at this time from the invasion into the East. Georgia from a number of mountaineers under the leadership of Sha-mi-la. Despite this, I grew up. military, acting department. from-rya-da-mi, raz-gro-mi-li tu-rock on the river. Cho-rokh, in the Kyu-ryuk-Da-rin battle of 1854 and for-nya-li Baya-zet.

In the spring of 1854, military operations began on the Baltic Sea, where the English were right. and French es-kad-ry under command. vi-tse-ad-mi-ra-lov Ch. Ney-pi-ra and A.F. Par-se-val-De-she-na (11 wines and 15 pa-rus-nyh lines- ney-nyh co-workers, 32 pa-ro-ho-do-f-re-ga-ta and 7 pa-rus-nyh fre-ga-tov). Balt. the fleet consisted of 26 sailing ships, 25 frigates and ships, of which only 11 were pa-ro-you-mi. For the defense of bases from the sea, it grew. The seas are using mines for the first time. 4(16) Aug. against-no-ku managed to ov-la-det main. grew up uk-re-p-le-ni-em on the Aland Islands - Bo-mar-zun-dom. When you tried to help others, you failed. In the autumn of 1854, the joint-union co-slavery of the Baltic Sea. In the north in 1854 several times. English and French the slaves entered Beloye m. and tried to attack the So-lovets islands without success. In the Far East in August. 1854 English-French es-kad-ra pre-pri-nya-la tort-ku ov-la-children by Pe-tro-Pav-lov-skiy Port (see Pe-tro-pav-lov-ska ob-ro-ro- to 1854). One day, after enduring the same, the joint es-kad-ra left the shores of Kam-chat-ki. The combat operations in these theaters of operations had a second-rate meaning, the alliance pre- sed the target for-sta- Vit grew up co-man-do-va-nie to divert their strength from ch. te-at-ra - Crimea. In de-cab-re to the enemy Russia, English-lo-French. Austria was included in the coalition (see Vienna Union Treaty of 1854), once in the military. no participation in the de-st-vi-yah.

14(26).1.1855, at the request of France, the Sardinian co-state entered the war, on the right-hand side of the Crimea 15-thousandth building (gen. A. La Mar-mo-ra). I grew up in February. co-man-do-va-nie before-at-the-unsuccessful torture of ov-la-deal Ev-pa-to-ri-ey, after which I entered - on the throne of the imp. Alexander II removed from one hundred commands. Crimean Ar-mi-ey (128 thousand people, including 43 thousand people in Se-va-sto-po-le) A. S. Men-shi-ko-va and na- meant instead of M.D. Gor-cha-ko-va. However, after changing the management, I could no longer manage the affairs. During the spring and summer of 1855, the Union troops (175 thousand people) conducted 5 multi-precise artillery. about-fishing and pre-pri-nya-several. storm-mov Se-va-sto-po-la. In the re-zul-ta-those of the next of them, Aug. 27. (Sept. 8) was for the key position in the system of ob-ro-ny Se-va-sto-po-la - Ma-la- hov kur-gan. Ross. co-man-do-va-nie when deciding to leave the city and move to the north. shore of Se-va-sto-pol-skoy bay. The remaining co-slaves would have been for-the-p-lens. Os-lab-len-nye allied troops, having captured the south. part of the city, couldn't you continue to press on the st-p-le-nie.

