The world-historical significance of the artistic culture of Ancient Greece. Ideals of beauty in the ensemble of the Acropolis, the social and cultural center of Greek civilization. The Greek temple is an architectural image of the union of people and gods. The Acropolis of Athens as an expression and

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Ancient Greek architecture had a huge influence on the architecture of subsequent eras. Its basic concepts and philosophy have long been entrenched in the traditions of Europe. What is interesting about ancient Greek architecture? The order system, principles of city planning and the creation of theaters are described later in the article.

Periods of development

An ancient civilization that consisted of many disparate city-states. It covered the western coast of Asia Minor, the south of the Balkan Peninsula, the islands of the Aegean Sea, as well as Southern Italy, the Black Sea region and Sicily.

Ancient Greek architecture gave rise to many styles and became the basis in the architecture of the Renaissance. In the history of its development, several stages are usually distinguished.

(mid-XII - mid-VIII centuries BC) - new forms and features based on previous Mycenaean traditions. The main buildings were residential buildings and the first temples, made of clay, adobe and wood. The first ceramic decorative details appeared.
Archaic (VIII - early V century, 480s BC). With the formation of policies, new public buildings appear. The temple and the square in front of it become the center of city life. Stone is more often used in construction: limestone and marble, terracotta cladding. Various types of temples appear. The Doric order predominates.
Classic (480 - 330 BC) - the heyday. All types of orders in ancient Greek architecture are actively developing and even compositionally combined with each other. The first theaters and music halls (odeions), residential buildings with porticoes appeared. A theory of the layout of streets and neighborhoods is being formed.
Hellenism (330 - 180 BC). Theaters and public buildings are being built. The ancient Greek style in architecture is complemented by oriental elements. Decorativeness, luxury and pomp prevail. The Corinthian order is most often used.

In 180 Greece came under the influence of Rome. The empire lured the best scientists and artists to its capital, borrowing some cultural traditions from the Greeks. Therefore, ancient Greek and ancient Roman architecture have many similar features, for example, in the construction of theaters or in the order system.

Philosophy of architecture

In every aspect of life, the ancient Greeks strived to achieve harmony. Ideas about it were not vague and purely theoretical. In Ancient Greece, harmony was defined as a combination of adjusted proportions.

They were also used for the human body. Beauty was measured not only “by eye”, but also in specific numbers. Thus, the sculptor Polykleitos in his treatise “Canon” presented clear parameters of the ideal man and woman. Beauty was directly associated with physical and even spiritual health and personal integrity.

The human body was considered as a structure, the parts of which fit together flawlessly. Ancient Greek architecture and sculpture, in turn, sought to maximally correspond to ideas about harmony.

The sizes and shapes of the statues corresponded to the idea of the “correct” body and its parameters. usually promoted the ideal person: spiritual, healthy and athletic. In architecture, anthropomorphism was manifested in the names of measures (elbow, palm) and in proportions, which were derived from the proportions of the figure.

The columns represented the person. Their foundation or base was identified with the feet, the trunk with the body, the capital with the head. The vertical grooves or flutes on the column trunk were represented by folds of clothing.

Basic orders of ancient Greek architecture

There is no need to talk about the great achievements of engineering in Ancient Greece. Complex structures and solutions were not used then. The temple of that time can be compared to a megalith, where a stone beam rests on a stone support. The greatness and features of ancient Greek architecture lie, first of all, in its aesthetics and decorativeness.

The artistry and philosophy of the building were embodied by its order, or a post-and-beam composition of elements in a certain style and order. There were three main types of orders in ancient Greek architecture:

Doric;
ionic;
Corinthian.

They all had a common set of elements, but differed in their location, shape and ornament. Thus, the Greek order included a stereobat, stylobate, entablature and cornice. The stereobat represented a stepped base above the foundation. Next came the stylobate or columns.

The entablature was a supporting part located on columns. The lower beam on which the entire entablature rested is called the architrave. There was a frieze on it - the middle decorative part. The upper part of the entablature is a cornice; it hung over the other parts.

At first, elements of ancient Greek architecture were not mixed. The Ionic entablature lay only on the Ionic column, the Corinthian - on the Corinthian one. One style - per building. After the construction of the Parthenon by Ictinus and Callicrates in the 5th century BC. e. orders began to be combined and stacked on top of each other. This was done in a certain order: first Doric, then Ionic, then Corinthian.

Doric order

The Doric and Ionic ancient Greek orders were the main ones in architecture. The Doric system was distributed mainly on the mainland and inherited the Mycenaean culture. It is characterized by monumentality and somewhat heaviness. The appearance of the order expresses calm grandeur and brevity.

Doric columns are low. They have no base, but the trunk is powerful and tapers upward. The abacus, the upper part of the capital, is square in shape and rests on a rounded support (echin). There were usually twenty flutes. The architect Vitruvius compared the columns of this order to a man - strong and reserved.

The entablature of the order always included an architrave, frieze and cornice. The frieze was separated from the architrave by a shelf and consisted of triglyphs - elongated rectangles with flutes, which alternated with metopes - slightly recessed square plates with or without sculptural images. Friezes of other orders did not have triglyphs with metopes.

The triglyph was assigned primarily practical functions. Researchers suggest that it represented the ends of the beams that lay on the walls of the sanctuary. It had strictly calculated parameters and served as a support for the cornice and rafters. In some of the most ancient buildings, the space between the ends of the triglyph was not filled with metopes, but remained empty.

Ionic order

The Ionian order system was widespread on the coast of Asia Minor, in Attica and on the islands. It was influenced by Phenicia and Akhmedinian Persia. Notable examples of this style were the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus and the Temple of Hera at Samos.

Ionica was associated with the image of a woman. The order was characterized by decorativeness, lightness and sophistication. Its main feature was the capital, designed in the form of volutes - symmetrically arranged curls. Abacus and echinus were decorated with carvings.

The Ionic column is thinner and slimmer than the Doric. Its base rested on a square slab and was decorated with convex and concave elements with ornamental cutting. Sometimes the base was located on a drum decorated with a sculptural composition. In ionics, the distance between the columns is greater, which increases the airiness and sophistication of the building.

The entablature could consist of an architrave and a cornice (Asia Minor style) or of three parts, as in the Doric style (Attic style). The architrave was divided into fascias - horizontal ledges. Between it and the cornice there were small teeth. The gutter on the cornice was richly decorated with ornaments.

Corinthian order

The Corinthian order is rarely considered independent; it is often defined as a variation of the Ionic. There are two versions reporting the origins of this order. A more mundane one speaks of borrowing the style from Egyptian columns, which were decorated with lotus leaves. According to another theory, the order was created by a sculptor from Corinth. He was inspired to do this by a basket he saw containing acanthus leaves.

It differs from the Ionic mainly in the height and decoration of the capital, which is decorated with stylized acanthus leaves. Two rows of sculpted leaves frame the top of the column in a circle. The sides of the abacus are concave and decorated with large and small spiral scrolls.

The Corinthian order is richer in decoration than other ancient Greek orders in architecture. Of all three styles, it was considered the most luxurious, elegant and rich. Its tenderness and sophistication were associated with the image of a young girl, and acanthus leaves resembled curls. Due to this, the order is often called “maiden”.

Ancient temples

The temple was the main and most important building of Ancient Greece. Its shape was simple, the prototype for it was residential rectangular houses. The architecture of the ancient Greek temple gradually became more complex and was supplemented with new elements until it acquired a round shape. Typically the following styles are distinguished:

distillate;
prostyle;
amphiprostyle;
peripter;
dipter;
pseudodipter;
tholos.

The temple in Ancient Greece had no windows. Outside, it was surrounded by columns on which a gable roof and beams were placed. Inside there was a sanctuary with a statue of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated.

Some buildings could house a small dressing room - pronaos. At the back of the large temples there was another room. It contained donations from residents, sacred implements and the city treasury.

The first type of temple - distil - consisted of a sanctuary, a front loggia, which was surrounded by walls or antas. The loggia housed two columns. As the styles became more complex, the number of columns increased. In the prostyle there are four of them, in the amphiprostyle there are four each on the rear and front facades.

In peripetra temples they surround the building on all sides. If the columns are lined up along the perimeter in two rows, then this is a diptera style. The last style, tholos, also involved being surrounded by columns, but the perimeter had a cylindrical shape. During the Roman Empire, the tholos developed into the "rotunda" type of building.

Policy structure

Ancient Greek city policies were built mainly along the sea coast. They developed as trading democracies. All full-fledged residents participated in the social and political life of cities. This leads to the fact that ancient Greek architecture is developing not only in terms of but also in terms of public buildings.

The upper part of the city was the acropolis. As a rule, it was located on a hill and was well fortified to hold back the enemy during a surprise attack. Within its boundaries there were temples of the gods who patronized the city.

The center of the Lower City was the agora - an open market square where trade was carried out and important social and political issues were resolved. It housed schools, the building of the council of elders, a basilica, a building for feasts and meetings, as well as temples. Statues were sometimes placed along the perimeter of the agora.

From the very beginning, ancient Greek architecture assumed that buildings inside policies were placed freely. Their placement depended on the local topography. In the 5th century BC, Hippodamus carried out a real revolution in city planning. He proposed a clear grid street structure that divides neighborhoods into rectangles or squares.

All buildings and objects, including agoras, are located within quarterly cells, without breaking out of the general rhythm. This layout made it possible to easily complete new sections of the policy without disturbing the integrity and harmony. According to the project of Hippodamus, Miletus, Knidos, Assos, etc. were built. But Athens, for example, remained in the old “chaotic” form.

Living spaces

Houses in Ancient Greece differed depending on the era, as well as the wealth of the owners. There are several main types of houses:

megaronic;
apsidal;
pasted;
peristyle.

One of the earliest types of housing is the megaron. His plan became the prototype for the first temples of the Homeric era. The house had a rectangular shape, at the end of which there was an open room with a portico. The passage was edged by two columns and protruding walls. Inside there was only one room with a fireplace in the middle and a hole in the roof for the smoke to escape.

The apsidal house was also built in the early period. It was a rectangle with a rounded end part, which was called an apse. Later, pastadic and peristyle types of buildings appeared. The outer walls were blank, and the layout of the buildings was closed.

The pastada was a passage in the inner part of the courtyard. It was covered on top and supported by wooden supports. In the 4th century BC, the peristyle became popular. It retains the same layout, but the pastad passage is replaced by covered columns around the perimeter of the courtyard.

On the street side there were only smooth walls of houses. Inside there was a courtyard around which all the rooms of the house were located. As a rule, there were no windows; the source of light was the courtyard. If there were windows, they were located on the second floor. The interior decoration was mostly simple; excesses began to appear only in the Hellenistic era.

The house was clearly divided into female (gynekeia) and male (andron) halves. In the men's section they received guests and had a meal. It was possible to get to the women's half only through her. From the side of the gyneceum there was an entrance to the garden. The housing of the rich also housed a kitchen, a bathhouse and a bakery. The second floor was usually rented out.

Architecture of Ancient Greek Theater

Theater in Ancient Greece combined not only an entertainment aspect, but also a religious one. Its origin is associated with the cult of Dionysus. The first theatrical performances were staged to honor this deity. The architecture of the ancient Greek theater was reminiscent of the religious origin of the performances, at least by the presence of the altar, which was located in the orchestra.

Celebrations, games and plays took place on the stage. In the 4th century BC they ceased to be related to religion. The archon was responsible for the distribution of roles and control of productions. The main roles were played by a maximum of three people, women were played by men. The drama was performed in the form of a competition, where poets took turns presenting their works.

The layout of the first theaters was simple. In the center there was an orchestra - a round platform where the choir was located. Behind her there was a chamber in which the actors (skena) changed clothes. The auditorium (theatron) was of considerable size and was located on a hill, circling the stage in a semicircle.

All theaters were located directly in the open air. Initially they were temporary. For each holiday, wooden platforms were built anew. In the 5th century BC, places for spectators began to be carved out of stone right into the hillside. This created a correct and natural funnel, promoting good acoustics. To enhance the resonance of sound, special vessels were placed near the audience.

As the theater improves, the design of the stage also becomes more complex. Its front part consisted of columns and imitated the front facade of temples. On the sides there were rooms - paraskenia. They stored scenery and theatrical equipment. In Athens, the largest theater was the Theater of Dionysus.

Acropolis of Athens

Some monuments of ancient Greek architecture can still be seen today. One of the most complete structures that has survived to this day is the Acropolis of Athens. It is located on Mount Pyrgos at an altitude of 156 meters. Here are located the temple of the goddess Athena Parthenon, the sanctuary of Zeus, Artemis, Nike and other famous buildings.

The acropolis is characterized by the combination of all three order systems. The combination of styles marks the Parthenon. It is built in the form of a Doric peripeter, the internal frieze of which is made in the Ionic style.

In the center, surrounded by columns, was a statue of Athena. The acropolis was assigned an important political role. Its appearance was supposed to emphasize the hegemony of the city, and the composition of the Parthenon was supposed to glorify the victory of democracy over the aristocratic system.

Next to the majestic and pathetic building of the Parthenon is the Erechtheion. It is entirely made in the Ionic order. Unlike his “neighbor”, he praises grace and beauty. The temple is dedicated to two gods at once - Poseidon and Athena, and is located on the place where, according to legend, they had an argument.

Due to the peculiarities of the relief, the layout of the Erechtheion is asymmetrical. It has two sanctuaries - cella and two entrances. In the southern part of the temple there is a portico, which is supported not by columns, but by marble caryatids (statues of women).

In addition, the Propylaea - the main entrance, surrounded by columns and porticoes, on the sides of which was located a palace and park complex - has been preserved in the acropolis. The hill also housed Arrephorion, a house for girls who weaved clothes for the Athenian games.

GREEK TEMPLE - AN ARCHITECTURAL IMAGE OF THE UNION OF PEOPLE AND GODS Lesson plan 1. How Greek culture arose 2. The Pantheon of Greek gods 3. The main architectural forms of Greek architecture 4. The Acropolis of Athens as a synthesis of archaic style and an expression of the ideal of beauty of Ancient Greece 5. Classical style: Parthenon 6 Let's check ourselves?

Periodization of Ancient Greek Art Ancient Greek art in the proper sense of the word developed and reached its peak in the period from the 7th to the 1st centuries. BC e. There are three stages in it: archaic (VII-VI centuries BC), classic (V-IV centuries BC), Hellenism (III-I centuries BC).

The culture of Ancient Greece as a manifestation of the folk spirit The culture of Ancient Greece, like any culture, is a manifestation of the folk spirit, formed in a given area under the influence of a certain climate. A warm climate, an elegant landscape with low mountains, cozy valleys covered with lemon, olive, and orange groves, a sea with many islands and coves - the whole surrounding world, its beauty and simplicity gave rise to a feeling of proportionality between the forces of man and nature. The Greeks did not need to win living space for themselves, to establish themselves in it; everything was tangible, close. However, they did not immediately achieve harmony with nature.

Gods and people The gods justified the lives of people by the fact that they lived just like them, and under the bright light of the Olympians, people felt themselves equal to the gods. And in order to exalt themselves even more, the Greeks surrounded themselves with that beauty that was an integral feature of the existence of the celestials. This wonderful world of beauty was embodied in art created by people for the people of the gods.

“Man is the measure of all things” Protagoras (480-410 BC) This statement shows the attention of Greek culture to man (anthropomorphism). The Hellenic tendency to endow objects and natural elements with human properties led to the appearance of architecture commensurate with the proportions of the human body, and sculpture that reproduced the ideal image of the human god.

“Iliad” and “Odyssey” about the pantheon of Greek gods In his epic poems, Homer (8th century BC) deduced a pantheon of Greek gods. It is based on the hierarchy of the tribal community, headed by the basileus. The Basileus Zeus, Poseidon and Hades divided the world among themselves, taking for themselves the sky, sea and the underworld, respectively, as Poseidon says in the Iliad

(Translation by N. Gnedich) Three of us were born brothers from the ancient Cronus and Rhea: He is the Thunderer, and I, and Hades, the ruler of the underworld; Everything was divided into three, and everyone got a kingdom: . . . I have the noisy sea, Hades the underground darkness, Zeus has got the vast sky between the clouds and the ether; What remains common to everyone is the earth and the multi-hill Olympus.