On the Baltic Sea in 1855 act-st-vo-va-li English-lo-French. es-kad-ry (20 vin-to-vyh li-nyh co-workers, 32 pa-ro-ho-dof-re-ga-ta and cor-ve-ta, 18 other courts ) under command. counter-ad-mi-ra-lov R. Dan-da-sa and Sh. Pe-no. After the digging of several cows, we grew up. mi-nah at Kron-stadt did not show any active nickname. His actions are mainly the og-ra-ni-chi-va-lis the block-ka-doy and the arrows at the be-re-zhya. At the end of July, he unsuccessfully tried to seize Gel-sing-fors (Hel-sin-ki) and the Svea fortress that covered him -borg. Towards the end of November English-French. es-kad-ry po-ki-nu-li Bal-tiyskoye metro. On Bel-lom metro. 6 ko-rab-lei so-yuz-ni-kov in July - September-Tyab-re or blockade actions, the effectiveness of which was not significant. To the Caucasus. The theater of operations in May began at the stage. forces Dept. Kavk. kor-pu-sa (gen. from inf. N. N. Murav-ev; 40 thousand people) in Er-zu-rum-sky on the right-hand side and the next one blah-ka-da 33-thousand-th round. gar-ni-zo-na in the fortress of Kars. You are a garden on the Black Sea coastline of Kav-ka-za tour. ex-pedic. corps-pu-sa Omer-pa-shi (45 thousand people) and his march from Su-hu-ma with the aim of de-blo-ka-dy Kar-sa us- didn't have any trouble. Li-shen-ny support-ki gar-ni-zon kre-po-sti 16 (28) Nov. ka-pi-tu-li-ro-val. Omer-pa-sha with os-tat-ka-mi raz-throm-len-no-go kor-pu-sa went to Su-hu-mu, from where in February. 1856 on ships eva-kui-ro-val-xia to Turkey. The road to Er-zu-rum turned out to be open, but the arrival of winter and difficulties with the supply of freedom I wasn't allowed to grow up. howl-skam pro-long-live on-stu-p-le-nie. By this time, no military. and eco-no-mich. perhaps the sides would have been practically used, military. the action ceased on all theaters of operations. After the death of imp. No-co-barking I re-re-go-vo-ry in Vienna, and on March 18 (30), 1856 the Peace of Paris of 1856 was signed, summing up the outcome of the Crimean War.

Po-ra-zhe-nie in K. century. it was obu-slov-le-but eco-no-mich. and military from the hundred-year-old Russia, a huge building behind the bu-ro-kra-ti-zi-ditch. ap-pa-rat state The administration was unable to ensure that the country was prepared for war, and errors grew. Di-pl-m-tii pri-ve-li to po-li-tich. isolation of Russia. The war was an important stage in the development of the military. lawsuit After her, the armies of most countries were based on cut-weapons, the Russian navy was replaced by pa-ro -you m. During the K. century. about-the-ru-lived the in-consistency of the so-ti-ki-co-lonn, the-lu-chi-di-development of the so-ti-ka shooter. chain and element-men-you in a nutshell. wars. Re-zul-ta-you K. v. obu-slo-vi-li pro-ve-de-nie eco-no-mich., social-ci-al-nyh and military. reforms in Russia. After all, I grew up. army during the war with St. 522 thousand people, two-rock - approx. 400 thousand people, French call - 95 thousand people, English-li-chan - 22 thousand people.

Crimean War (Eastern War), war between Russia and the coalition of Great Britain, France, Turkey and Sardinia for dominance in the Middle East. By the middle of the 19th century. Great Britain and France ousted Russia from the Middle Eastern markets and brought Turkey under their influence. Emperor Nicholas I unsuccessfully tried to negotiate with Great Britain on the division of spheres of influence in the Middle East, and then decided to restore lost positions by direct pressure on Turkey. Great Britain and France contributed to the escalation of the conflict, hoping to weaken Russia and seize Crimea, the Caucasus and other territories from it. The pretext for the war was a dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy in 1852 over the ownership of “holy places” in Palestine. In February 1853, Nicholas I sent Ambassador Extraordinary A.S. Menshikov to Constantinople, who issued an ultimatum demanding that the Orthodox subjects of the Turkish Sultan be placed under the special protection of the Russian Tsar. The tsarist government counted on the support of Prussia and Austria and considered an alliance between Great Britain and France impossible.

However, the English Prime Minister J. Palmerston, fearing the strengthening of Russia, agreed to an agreement with the French Emperor Napoleon III on joint actions against Russia. In May 1853, the Turkish government rejected the Russian ultimatum, and Russia broke off diplomatic relations with Turkey. With the consent of Turkey, an Anglo-French squadron entered the Dardanelles. On June 21 (July 3), Russian troops entered the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, which were under the nominal sovereignty of the Turkish Sultan. Supported by Great Britain and France, the Sultan on September 27 (October 9) demanded the cleansing of the principalities, and on October 4 (16), 1853 he declared war on Russia.