What determined the proportions of the building? The accessibility of the heavens, likened to a flat ceiling, rather than soaring vaults, led to the emergence during the Archaic period of stone churches that reproduced the basilica (from the Greek basilic - royal house). The temple reflected the relationship between people and celestials: it was not people who looked up to the heavens, but the gods of Olympus who turned their gaze to the earth, coming to people. The proportions of the building and its picturesque image were determined by the architectural order (from the Latin ordo - order) - Doric or Ionic, in accordance with the aesthetic preferences of the main tribes that inhabited Greece - the harsh warlike Dorians and the soft, pampered Ionians.

Doric order, columns and triglyph: It is characterized by clear geometric lines, some heaviness of forms and masculinity. Doric columns do not have a base, their capital resembles a flattened pillow, visually conveying the heaviness of the entablature. In the Doric order they are repeated on rectangular stone blocks - triglyphs. Triglyphs are placed above each column and in the spaces between the columns. The voids between the triglyphs are filled with slabs - metopes. A relief was carved on them from the same marble block. The alternation of triglyphs and metopes makes up the Doric frieze.

Ionic order, columns and triglyph: This is a more picturesque and decorative order, it is characterized by harmony and femininity. Ionic, on the contrary, are thin and light, grow from a round base and end with graceful curls - volutes. To emphasize the function of the column as a vertical support and to disperse bright light throughout the volume, the trunk is dotted with vertical grooves with sharp edges. The Ionic frieze is decorated with a ribbon of continuous relief

Cella, stereobat, entablature, pediment... The main room of the Greek temple is a blank stone volume - the cella. It is installed on a stepped base - a stereobat and is surrounded by columns around the perimeter. The columns support a horizontal beam floor - an ENTABLEMENT with a gable roof resting on it, which forms a triangle on the narrow side - a pediment. The entablature consists of three horizontal beams arranged in order from bottom to top: architrave, frieze, cornice. In the cella there was a statue of the god, which could be reached through a door on the eastern side.

Mnesicle 530 – 371 BC e. Representative of high classics. Ancient Greek architect of the 2nd half of the 5th century. BC e. He participated in the construction of the ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis, building the monumental entrance gate - Propylaea (437-432 BC) in which two external Doric porticos (one facing the city, the other - towards the Acropolis) are located at different levels and are connected by an internal Ionic colonnade B On the northern wing of the Propylaea there was a pinakothek.

Pinakothek (Πινακοθήκη - repository of paintings) - among the ancient Greeks, a room in which picturesque images that constituted a votive offering to the gods were kept. In Athens, such a room was located in the left wing of the Acropolis propylaea (see). Among the Romans, P. was the name in their houses for the room at the entrance to the atrium, decorated with paintings, as well as statues and other artistic objects that the owner especially treasured.

Mnesicles is an ancient Athenian architect, a contemporary of Pericles. Builder of the Propylaea of the Athenian Acropolis. The initial design of this structure, as proven by Dernfeld, was composed by Mnesikles much more broadly, but was not carried out for reasons not entirely known. It is believed that a party hostile to Pericles played a role here, hiding behind religious considerations, since the Propylaea was supposed to occupy part of the plot of land dedicated to Artemis Brauronia and destroy part of the Pelasgian wall that was considered sacred. The Propylaea remained unfinished due to the Peloponnesian War that broke out in 431, and the money intended for their construction was used for military expenses

We enter the Sacred Hill through. . Doric Propylaea - a deep through portico framing the staircase, and a light Ionic temple of Nike Apteros (Wingless), the constant companion of Athena. Participants in a crowded procession passed between the columns of the portico on the solemn days of the Great Panathenaia - a holiday dedicated to the patron goddess of the city, goddess Athena. The side passages were used for Athenians on foot; along the middle one, where there were no steps, horsemen and chariots rode and sacrificial animals were led. The Doric columns of the Propylaea emphasized the solemnity and impressiveness of the entrance, while the Ionic colonnade under the roof seemed to prepare for the beautiful and austere spectacle that opened at the top of the hill.

Rigid symmetry and other archaic features The archaic period in the history of Greece (650-480 BC) is a term adopted among historians since the 18th century. It arose during the study of Greek art and originally belonged to the stage of development of Greek art, mainly decorative and plastic, intermediate between the period of geometric art and the art of classical Greece. Later, the term “archaic period” was extended not only to the history of art, but also to the social life of Greece, since during this period, which followed the “dark ages,” there was a significant development of political theory, the rise of democracy, philosophy, theater, poetry, revival written language (the appearance of the Greek alphabet to replace Linear B, which was forgotten during the “Dark Ages”).

Classics The Greek classics were more picturesque. Its main goal is to create a sublimely solemn mood. To the left of the central axis of the Propylaea, on the flat plateau of the hill, stood the seventeen-meter-tall colossus of Athena Promachos (Warrior) made of gilded bronze. To the right, the architects Ictinus and Callicrates erected the Parthenon.

Parthenon (447,438 BC) One of the most famous Greek temples. The main purpose of the symbol of the victory of Greek democracy over eastern despotism is dedicated to Athena Parthenos (Virgin). Made of Pentellian marble, which has the property of acquiring a golden patina of extraordinary beauty over time, silhouetted against the blue sky. Transparent air and bright sunlight wash the outer colonnades in a radiant stream, pouring into the open space of the cella, dissolving the marble volumes.

The temple is a symbol of the new religion At the same time, the temple symbolized the triumph of the organizing, light principles of religion over its chthonic, unbridled sources. This was evidenced by the relief on the Doric metopes and the Ionic frieze that ran behind the colonnade along the top of the cella. The eastern pediment was decorated with sculptural compositions on the theme of the birth of Athena; western - her dispute with Poseidon for power over Attica. The roof was crowned with stylized lotus petals at the corners.

The secret of the architects is to take into account the features of the landscape and climate, as well as all the optical distortions inherent in vision; the architects gave the outlines of the temple a barely noticeable curvature. Typically, a horizontal surface is perceived by vision as convex, so the architects allowed a discrepancy in height between the edges and the center of the base (the center is 11.5 cm lower). The cylinders of the columns create the illusion of a facade open to the sides; for this reason, each column along the perimeter of the temple was narrowed upward and inclined 7 cm from the axis to the cella. An absolutely even column looks dry and as if pressed in the middle, so to give the contour richness and elasticity, it was endowed with a slight thickening about a third of the height. To prevent the corner columns from appearing too thin due to bright lighting, they were made more massive and the neighboring ones were brought closer to them.

And one more secret... But even under the dazzling rays of the sun, the white marble columns did not merge with the cella, because it was painted purple with thin horizontal lines of gilding. The shadow from the reliefs and sculptures, which could distort the image, was “extinguished” by the red background of the pediment and metopes and the blue stripes of the triglyphs. Thanks to this, in conditions of exceptional transparency of air and brightness of sunlight, the smallest details of painted sculpture and bas-reliefs could be distinguished from afar.

The technique of the ancient masters The encaustic technique provided the same external effect of plasticity as the shiny surface of marble, giving the majestic and strict appearance of the marble Parthenon an elegant, festive look. Some details - horse reins, necks of vessels, wreaths made of gilded bronze, reminiscent of a light cobweb, introduced an element of transparency into its sophisticated appearance. The temple has become an example of size, rationalism, and precise calculation, but at the same time the harmony of simple forms and clear lines gives it an upward aspiration and an almost bodily trembling of a living organism, characteristic of sculpture.

Enka ustika (from ancient Greek ἐγκαυστική - [the art of] burning) is a painting technique in which wax is the binder of paints. Painting is done with melted paints (hence the name). A type of encaustic painting is wax tempera, characterized by its brightness and richness of colors. Many early Christian icons were painted using this technique. The most famous examples of encaustic painting are the so-called. “Fayum portraits” (after the name of the Fayum oasis in Egypt, where they were first found and described): posthumous picturesque images of the deceased, distinguished by volumetric light-and-shadow modeling of forms, special liveliness and brightness of the images. The Hellenistic technique of encaustic painting was used in early icon painting, giving way later to tempera. The most striking iconographic example of the encaustic technique is considered to be the image of Christ Pantocrator (VI century), located in the Sinai monastery.

Shall we trust ourselves? 1. Name the main features of architectural orders that arose in Greece during the Archaic period. What gods were Greek temples dedicated to? 2. What characteristic classical features did the architectural ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis have? 3. Why is the Parthenon considered the most perfect Doric temple?

Like any culture, it is a manifestation of the folk spirit, formed in a given area under the influence of a certain climate.

* Attica is the name of the territory around Athens.

Taking into account the features of the surrounding landscape and climate, as well as all the optical distortions inherent in vision, the architects gave the outlines of the temple a barely noticeable curvature. For example, usually a horizontal surface is perceived by vision as convex, so the architects allowed a discrepancy in height between the edges and the center of the base (the center is lower by 11.5 cm). The cylinders of the columns create the illusion of a façade open to the sides; for this reason, each column along the perimeter of the temple was narrowed upward and inclined 7 cm from the axis to the cella. An absolutely even column looks dry and as if pressed in the middle, so to give the contour juiciness and elasticity, it was endowed with a slight thickening about a third of its height. To prevent the corner columns from appearing too thin due to the bright lighting, they were made more massive and the neighboring ones were brought closer to them.

But even under the dazzling rays of the sun, the white marble columns did not merge with the cella, because it was painted purple with thin horizontal lines of gilding. The shadow from the reliefs and sculptures, which could distort the image, was “extinguished” by the red background of the pediment and metopes and the blue stripes of the triglyphs. Thanks to this, in conditions of exceptional transparency of air and brightness of sunlight, the smallest details of painted sculpture and bas-reliefs could be distinguished from afar.

The encaustic technique provided the same external effect of plasticity as the shiny surface of marble, giving the majestic and austere appearance of the marble Parthenon an elegant, festive look. Some details - horse reins, necks of vessels, wreaths made of gilded bronze, reminiscent of a light cobweb, introduced an element of transparency into its sophisticated appearance.

The temple has become an example of size, rationalism, and precise calculation, but at the same time, the harmony of simple forms and clear lines gives it an upward aspiration and an almost bodily thrill of living organismism, characteristic of sculpture.

Questions and tasks
1. Name the main features of architectural orders that arose in Greece during the Archaic period. What gods were Greek temples dedicated to?
2. What characteristic classical features did the architectural ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis have?
3. Why is the Parthenon considered the most perfect Doric temple?

Emokhonova L. G., World artistic culture: textbook for grade 10: secondary (complete) general education (basic level) - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2008.

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Ensemble of the Athens Acropolis

Acropolis- (Greek akropolis, from akros - upper and polis - city), an elevated and fortified part of an ancient Greek city, a fortress, a refuge in case of war.

His buildings are exquisite in proportion and harmoniously connected with the landscape. This ensemble, created under the general direction of Phidias, consists of the main entrance of the Propylaea (437–432 BC, architect Mnesicles), the temple of Athena Nike (449–420 BC, architect Kallikrates), the main temple of the Acropolis and Athens Parthenon (447–438 BC, architects Ictinus and Kallikrates), Erechtheion Temple (421–406 BC).

The Acropolis of Athens, which is a 156-meter-high rocky hill with a gentle peak (approx. 300 m long and 170 m wide), is the site of the oldest settlement in Attica. During the Mycenaean period (15-13 centuries BC) it was a fortified royal residence. In the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. There was a lot of construction going on on the Acropolis. Under the tyrant Pisistratus (560-527), on the site of the royal palace, the temple of the goddess Athena Hekatompedon was built (that is, a temple one hundred steps long; fragments of pediment sculptures have been preserved, and the foundation has been identified). In 480, during the Greco-Persian Wars, the temples of the Acropolis were destroyed by the Persians. The inhabitants of Athens swore an oath to restore the shrines only after the expulsion of enemies from Hellas.

In 447, on the initiative of Pericles, new construction began on the Acropolis; the supervision of all the work was entrusted to the famous sculptor Phidias, who, apparently, was the author of the artistic program that formed the basis of the entire complex, its architectural and sculptural appearance.

Even before the 5th century. The Acropolis was not a desert rock. Life has been going on here since the end of the 3rd century. BC. Even then, the elevation was a refuge for residents of the surrounding plains when attacked by enemies. In the 6th century BC. On the Acropolis there was a temple of Athena called Hekatompedon. It was located directly opposite the Propylaea and amazed the person who entered the Acropolis with its beauty. The placement of buildings dates back to the 6th century. BC. symmetry prevailed, which archaic masters often adhered to. The architectural forms of archaic temples are ponderous and severe. The columns seem to swell under the weight of the roof pressing on them. The severity was softened only by sculptural decorations.

All that remains of the buildings of that period are the foundations, and not all of them. This is explained by the fact that the buildings were destroyed during the Greco-Persian wars.

The entire second half of Vn. BC e. Construction was underway on the Acropolis. In 447, work began on the Parthenon. It was finished in rough form in 438 BC. e., and finishing continued until 434 BC. e. In 437 BC. e. laid out the Propylaea and completed it only in 432 BC. e., and around 425 BC. e. created a temple to Nika the Wingless. Before the Peloponnesian War, the colossus of Athena the Warrior was erected in front of the Propylaea on the Acropolis. In 421 BC. h. They began to build the Erechtheion and finished it in 407 BC. e. For almost half a century, construction was in full swing here, architects, sculptors, and artists worked, creating works of which humanity is proud after millennia.

His buildings are exquisite in proportion and harmoniously connected with the landscape. This ensemble, created under the general direction of Phidias, consists of the main entrance of the Propylaea (437–432 BC, architect Mnesicles), the temple of Athena Nike Apteros (“Wingless Victory”) (449–420 BC, architect Kallikrates ), the main temple of the Acropolis and Athens, the Parthenon (447–438 BC, architects Ictinus and Kallikrates), the temple of the Erechtheion (421–406 BC). (see Appendix 1)

In the arrangement of the temples of the Acropolis of the time of Pericles, architects dig out the symmetry that was typical of the archaic era. The buildings now gradually come into view of a person walking along the Acropolis. The Athenian, having passed the Propylaea, saw first of all not the facade of the temple, but the huge statue of Athena the Warrior. As he came closer to her, he ceased to perceive this colossus. All his attention was drawn to the Parthenon, which seemed to grow gradually to the right. The temple of Erechtheum, located on the left, became especially clearly visible from the Parthenon.

Thus, it was possible to examine either the details of a nearby work, or

a completely different, distant monument. The attention of a person standing at the Propylaea at the entrance to the Acropolis could be occupied by the finishing of the architectural details of the ceremonial gates of the Acropolis. But he could also contemplate the huge statue of Athena, which stood in front of the Propylaea. The Erechtheion and Parthenon have not yet been revealed in all their beauty. Approaching the colossus of Athena and being at the pedestal of the statue, the Athenian could get carried away by examining its relief decorations, but from here he already saw the temple of Athena - the Parthenon - from a vantage point. The Erechtheion was still obscured for him by the pedestal of the Colossus of Athena and opened only completely at sea from the Parthenon, where either the details of the Parthenon or the entire Erechtheion could be viewed in the same way.

The change of artistic impressions and their gradual inclusion in human consciousness, the use of various forms and contrasts, when looking at details alternates with the perception of the whole structure - this principle was new in comparison with the simple comparison of monuments in archaic ensembles.

Propylaea

At the foot of the cliff, on the western side, the path to the Acropolis of Athens begins.

The first structure that is encountered on the way is the propylaea or entrance gate (440 - 432 BC). It is assumed that in the original plan the left and right sides of the Propylaea should have been the same and the entire building should have been symmetrical. But around 425 B.C. To the right of the gate, the temple of the goddess Nike grew, and this part of the propylaea was made somewhat smaller than the left, as they strived for a general balance of architectural volumes.

Propylaea- the first structure where two different orders were applied. The Propylaea of the Acropolis had five openings (gates), with small six-columned halls and side structures on both sides. The middle opening was wider than the others.

The western portico, located on the side of the main approach to the Acropolis, is decorated much more elegantly than the others.

In the Propylaea, as in the Parthenon, the Doric and Ionic orders are combined. The solemnity and impressiveness of the external Doric columns was revealed to the eyes of a person approaching the Propylaea. But, entering under the roof of the gate, he found himself among the graceful and light Ionic ones. To smooth the transition from one order to another, the architect made square projections at the base of the Doric columns, reminiscent of bases. By introducing the Ionic order, Mnesical complicated and enriched the impression of the architectural image of the Propylaea. The different sizes of the Doric order columns - large in the center of the Propylaea and small in the side parts - also contribute to the variety.