Against 82 thousand. Türkiye deployed almost 150 thousand troops to the army of General M.D. Gorchakov on the Danube. Omer Pasha's army, but attacks by Turkish troops at Cetati, Zhurzhi and Calarash were repulsed. Russian artillery destroyed the Turkish Danube flotilla. In Transcaucasia, the Turkish army of Abdi Pasha (about 100 thousand people) was opposed by the weak garrisons of Akhaltsikhe, Akhalkalaki, Alexandropol and Erivan (about 5 thousand), since the main forces of the Russian troops were busy fighting the highlanders (see Caucasian War of 1817 -64). An infantry division (16 thousand) was hastily transferred from Crimea by sea and 10 thousand were formed. Armenian-Georgian militia, which made it possible to concentrate 30 thousand troops under the command of General V. O. Bebutov. The main forces of the Turks (about 40 thousand) moved to Alexandropol, and their Ardahan detachment (18 thousand) tried to break through the Borjomi Gorge to Tiflis, but was repulsed, and on November 14 (26) they were defeated near Akhaltsikhe by 7 thousand. detachment of General I.M. Andronnikov. On November 19 (December 1), Bebutov’s troops (10 thousand) defeated the main Turkish forces (36 thousand) at Bashkadyklar.

The Russian Black Sea Fleet blocked Turkish ships in ports. On November 18 (30), a squadron under the command of Vice Admiral P. S. Nakhimov destroyed the Turkish Black Sea Fleet in the Battle of Sinop 1853. Turkey's defeats accelerated the entry of Great Britain and France into the war. On December 23, 1853 (January 4, 1854), the Anglo-French fleet entered the Black Sea. On February 9 (21), Russia declared war on Great Britain and France. On March 11 (23), 1854, Russian troops crossed the Danube at Brailov, Galati and Izmail and concentrated in Northern Dobruja. On April 10 (22), the Anglo-French squadron bombarded Odessa. In June - July, Anglo-French troops landed in Varna, and the superior forces of the Anglo-French-Turkish fleet (34 battleships and 55 frigates, including most steam ships) blocked the Russian fleet (14 linear sailing ships, 6 frigates and 6 steamships). frigates) in Sevastopol. Russia was significantly inferior to Western European countries in the field of military equipment. Its fleet consisted mainly of outdated sailing ships, its army was armed mainly with short-range flintlock shotguns, while the Allies were armed with rifles. The threat of intervention in the war on the side of the anti-Russian coalition of Austria, Prussia and Sweden forced Russia to keep the main army forces on its western borders.

On the Danube, Russian troops besieged the fortress of Silistria on May 5 (17), but due to the hostile position of Austria, on June 9 (21), the commander-in-chief of the Russian army, Field Marshal I. F. Paskevich, gave the order to withdraw beyond the Danube. At the beginning of July, 3 French divisions moved from Varna to cover the Russian troops, but a cholera epidemic forced them to return. By September 1854, Russian troops retreated beyond the river. Prut and the principalities were occupied by Austrian troops.

In the Baltic Sea, the Anglo-French squadrons of Vice Admiral Charles Napier and Vice Admiral A.F. Parseval-Deschene (11 screw and 15 sailing battleships, 32 steam frigates and 7 sailing frigates) blocked the Russian Baltic Fleet (26 sailing battleships ships, 9 steam frigates and 9 sailing frigates) in Kronstadt and Sveaborg. Not daring to attack these bases due to Russian minefields, which were used for the first time in combat, the Allies began a blockade of the coast and bombarded a number of settlements in Finland. July 26 (August 7) ​​1854 11 thousand. The Anglo-French landing force landed on the Åland Islands and besieged Bomarsund, which surrendered after the destruction of the fortifications. Attempts by other landings (in Ekenes, Ganga, Gamlakarleby and Abo) ended in failure. In the fall of 1854, the allied squadrons left the Baltic Sea. On the White Sea, English ships bombarded Kola and the Solovetsky Monastery in 1854, but the attempt to attack Arkhangelsk failed. The garrison of Petropavlovsk-on-Kamchatka under the command of Major General V. S. Zavoiko on August 18-24 (August 30 - September 5), 1854, repelled the attack of the Anglo-French squadron, defeating the landing party (see Peter and Paul Defense of 1854).