On both sides of the western portico of the propylaea there were buildings with porticoes of unequal size: on the left, the larger one was an art gallery and on the right, the smaller one was the library.

Temple of Nike Apteros

In front of the short side of the propylaea of the library rises a small graceful temple, the smallest building on the Acropolis (architect Callicrates, 449-421 BC). Made in the Ionic style, this temple is dedicated to Nike Apteros- “Wingless Victory.” In Greece, the goddess of Victory was depicted with large wings: she is fickle, flies from one enemy to another. But the Athenians believed that they had become invincible, and so that Nike would never leave them, they depicted her as wingless.

Rising above the powerful fortress wall, the temple crowns it with its light proportions. Built in the Ionic order, it has four columns on the end sides and has blank side walls without colonnades. Placed at an angle to the Propylaea, it seems to turn slightly towards the gate, as if directing a person approaching the sacred hill towards it. Next to the Doric colonnade of the Propylaea, the Ionic Temple of Nike may seem too light. Therefore, some Doric features were introduced into the order of the temple. The ancient Greek masters were not afraid to deviate from the rules of the order, and if they thought it was necessary, they boldly introduced elements of another into one order. The interior of the temple is small. The walls inside may have been covered with paintings: the surface of the marble walls is unpolished and rough. This temple was destroyed during

Turkish domination in Greece, and only later was it restored again.

The outside of the temple is decorated with a low frieze made of Pentellian marble, the short parts of which show the gods of Olympus, and the long parts show scenes of battles with the Persians. The eastern part of the frieze depicts solemn and calm gods. Above the columns there are mostly standing figures, and between them the gods are sitting or slightly bending; the composition of the frieze is related to the architecture of the structure, as in other buildings of the Acropolis.

Parthenon

A little to the right of the statue, at a short distance, in honor of the goddess Athena, the patroness of the city, the architects Ictinus and Callicrates built a majestic marble temple - the Parthenon. The temple took 9 years to build. The Parthenon occupied the very top part of the Acropolis, being the central structure of the entire ensemble. From distant points of the city, residents saw the silhouette of a temple that towered over the city. The Parthenon crowns the Acropolis. The logically clear architectural forms of the temple are not only contrasted with the wild slopes of the rocks, but are also connected with them into artistic unity.

Researchers of ancient Greek architecture often paid attention to the fact that in the works of Hellenic architects the principle, or rule, of the “golden section” was often used. It was considered harmonious and beautiful to give buildings the proportions of the “golden section”.

The relationship between the sizes of the Parthenon and the Acropolis Hill is not accidental. The dimensions of the temple are determined by the size of the rock. The ancient architects, in addition, placed the Parthenon on the Acropolis in the most artistically advantageous place, so that the size of the temple and the rock are perceived to be consistent when viewed from a distance.

The Parthenon is the largest temple in the ensemble of the Acropolis and the entire Greek metropolis. Inside it has two large halls - rectangular and square, the entrances to which were located on opposite sides. The eastern rectangular hall with a statue of Athena in the back was divided into three parts by two-tiered colonnades of the Doric order. The square hall served as a treasury and was called the Parthenon.

The Doric order in the Parthenon is not as severe as in archaic temples. It is softened by the introduction of some elements of the graceful Ionic order into the architecture. Behind the outer colonnade, on the top of the temple wall, you can see a continuous relief strip depicting the solemn procession of the Athenians. A continuous figured frieze - zophorus - belongs to the Ionic order, and, nevertheless, it was introduced into the architecture of the Doric Parthenon, where there should have been a frieze with triglyphs and metopes.

It organically includes elements of the Ionic order: elongated columns, a lightweight entablature, a continuous frieze encircling the building, made of squares of Pentelic marble.

Ancient Greek architects skillfully combined their buildings with the landscape, harmoniously “fitting” them into the surrounding nature.

The connection between the Parthenon and nature was expressed not only in the proportional relationship between the temple and the hill. Greek architects and sculptors saw that distant objects or their parts seemed smaller, and knew how to correct optical distortions.

The columns of the Parthenon are not strictly vertical, but slightly inclined into the building. The axes of the corner columns, when mentally continuing them, must intersect each other at a great height. This destroyed the effect of that optical illusion in which a series of vertical lines seem to expand slightly upward.

Deviations from horizontals and verticals are almost invisible. However, they Marble is a material that helps this impression. By the time the Parthenon was built, the Greeks had long known and appreciated this wonderful stone, understanding how well marble captures light and, absorbing it, glows with its surface, resembling the tenderness of human tissue.

Before the Parthenon, temples were built mainly from rough porous stone - limestone, which, after construction was completed, was covered with a layer of marble plaster. The Parthenon is all marble. Naturally, some of its parts were made of wood; metal was also used to fasten marble blocks; the main material was

Not far from Athens, in the Pentelikon mountains, deposits of good white marble were found. The smallest ferrous particles contained in it appeared on the surface after processing. When they came into contact with air moisture, they gradually oxidized and formed a uniform layer, and sometimes spots of a beautiful, golden patina. The snow-white, coldish stone became warm, saturated with the sun, as if absorbing the moisture of the air. This ability of processed marble to react to light and to the surrounding air strengthened the building’s connection with nature.

Erechtheion Temple

With its lightness of form, special sophistication of decorative decoration and complexity of the composition, the small Erechtheion contrasts with the strict and majestic, emphatically monumental Parthenon, which is a Doric peripterus.

The place where the Erechtheion was built was not chosen by chance. It was determined in advance. It was believed that it was here that Poseidon struck with his trident and carved out a stream, and Athena planted an olive tree. The architect was faced with the difficult task of constructing a building on a site with a strong slope. It was not possible to carry out large planning work and level the site for the Erechtheion, since at that time the burdensome Peloponnesian War was going on. The premises of the Erechtheum therefore have different levels.

The location of the Erechtheion is nevertheless successful in the ensemble of the Acropolis. Indeed, if in the western part of the Acropolis the heavier part of the Propylaea is located on the left, and the light Temple of Nike is on the right, then in the eastern part of the hill the weight is transferred to the right side, protruding into the volume of the Parthenon, and the graceful and lighter Ionic Erechtheion is on the left. The harmonious distribution of masses, the balance of architectural volumes with general asymmetry is not perceived immediately, but gradually, when moving along the Acropolis.

The layout of the Erechtheion takes into account the unevenness of the ground. The temple consists of two rooms located on different levels. On three sides it has porticoes of various shapes, including the famous portico of the kor (caryatids) on the southern wall (see Appendix 1).

The Erechtheion is very different from the Parthenon. Next to the Doric order of the Temple of Athena the Virgin, the Ionic order of the Erechtheion is perceived as small, although it is a rather large temple in absolute size. Near the strict columns of the Parthenon, the Erechtheion with its rich ornamental decoration seems especially elegant.

Looking at the Parthenon from one point, from a corner, gives an idea of the entire temple. In contrast, the complex and asymmetrical Erechtheion must be walked around on all sides to appreciate the richness of its architectural forms. This is why it was obviously impossible to go to the northern entrance to the Erechtheion directly from the Propylaea. The architect seemed to force the person to walk around the temple.

The architecture of the Erechtheion is dominated by the principle of contrast. Shaded porticoes are juxtaposed with smooth walls. The white marble of the temple is contrasted with the purple marble of the frieze. Massive bases are combined with light columns. The large surfaces of the steps are perceived next to the complex pattern on the bases of the columns.

The Erechtheion faces the Acropolis square on the south side with a portico, the roof of which is supported by six caryatids, three caryatids resting on the left leg, three on the right. It would seem that the symmetry is clearly and infallibly maintained here. But, looking closely at the marble sculptures of the girls, you see how different they are. The folds of their clothes not only outline strong, beautiful figures, but reveal the degree of tension of each girl. The caryatids calmly, without excessive effort, carry the heavy roof of the portico. Their burden is neither too heavy nor too light for them. They perceive the load extremely naturally. Classical harmony lives in each of these statues, in their beautiful clothes and elegant hairstyles. The stripes, tightly braided at the head, gradually unravel and flow freely down the backs. The master is not trying to deceive the viewer by making him believe that in front of him is not a stone, but hair. It preserves the texture of marble. But the ratio of hair density - tightly braided: loosely braided and loose - exactly

conveyed by the differences of marble surfaces, and this evokes the feeling of almost real hair.

To the right of the portico of the caryatids, rich in light and shadow contrasts, on the dark surface of which the illuminated figures of girls emerge, the calm surface of a large wall protrudes. Only at first glance does it seem massive and monotonous. In fact, this wall, made of large beautiful blocks of marble, has a kind of small pedestal at the bottom, decorated with a relief ornament, and at the top there is a belt with a pattern carved in damask. The decorative completions of the wall at the top and bottom are respectively at the level of the capitals and bases of the columns of the eastern portico. The wall is thus subordinated to the order system of the entire temple.

The interior layout of the Erechtheion is complex. In the eastern part, behind the threshold of the sanctuary of Athena, there was a room with an ancient wooden statue of the goddess, in front of which stood a golden lamp with an unquenchable fire. Next were the sanctuaries of Erechtheus and Poseidon. Their walls are believed to have been decorated with picturesque images.

In contrast to the flat eastern portico, the northern one is made deep so that a dense shadow is created under its roof, on which the light marble columns would appear. Otherwise, they would not be noticeable from the distance below from the city. The northern portico is especially well decorated. Its ceiling is divided into beautiful square recesses that lighten the weight.

Ionic columns stand on richly ornamented bases and bear ornate capitals. The door leading to the temple is especially beautiful with its decorative patterns. The elegance of the decoration of the Erechtheion sets off the restrained grandeur of the Parthenon. Much attention was paid to the decoration of the Erechtheion. Orders for the production of decorative patterns were given to various artists so that there were no repetitions.

3. The architecture of Ancient Greece during the classical period: the main stages of evolution. Ensemble of the Athens Acropolis: architectural and planning idea, synthesis of sculpture and architecture, ideological and artistic program

Introduction

The periodization of this period can be represented as follows: early classic (490 - 450 BC), high classic (450 - 410 BC), late classic (late 4th century BC). – 30s 4th century BC, for spatial orientation see map – ill. 1 ). Of course, the attribution of one or another monument to a certain period is very conditional. So, for example, the temple of Hera II in Paestum is sometimes referred to as mature archaic, and sometimes (more often) – to the border between archaic and classic, or even the beginning of classic.

The art of classics continues the evolution laid down in the archaic. Among the most important tasks: facilitating proportions, an organic combination of sculpture and architecture, developing the idea of an architectural complex that includes several buildings, fitting the temple into the surrounding landscape, and striving for asymmetry.

The leading type of monumental architecture at the beginning of the 5th century BC. there was still a peripter. The temple becomes shorter, its cella wider. The outer colonnade of the peripterus now usually has 6 columns on the end sides and 13 on the sides, i.e. the number of columns on the side facade is one more than twice the number of columns on the end facades. The distance between the front row of columns and the pronaos has decreased.

Gradually, the Greek peripter, and with it the orders, acquired that stable form, which is usually called classical. The orders also established typical features, against the background of which any deviation of forms or relationships is perceived especially eloquently, being the most important means of individually characterizing a structure. In the 5th century, the capital lost its constructive advantages and not so much performed as depicted its inherent function. The main room of the classical temple (cella and portico) is surrounded by a colonnade. The outer colonnade separates the home of the gods from the houses of mere mortals and is the main element of temple architecture. The curvature system is actively used in construction.

Proportions have become one of the most important artistic means of architecture. The greatness of the temple is not in the pomp or heap of architectural masses, but in the purely plastically understood clarity of the volumes of the sculptural and architectural whole. The very proportions of the temple do not overwhelm a person, but, on the contrary, seem to be commensurate with him. At the same time, the change in proportions determined the individual image of the temple and the impression of grandeur and power or lightness and grace that the master sought to give it.

In addition, masters of the 5th century BC. e. successfully solved one of the greatest problems of art - the problem of the organic relationship between architecture and sculpture. The pediments of temples provided a convenient place for large multi-figure compositions. The statues naturally filled the field of the pediment and at the same time harmoniously agreed with its outlines. Architecture and sculpture acted as equivalent arts, complementing and enriching each other. This reveals the deep difference between Greek art and ancient Eastern art, where the laws of monumental architecture determined the development of sculpture, completely subordinating it to the requirements of architecture.

Let us note that Greek architecture still lacks the most important quality: the constructive and aesthetic design of a large internal space. The interior space in a relatively small Greek temple is almost undeveloped. It is almost not felt in the external structure of the building. This indicates a certain primitiveness in the development of ancient architecture, but not a single subsequent era was able to reproduce in architecture anything similar to its harmonious simplicity.

The connection with the surrounding architectural and natural environment is extremely characteristic of an ancient temple. The primitiveness of ancient technology can explain the fact that during the construction of temples, extensive work on leveling, backfilling, etc. was avoided. But one cannot help but see that the Greek masters were aware of this “necessity” as an aesthetic advantage, therefore these features determined one of the main advantages of ancient architecture. For example, the entire Acropolis complex appears in harmony with both the hills surrounding Athens and the other buildings of Athens itself.

The transition from archaic to classic

The first monument of the transition period from archaic to classic (in vase painting this is called “strict style”) - Temple of Athena Aphaia on the island. Aegina(around 500 BC, ill. 2 ). This monument was built during the era of the Greco-Persian wars. It was near the island of Aegina that the Persian fleet was defeated, so the temple is built as a reminder - the Persians could see it from Ionia, which they captured. It is a peripter type, 6x12 columns. The plan of the temple could be a typical peripterus of the heyday: its cella consisted of a pronaos with 2 columns in antes, the same opisthodomos and a naos.

Here we can already notice a noticeable change in the relationship between the column and the entablature, as well as the relationship between the supported and load-bearing parts. The roof is also changing. Now an additional support point is needed, as a result a 2-tier internal colonnade appears, which serves as a brace for the roof. The plan is clear and compact - the dwelling of God should be harmonious. The flatness disappears. The capital acquires a diagonal outline. The pediment is still heavy, the angle is obtuse. Changes are also taking place in the material - marble appears (still only marble tiles). There are archaic features here: the frieze is larger than the architrave, the columns on the sides of the temple are closer together than on the ends. There are no curvatures. It is important that here for the first time the need to think through the combination of interior and exterior is realized. A two-tier colonnade was built inside.

The transitional character from archaic to classic is also visible in the pediment groups of the temple. The composition of both pediments was based on strict mirror symmetry. The western pediment depicted the struggle between the Greeks and Trojans for the body of Patroclus. In the center was a strictly frontal figure of Athena, her shield facing the Trojans. Athena acts as the protector of the Hellenes. In the figures of warriors there is no longer archaic frontality, the movements are more real, the anatomical structure is correct than was usually the case in archaic art. Although the entire movement unfolds strictly along the plane of the pediment, it is quite vital and concrete in each individual figure. But there is still an “archaic smile” on the faces of the soldiers. Compositional unity was achieved through external, decorative means, in contrast to the composition of the eastern pediment, where the movements of the figures were more natural and free. Mastering the complex and contradictory richness of movements of the human body, which directly conveys not only the physical, but also the mental state of a person, is one of the most important tasks of classical sculpture. The statue of a wounded warrior from the eastern pediment of the Temple of Aegina was one of the first attempts to solve this problem. It is also characteristic that there is a very deep pediment box, and the sculpture is protruding three-quarters or even round. Result: volumes, angles, diagonal turns, etc. are transmitted. Note that there is a very deep pediment box here, and the sculpture is protruding three-quarters or even round. Result: volumes, angles, diagonal turns, etc. are transmitted.

Architecture of the 5th century BC e. developed and improved the type of peripterus, a building surrounded by columns, which developed in archaic architecture. The leading place is occupied by temples of the Doric order; their proportions acquire greater integrity and harmony compared to the squat and heavy temples of the 6th century BC. e., and design solutions are distinguished by precise calculations and logical clarity.

These features were most fully manifested in Temple of Hera II in Paestum(mid 5th century BC, ill. 3 ). It was located next to the temple of Hera I and was previously attributed to Poseidon, not Hera. The building, whose dimensions are 60 x 24 m, is made of solid golden limestone. The colonnade supporting the ceiling rises on a three-stage base typical of a Doric temple. The number of columns surrounding the temple was strictly thought out and determined: six on the facade and thirteen on the longitudinal sides. This ratio is a characteristic feature of classical architecture. The only Greek peripterus, in the naos of which part of the internal two-tiered colonnade still stands. 3 step base. The plan and overall composition were conceived not without the influence of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. It has more elongated proportions and 6x14 columns. The calm rhythm of columns of decreasing height in combination with the horizontal architraves creates a clear and calm balance characteristic of the entire interior. This balance of the closed space of the cella received an even more perfect solution already in the second half of the century in the Parthenon.