In Transcaucasia, the Turkish army under the command of Mustafa Zarif Pasha was strengthened to 120 thousand people and in May 1854 went on the offensive against 40 thousand. Bebutov's Russian corps. June 4(16) 34 thousand. The Batumi Turkish detachment was defeated in a battle on the river. Choroh 13-thousand Andronnikov’s detachment, and on July 17 (29), Russian troops (3.5 thousand) defeated 20 thousand in an oncoming battle at the Chingil Pass. The Bayazet detachment occupied Bayazet on July 19 (31). Bebutov's main forces (18 thousand) were delayed by the invasion of Eastern Georgia by Shamil's troops and went on the offensive only in July. At the same time, the main Turkish forces (60 thousand) moved towards Alexandropol. On July 24 (August 5) at Kuryuk-Dara, the Turkish army was defeated and ceased to exist as an active fighting force.

On September 2 (14), 1854, the allied fleet began landing near Evpatoria with 62 thousand. Anglo-French-Turkish army. Russian troops in Crimea under the command of Menshikov (33.6 thousand) were defeated on the river. Alma and retreated to Sevastopol, and then to Bakhchisarai, leaving Sevastopol to the mercy of fate. At the same time, Marshal A. Saint-Arnaud and General F. J. Raglan, who commanded the allied army, did not dare to attack the northern side of Sevastopol, undertook a roundabout maneuver and, having missed Menshikov’s troops on the march, approached Sevastopol from the south with 18 thousand sailors and soldiers at the head with Vice Admiral V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov, they took up defensive positions, launching the construction of fortifications with the help of the population. To protect the approaches from the sea at the entrance to Sevastopol Bay, several old ships were sunk, the crews and guns from which were sent to fortifications. The 349-day heroic defense of Sevastopol 1854-55 began.

The first bombardment of Sevastopol on October 5 (17) did not reach its target, which forced Raglan and General F. Canrobert (who replaced the deceased Saint-Arnaud) to postpone the assault. Menshikov, having received reinforcements, tried to attack the enemy from the rear in October, but in the Battle of Balaklava 1854 success was not developed, and in the Battle of Inkerman 1854 Russian troops were defeated.

In 1854, diplomatic negotiations between the warring parties were held in Vienna through the mediation of Austria. Great Britain and France, as peace conditions, demanded a ban on Russia keeping a navy in the Black Sea, Russia’s renunciation of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia and claims to patronage of the Sultan’s Orthodox subjects, as well as “freedom of navigation” on the Danube (i.e., deprivation of Russia access to its mouths). On December 2 (14), Austria announced an alliance with Great Britain and France. On December 28 (January 9, 1855) a conference of the ambassadors of Great Britain, France, Austria and Russia opened, but the negotiations did not produce results and were interrupted in April 1855.

On January 14 (26), 1855, Sardinia entered the war, sending 15 thousand people to the Crimea. frame. 35 thousand concentrated in Yevpatoria. Turkish corps of Omer Pasha. 5(17) February 19 th. the detachment of General S.A. Khrulev tried to take control of Yevpatoria, but the assault was repulsed. Menshikov was replaced by General M.D. Gorchakov.

On March 28 (April 9), the 2nd bombardment of Sevastopol began, revealing the overwhelming superiority of the Allies in the amount of ammunition. But the heroic resistance of the defenders of Sevastopol forced the allies to postpone the assault again. Canrobert was replaced by General J. Pelissier, a supporter of active action. 12(24) May 16 thousand. The French corps landed in Kerch. Allied ships devastated the Azov coast, but their landings near Arabat, Genichesk and Taganrog were repulsed. In May, the Allies carried out the 3rd bombardment of Sevastopol and drove Russian troops out of the advanced fortifications. On June 6 (18), after the 4th bombardment, an assault was launched on the bastions of the Ship Side, but it was repulsed. On August 4 (16), Russian troops attacked the Allied positions on the river. Black, but were thrown back. Pelissier and General Simpson (who replaced the deceased Raglan) carried out the 5th bombardment, and on August 27 (September 8), after the 6th bombardment, they began a general assault on Sevastopol. After the fall of Malakhov Kurgan, Russian troops left the city on the evening of August 27 and crossed to the North Side. The remaining ships were sunk.