The second transition period - from the early classics to the high - is marked by the appearance Temple of Zeus at Olympia(460-450 BC, ill. 4 ). This is a “votive” temple for which donations were collected throughout Greece. Architect Libon. During its construction, the particular difficulty of the task facing the architect was that the temple had to fit into a complex that already consisted of many buildings. As a rule, a new temple was built on the site of the old one, surpassing it in size and splendor of decoration. Now it was necessary to preserve the old heritage. The Temple of Zeus was located on the highest place, and in addition stood on an artificial foundation. As a result, the building rises above the old buildings. Material: hard shell rock.

The temple is a Doric peripter with dimensions of 6x13 columns. In ancient times it was famous for the chrysoelephantine statue of Zeus by Phidias. Particularly noteworthy is the regularity in the structure of the temple; the tall, long-reaching echinae and the profiles of the capitals resembled in their outlines the order of the Aegina temple. Most of the sculptural decorations on the façade of the temple were concentrated on the pediments. The Olympian Temple, which combined various forms of art, was, apparently, as excellent an example of the strict Doric style of the first half of the 5th century BC, as the Parthenon was later an example of Attic architecture of the second half of this century. The huge, solemnly austere and majestic Olympic temple perfectly corresponded to the Phidias statue of the almighty Zeus hidden in its cella.

An outstanding role in the history of classical art of Ancient Hellas was played by the sculptural decorations of this temple, made of Parian marble in 470 - 456 BC. e. ( ill. 5 ). The general style of the Olympic sculptures is already approaching the style of Myron’s sculptures. The twelve labors of Hercules were depicted on the metopes of the temple; the eastern pediment of the temple is dedicated to the myth of the competition between Pelops and Oenomaus, which laid the foundation for the Olympic Games; the western pediment is dedicated to the battle of the Lapiths with the centaurs. The subject of the composition of the western pediment is the myth of how the leader of the Lapith tribe, Peirifoy, invited gods, heroes and the neighboring tribe of centaurs to his wedding feast. Having become drunk, the centaurs tried to kidnap women and young men, including Peirifoy’s bride, Deidamia. The heroes entered into battle with them. The composition of the pediment is distinguished by its unity of concept and high craftsmanship. The sculptures occupy the entire field of the pediment, whose length exceeds 26 m and height – 3 m. In the center of the composition, the sculptor placed the figure of the god of light and arts Apollo, who brought victory to the Lapiths. Tall and slender Apollo personifies the heroism and courage of man. With an imperious gesture of his hand, he points to the centaurs, his face breathes with restrained strength and confidence in victory. On the left is Peirifou, clutching a sword, and next to him is Deidamia, who pushes away with her elbow the centaur Euryton, who is clinging to her. To the right of Apollo stands the Athenian hero Theseus with a double axe. His blow will now fall on the centaur's head. Although the outcome of the fight has not yet been decided, it is felt that the Greek heroes are winning. Their faces are calm and courageous, while the faces of centaurs are distorted with rage and anger. The superiority of a reasonable person over the elemental forces of nature is the main idea of this composition.

The craftsmen who created the sculptures of the western pediment of the Temple of Zeus mastered the techniques of constructing a sculptural composition. Images of mythical heroes and centaurs are combined into groups of two or three figures. None of these groups repeats the other; there is no strict symmetry in their arrangement. Each group on the left side of the pediment corresponds to a group of the same number of figures on the right side, which creates a feeling of harmonious balance of the entire composition of the pediment. The sculptures live their own lives, but with amazing art they are “fitted” into the triangle of the pediment and form a single whole with the architectural appearance of the building.

Thus, the western pediment represents a calm narrative, and the western pediment represents emotional intensity, and at the same time, both pediment compositions are interconnected. What's also interesting is that even with a relatively small number of characters, it creates the feeling of powerful, epic panoramas. Both pediments differ sharply from the pediments of the Aegina Temple with their decorative conventional composition. The difference between the gables here is about 20 years, and this is quite significant. The first has an archaic solution, the second – a much later one. The compositions of the pediments are different, but the temple unites them. Thus, we have before us the idea of a thoughtful performance. By the way, Greek tragedy was developing around the same time.

High classics: ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis

History of creation. Ideological and artistic program

The Acropolis (Greek for "kremlin") is located on a steep rocky hill in the center of Athens ( ill. 6 ). The rock of the Athens Acropolis rises in the middle of a valley, which is surrounded on three sides by hills, and on the fourth, southern side, adjacent to the sea. This natural elevation forms a pedestal, as if created by nature itself for the complex placed on it. The Acropolis of Phidias is in amazing harmony with both the hill itself and the surrounding landscape. At the same time, the Acropolis is one of the first examples of an architectural complex built according to a single, clearly thought-out architectural plan ( ill. 7 ).

In 480 - 479 BC. e. The Persians captured Athens, plundered and burned the city's shrines, including the temples on top of the Acropolis. It was partially restored soon after the victorious end of the Persian War, but the question of creating a large one really arose only when Athens became the leading democratic power in Greece. The strategist Kimon already developed a plan for decorating the Acropolis and carried out a number of works. So, under him, Phidias created a statue of Athena Promachos (Guardian). However, the most important role belongs to another strategist of Athens, namely Pericles. The figure of Pericles is very important both in the history of Greece and in the formation of the acropolis complex. Pericles' entourage included the intellectual elite of the time (philosophers, sculptors, geometers, historians). When he was faced with the question of restoring Athens after the Greco-Persian wars, he immediately abandoned the Hippodamian system of development (the Hippodamian system is a planning system for ancient cities with streets intersecting at right angles, equal rectangular blocks and areas allocated for public buildings and markets, multiples of standard sizes of the quarter. Associated with the name of the ancient Greek architect Hippodamus of Miletus (485 - 405 BC). According to the Hippodamian system, at different times many ancient (Piraeus, Rhodes, Thurii, Alexandria of Egypt) and modern cities). According to Pericles, the system of Hippodamus was too geometric and therefore devoid of harmony, asymmetry, and picturesqueness. At the same time, Pericles also advocated the creation of a new architectural order, which was supposed to combine the advantages of Doric and Ionic. Pericles' ideas about the synthesis of Ionic and Doric, architecture and sculpture, buildings and their surrounding nature were supported and developed by Phidias when creating the Acropolis. The largest Greek architects and artists of that time took part in the creation of the Acropolis: Ictinus, Callicrates, Mnesicles, Callimachus, etc. The sculptor Phidias supervised the creation of the entire ensemble. It was under him that a unified plan for decorating the Acropolis was drawn up and grandiose construction work was undertaken, which lasted several decades and culminated in the creation of this complex, unprecedented in the history of art.

A few words about Fidia. He was born in Athens between 500 and 480 BC. e. His first teacher was the sculptor Hegius; he received further artistic education in the workshop of the Peloponnesian master Ageladus, from whom, according to Greek tradition, Myron and Polykleitos also studied. While working for Agelad, Phidias mastered the art of bronze casting to perfection. As an artist and citizen, Phidias was formed in an atmosphere of patriotic enthusiasm caused by the victories of the Greeks over the Persians. Already his early works clearly indicate that the idea of the heroic feat of his people over the conquerors during the Persian invasions between 465 and 460 played an important role for the sculptor. For example, Phidias cast a bronze sculpture group of thirteen figures, which the Athenians dedicated to the Delphic temple of Apollo. Next to the images of gods and heroes of Greek mythology, the master placed a statue of the commander Miltiades, who commanded the Athenian troops at the Battle of Marathon. However, Phidias' main work is undoubtedly the Acropolis.

Speaking about the ideological and artistic program of the Acropolis, it is necessary to take into account several fundamental points.

Political context. The main idea of the Acropolis is the victory of Attica over the Persians and gratitude to Athena for this victory. The theme of struggle, victory and military power is one of the leading ones in the Acropolis. She is depicted in the image of Athena Promachos (Warrior), in the statue of Wingless Victory in the Temple of Nike and in scenes of battles between the Greeks and centaurs and Amazons, which on the metopes of the Parthenon and on the shield of Athena the Virgin symbolize the fight against the Persians.