In the Baltic in 1855, the Anglo-French fleet under the command of Admiral R. Dundas and C. Penaud limited itself to blockading the coast and bombarding Sveaborg and other cities. On the Black Sea, the Allies landed troops in Novorossiysk and occupied Kinburn. On the Pacific coast, the Allied landing at De-Kastri Bay was repelled.

In Transcaucasia, the corps of General N. N. Muravyov (about 40 thousand) in the spring of 1855 pushed back the Bayazet and Ardagan Turkish detachments to Erzurum and blocked 33 thousand. garrison of Kars. To save Kars, the Allies landed 45 thousand troops in Sukhum. Omer Pasha's corps, but he met October 23-25 ​​(November 4-6) on the river. Inguri stubborn resistance of the Russian detachment of General I.K. Bagration-Mukhransky, who then stopped the enemy on the river. Tskhenistskali. A partisan movement of the Georgian and Abkhaz population unfolded in the Turkish rear. On November 16 (28), the garrison of Kars capitulated. Omer Pasha went to Sukhum, from where he was evacuated to Turkey in February 1856.

At the end of 1855, hostilities virtually ceased, and negotiations resumed in Vienna. Russia did not have trained reserves, there was a shortage of weapons, ammunition, food, and financial resources, the anti-serfdom peasant movement was growing, intensified due to the massive recruitment into the militia, and the liberal-noble opposition intensified. The position of Sweden, Prussia and especially Austria, which threatened war, became increasingly hostile. In this situation, tsarism was forced to make concessions. On March 18 (30), the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 was signed, according to which Russia agreed to neutralize the Black Sea with a ban on having a navy and bases there, ceded the southern part of Bessarabia to Turkey, pledged not to build fortifications on the Åland Islands and recognized the protectorate of the great powers over Moldova, Wallachia and Serbia. The Crimean War was unjust and aggressive on both sides.

The Crimean War was an important stage in the development of military art. After it, all armies were re-equipped with rifled weapons and the sailing fleet was replaced by steam. During the war, the inconsistency of column tactics was revealed, and rifle chain tactics and elements of trench warfare were developed. The experience of the Crimean War was used in carrying out military reforms in the 1860-70s. in Russia and was widely used in wars of the 2nd half of the 19th century.

(material prepared on the basis of fundamental works
Russian historians N.M. Karamzin, N.I. Kostomarov,
V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.M. Solovyov, and others...)

The entry into the Russian-Turkish war of France, Sardinia and England on the side of Turkey after the famous Battle of Sinop determined the transfer of armed clashes to land, to Crimea. With the beginning of the campaign in Crimea, the war of 1853-1856. acquired a defensive character for Russia. The Allies deployed almost 90 warships (mostly steam-powered) in the Black Sea against Russia, while the Black Sea squadron consisted of about 20 sailing and 6 steam-powered ships. There was no point in a naval confrontation - the superiority of the coalition forces was obvious.

In September 1854, allied troops landed near Yevpatoria. On September 8, 1854, the Russian army under the command of A.S. Menshikova was defeated at the Alma River. It seemed that the path to Sevastopol was open. In connection with the increased threat of the capture of Sevastopol, the Russian command decided to scuttle part of the Black Sea fleet at the entrance to the city’s large bay in order to prevent enemy ships from entering there. The guns were first removed to strengthen the coastal artillery. The city itself did not give up. On September 13, 1854, the defense of Sevastopol began, lasting 349 days - until August 28 (September 8), 1855.

Admirals V.A. played a huge role in the defense of the city. Kornilov, V.I. Istomin, P.S. Nakhimov. Vice Admiral Vladimir Alekseevich Kornilov became the commander of the defense of Sevastopol. Under his command there were about 18,000 people (later the number would be increased to 85,000), mainly from naval commands. Kornilov was well aware of the size of the Anglo-French-Turkish landing force, numbering 62,000 people (later the number would reach 148,000) with 134 field and 73 siege guns. By September 24, the French occupied the Fedyukhin Heights, and the British entered Balaklava.

In Sevastopol, under the supervision of engineer E.I. Totleben, engineering work was carried out - forts were erected, redoubts were strengthened, and trenches were created. The southern part of the city was more fortified. The Allies did not dare to storm the city and began engineering work, but successful forays from Sevastopol did not allow the construction of the siege fortifications to be completed quickly.

Sevastopol was subjected to the first major bombardment on October 5, 1854, after which its assault was planned. However, the well-aimed response from Russian batteries thwarted these plans. But on this day Kornilov died.

The main forces of the Russian army under the command of Menshikov undertook a series of unsuccessful attack operations. The first was carried out on October 13 on the approaches to Balaklava. This attack did not have any strategic gain, but during the battle almost an entire brigade of British light cavalry was killed. On October 24, another battle took place in the area of ​​​​the Inkerman Heights, which was lost due to the indecisiveness of the Russian generals.

On October 17, 1854, the Allies began shelling Sevastopol from land and sea. The bastions also responded with fire. Only the British were able to achieve success, acting against the third bastion of Sevastopol. Russian losses amounted to 1,250 people. In general, the defenders continued the tactics of night raids and surprise raids. The famous Pyotr Koshka and Ignatius Shevchenko, with their courage and heroism, have repeatedly proven how high the price the enemy will have to pay for invading Russian spaces.

Sailor of the 1st article of the 30th naval Black Sea crew Pyotr Markovich Koshka (1828-1882) became one of the main heroes of the city’s defense. At the beginning of the Sevastopol defense, P. Koshka was assigned to one of the batteries of the Ship side. He was distinguished by extraordinary courage and resourcefulness. By the beginning of 1855, he made 18 forays into enemy positions, most often acting alone. A verbal portrait of him has been preserved: “Average height, lean, but strong with an expressive high-cheekbone face... A little pockmarked, light brown hair, gray eyes, did not know how to read and write.” In January 1855, he already proudly wore “George” in his buttonhole. After leaving the southern part of the city, he was “dismissed due to injury on a long vacation.” They remembered Koshka in August 1863 and called him to serve in the Baltic, in the 8th naval crew. There, at the request of another hero of Sevastopol, General S.A. Khrulev he received another “George” of the second degree. On the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the defense of Sevastopol, monuments to him were unveiled in Koshka’s homeland and in Sevastopol itself, and one of the city streets was named after him.

The heroism of the defenders of Sevastopol was massive. Sevastopol women, under enemy fire, bandaged the wounded, brought food and water, and repaired clothes. The chronicle of this defense includes the names of Dasha Sevastopol, Praskovya Grafova and many others. Dasha Sevastopolskaya was the first sister of mercy and became a legend. For a long time, her real name was not known, and only recently it became clear that Dasha was an orphan - the daughter of the sailor Lavrenty Mikhailov who died in the Battle of Sinop. In November 1854, “for exemplary diligence in caring for the sick and wounded,” she received a Gold Medal with the inscription “For Diligence” on the Vladimir Ribbon and 500 silver rubles. It was also announced that when she got married, she would be “given another 1,000 rubles in silver for the establishment.” In July 1855, Daria married sailor Maxim Vasilyevich Khvorostov, with whom they fought side by side until the end of the Crimean War. Her further fate is unknown and is still awaiting research.

Surgeon N.I. provided invaluable assistance to the defenders. Pirogov, who saved the lives of thousands of wounded. The great Russian writer L.N. also took part in the defense of Sevastopol. Tolstoy, who described these events in the series “Sevastopol Stories”.

Despite the heroism and courage of the city’s defenders, the hardships and hunger of the Anglo-French army (the winter of 1854-1855 was very harsh, and the November storm scattered the allied fleet in the Balaklava roadstead, destroying several ships with supplies of weapons, winter uniforms and food) It was impossible to change the general situation - it was impossible to unblock the city or effectively help it.

On March 19, 1855, during the next bombing of the city, Istomin died, and on June 28, 1855, while detouring the advanced fortifications on the Malakhov kugran, Nakhimov was mortally wounded. The circumstances of his death are truly tragic. The officers begged him to leave the mound, which was under heavy fire. “Not every bullet is in the forehead,” the admiral answered them, and these were his last words: the next second a stray bullet hit him in the forehead. An outstanding Russian naval commander, Admiral Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov (1802-1855) actively participated in the defense of Sevastopol, commanding the defense of the strategically important southern side of the city. Shortly before his death, he was awarded the rank of admiral. Nakhimov was buried in the Vladimir Cathedral in Sevastopol. Ships of the Russian fleet and naval schools in Sevastopol and St. Petersburg bear his name. In 1944, in memory of the admiral, an order named after him in two degrees and a medal were established.