Connection with the landscape. The Acropolis Hill stretches strongly from west to east. The hill is being strengthened, but it is not being improved. Thus, the chaos of the natural rock (which can be observed while walking along the winding road to the Acropolis) ends at the top with a cosmos of man-made architecture.

Connection with ritual processions . In the second half of the 5th century. BC. Athens became the political and cultural center of Greece and achieved particular splendor. Therefore, the role of the main local deity - Athena - is very important. Ever since archaic times, Athens hosted annual Panathenaic holidays in honor of Athena. In the era of Pericles, they became a general Greek holiday along with the Olympic Games and Delphic festivals. Panathenaic festivals are divided into large and small. The Small Panathenaea was held annually, and the Large Panathenaea, which was longer, was held once every five years. The culmination of the Panathenaic was a festive procession in which all citizens of Athens participated, regardless of gender and age. At the head of the procession moved a special cart - the so-called Panathenaic ship - with an embroidered peplos (robe) of the goddess Athena, which was woven and sewn by girls from nobles for each Panathenaic festival Athenian families. It was a beautiful robe with a golden outline, elements of centauromachy and amazonomachy, which was solemnly presented to the wooden xoan of Athena. After the procession, the Athenians performed a ritual of sacrifice - a hecatomb, followed by a joint feast, which completed the Panathenaic program.

To organize the Panathenaic procession, they used the road from Eleusis, along which participants passed annually Eleusinian Mysteries 1 . To achieve this, the road was significantly widened and positioned in such a way that it did not go directly to the Acropolis, but wound around, opening up different points of view of the Acropolis. The entire composition of the Acropolis is tied to the idea of the Panathenaic processions. Therefore, both temples (Parthenon and Erechtheion) are turned to the entrance with the side without the entrance, so that you need to go around the entire Acropolis and only then enter them.

The sequence of changing points of view as you approach the Acropolis. The planners designed the main architectural structures in such a way that only one of them could be fully captured by the eye at a time. The ascent to the Acropolis was a zigzag, then it turned to the central passage of the Propylaea, a solemn Doric colonnade. From the eastern facade of the Propylaea, the “sacred road” began, stretching along the longitudinal axis of the entire hill. A little to her left stood the statue of Athena Promachos. The statue of Athena almost completely blocked the Erechtheion located in the distance from the viewer. Thus, the viewer walked for some time completely under the impression of a powerful statue of a formidable goddess guarding the city and meeting him at the gates of the Acropolis. And only when he came so close to the statue that he could no longer take in it as a whole, a view of the Parthenon opened up before him. Further, the “sacred road” passed by the northern facade of the Parthenon, passing by the colonnade, the viewer could see a sculptural frieze depicting the very procession in which he himself participated. It is extremely characteristic that the viewer did not immediately see the Parthenon in a frontal spread in front of him, he saw it from a certain angle, as a result of which not only the facade was closed, but also part of the side, so that one could fully experience the material volume and plasticity of this temple. Opposite the long colonnade of the Parthenon, the Erechtheion loomed, small in size but distinguished by its asymmetrical composition. The contrast between this building and the Parthenon is one of the most striking features of the ensemble. The festive procession ended at the altar of Athena, in front of the eastern facade of the Parthenon, where the ceremonial transfer of the newly woven peplos to the priest took place. Thus, through a successive change of a number of architectural effects, the ensemble that constituted their pride and glory was revealed to the Athenians.

The architectural techniques that achieved in the Acropolis ensemble the unity and integrity of the impression, characteristic to a certain extent of other complexes of the classical era, differ significantly from the techniques of ensemble solutions of previous periods. The individual parts of the ensemble are skillfully interconnected. This is achieved by juxtaposing free-standing buildings of different sizes and shapes, balancing each other not by size and symmetry of location, but by finely calculated balance and features of their architecture. The Parthenon and the Erechtheion were conceived in this juxtaposition. The deeply thought-out use of relief for artistic purposes is also of great importance. This technique generally became a common architectural tool in the classical era. The entire ensemble as a whole turned the unevenness of the rock into an artistic pattern. What is striking is the deliberate avoidance of all the architects who built on the Acropolis in the 5th century from parallelism in the construction of structures and taking into account the different points of view that opened up on the buildings. Thus, despite the apparent freedom of arrangement of parts, the composition of the Acropolis is based on a strict system and is precisely calculated. It is important that Phidias has several points of view, a sum of impressions, the result of which is the idea of the eternal victory of the cosmos. It is also important that the Greeks are interested in an ensemble not in the perception of all buildings as a single whole, but certainly in a consistent consideration of each building separately in its plastic self-worth and completeness.

Differences from the old Acropolis of the Pisistratid era (Archaic, around 560 BC). The early version of the Acropolis also had few architectural buildings, but there was no harmonious balance between them. For example, the old propylaea was perceived solely in terms of its function as a gateway to the Acropolis. In addition, there were no connections or relationships between architecture and nature. If in the archaic there was no system of relations between the temples that stood on the Acropolis, then in Phidias it was thought out very subtly. In archaic times, temples stood opposite each other. Phidias places them at an angle of 45° to the propylaea, placing both buildings close to the cliff. In this way, a closed sacred space is created - space.
Propylaea

Propylaea ( ill. 8 ) were the main entrance to the Acropolis. From the façade they were designed as a six-column colonnade topped with a pediment. Three-column wings were erected on both sides at right angles to the central body of the Propylaea. Elements of the complex: Propylaea (gate between two worlds, 6-column Doric portico by Mnesicles), Pyrgus (architectural screen in the form of a wall, decorated with the Doric order). Opposite is the Pinakothek, also closed by an order wall. At the corner of Pyrgos, the temple of Nike Apteros (Wingless) adjoins the Propylaea.

It is important that the Propylaea under Pericles combines elements of different order systems: a Doric portico on the outside, an Ionic portico on the inside, and multi-level buildings, since the hill was not leveled before construction began. Thus, the first pediment of the Propylaea is lower, and the second is higher. The Ionic order is fundamentally higher, so the interior space of the Propylaea is higher and lighter. Thus, the mood of the procession, as conceived by Phidias, was supposed to change from strictly solemn to more joyful and sublime.

A wide staircase led to the Propylaea, at the end of which a clear, harmonious outline of the Propylaea emerged. What is remarkable about the Propylaea is the asymmetry of both wings: the left, southern wing is much smaller in size than the right, due to which the entire exhibition of the Propylaea is devoid of that cold symmetrical pomp that is so often found in late classicism.

At the same time, despite the lack of complete symmetry, the Propylaea complex was extremely balanced and harmonious. The left wing of the Propylaea was shortened so that a small temple to Nike could be placed on the protruding massive pedestal-ledge of the Acropolis rock, the so-called Pyrgos. This principle of a free façade and asymmetrical balance of volumes is very characteristic of Greek art during its heyday. In this way, architecture gets rid of that rigid coldness and abstraction that characterizes, for example, the monumentalism of Egyptian architecture. This is very lively, rich in its visual impressions, very human architecture.

Instead of one entrance, five openings were made in the Propylaea, the middle one (for passage on horseback) was larger than the others. The outer and inner facades were 6-column Doric porticoes of the prostyle type. The entablatures, ceilings, pediments and roofing of both porticos were at different levels. In the middle passage, instead of steps, there is a ramp, on both sides of which there are two rows of Ionic columns. This is one of the most striking examples of the combination of two orders; it reflected the desire of Pericles to create a single Hellenic style. The ceiling of the Propylaea and the ceiling of the Parthenon pteron, completed ten years earlier, are the first stone ceilings in ancient Greek architecture.

From the point of view of the ideological program of the Acropolis, the Propylaea is important, since it distinguishes two worlds for the participants in the procession: the human one, from which they came, and the sacred one, into which they have yet to enter. Thus, by passing through the Propylaea, participants must cleanse themselves of the mundane and chaotic.

Passing through the Ionic portico of the Propylaea, the procession participants found themselves in a wide Ionic colonnade. Coming out of it, they found themselves in front of the statue of Athena Promachos. The statue links the Parthenon and the Erechtheion. In the center is sculpture, on the right is architecture, on the left is a synthesis of the first and second.

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