Attempts by the Russian ground army to distract the enemy ended in failure in battles, in particular on February 5, 1855 at Yevpatoria. The immediate result of this failure was the dismissal of Menshikov from the post of commander in chief and the appointment of M.D. Gorchakova. Note that this was the last order of the emperor, who died on February 19, 1855. Overcoming a severe flu, the sovereign “remained in service” to the end, visiting marching battalions in the bitter cold that were leaving for the theater of war. “If I were a simple soldier, would you pay attention to this ill health?” he remarked to the protest of his life doctors. “In all of Your Majesty’s army, there is not a doctor who would allow a soldier in such a situation to be discharged from the hospital,” replied Dr. Carrel. “You have fulfilled your duty,” the emperor replied, “let me fulfill my duty.”

On August 27, the last shelling of the city began. In less than a day, the defenders lost from 2.5 to 3 thousand killed. After a two-day massive bombardment, on August 28 (September 8), 1855, the French troops of General MacMahon, with the support of English and Sardinian units, began a decisive assault on the Malakhov Kurgan, which ended with the capture of the heights dominating the city. The fate of the Malakhov Kurgan was decided by the persistence of MacMahon, who, in response to the order of Commander-in-Chief Pelissier to retreat, replied: “I’m staying here.” Of the eighteen French generals who went on the assault, 5 were killed and 11 were wounded.

Realizing the gravity of the current situation, General Gorchakov gave the order to retreat from the city. And on the night of August 27-28, the last defenders of the city, having blown up the powder magazines and sank the ships there in the bay, left the city. The Allies thought that Sevastopol was mined and did not dare to enter it until August 30. During the 11-month siege, the Allies lost about 70,000 people. Russian losses - 83,500 people.

Important memories of the defense of Sevastopol were left by Theophyllus Klemm, whose ancestors in the 18th century. came to Russia from Germany. His story is strikingly different from the memoirs written by representatives of the aristocratic strata of Russia, since a significant part of his memories are devoted to the everyday life of a soldier and the difficulties of camp life.

“A lot has been written and spoken about this Sevastopol life, but my words will not be superfluous, as a living participant in this glorious combat life for the Russian soldier in this bloody feast, not in the position of a white-handed woman, like those writers and talkers who know everything from hearsay, but a real laborer-soldier, who was in the ranks and did, along with the other guys, everything that was humanly possible.

You used to sit in a trench and look into a small embrasure, what was happening in front of your nose, you couldn’t stick your head out, they’d take it away now, without such cover, it was impossible to shoot. Our soldiers had fun, they hung their hats on the ramrod and pulled them out from behind the trench rim, and the French riflemen shot it into the sieve. It used to happen that every now and then there would be a click somewhere, a soldier would fall down, hit in the forehead, his neighbor would turn his head, cross himself, spit, and continue his business - firing somewhere, as if nothing had happened. The corpse will be placed somewhere to the side so that it does not interfere with walking along the trench, and so, dear, it lies until the shift - at night the comrades will drag it into the redoubt, and from the redoubt into the brotherly pit, and when the pit is filled with the required number of bodies, they will fall asleep first, if there is, with lime, but if not, with earth - and the matter is settled.

After such a school you will become a real soldier in blood and bones, and I bow deeply to every such combat soldier. And what a charm he is in wartime, you can find whatever you want in him, when you need it, he is good-natured, warm-hearted, when you need it, he is a lion. With my own feeling for his endurance and good qualities as a soldier, I love him with my soul and heart. Without pretensions, without special demands, patient, indifferent to death, efficient, despite obstacles and danger. I believe that only the Russian soldier is capable of anything, I speak from what I have seen and past.”

Despite the fact that English rifled guns hit almost three times further than Russian smooth-bore guns, the defenders of Sevastopol repeatedly proved that technical equipment is far from the most important thing in comparison with combat courage and bravery. But in general, the Crimean War and the defense of Sevastopol demonstrated the technical backwardness of the army of the Russian Empire and the need for change.