Language: Phonetics and phonology. What is position trading in simple words and with examples. Progressive and regressive assimilation

§ 28. Positional changes consonants occur in the following positions: 1) at the end of the word; 2) before voiceless/voiced noisy ones, except [в], [в’]; 3) before soft teeth; 4) in front of the soft labials; 5) before [h], [〙’]; 6) in front of the palatodental fissures.

At the end of the word, voiced noisy words are deafened and in their place are voiceless noisy ones: ra[b]y - ra[p], gra[b']it - gra[p'], kro[v]a - kro[f], kro [v']i - kro[f'], ra[d]y - ra[t], gl[d']it - gl[t'], ro[z]a - ro[s], ma[z ']i - ma[s'], but[zh]i - but[w], do[〇']i - do[〙'], ro[g]a - ro[k].

Sonorants are deafened at the end of a word after voiceless noisy ones, or before voiceless noisy ones: ost[】], cape[〬'], drah[〭], nasmo[】]k, vo[〬]k, do[〬k], four[ 】To].

§ 29. In the position in front of voiceless noisy consonants, voiced noisy consonants are deafened, and in their place are voiceless noisy consonants: sko[b]ochka - skok[p]ka, la[v]ochka - la[f]ka, rya[d] ok - rya[t]ka, bere[z]a - bere[s]ka, lo[zh]echka - lo[sh]ka.

In the position before voiced noisy consonants, except [v], [v'], voiceless noisy consonants are voiced, and in their place voiced noisy consonants appear: [z]throw, o[d]guess, [z]dat (cf. lack of voicing before voiceless consonants in cases of [p]ush, o[t]fall). In the position before the voiced noisy ones, the voiceless [ts], [ch] and [x] are voiced, and in their place are the voiced [dz], [dㆀzh’] and [γ]. Voicing of the voiceless [ts], [ch] and [x] occurs mainly at the junction of an independent and a function word or at the junction of components in complex formations: ote[dㆀzㆃb]y, (do[dㆀzh'ㆃb] y, so[γㆃb]y, tre[γg]rosh.

Note. Voiced [дㆀз], [дㆀж’] and [γ] have the same articulatory characteristics that the voiceless [ts], [h] and [х] have, respectively, with the addition of voicing.

§ 30. In the position before soft dental [t'], [d'] consonants [s], [z] soften: [s't']ep, [s't']bend, [s't']elit , [z'd']es, [z'd']do. Before soft dental [s’], [z’], the consonants [s], [z], softening, merge with them into one long soft sound[〒’] or [〈’]: to work [〒’] to work, to work [〈’] to work. Before soft dental [n'], [l'] consonants [s], [z] in the position inside the root are pronounced softly (which corresponds to Old Moscow pronunciation norms): [s'n']egir, [s'n']ezhok, [dream; [z’l’]it, [z’l’]e, however, at present it is also permissible here solid pronunciation[s], [z]: [snow’] egir, [snow’] hedgehog, [dream’] dream; [angry’]it, [evil’]e.

In the position before soft dental [t’], [d’] consonants [t], [d] can be pronounced in two ways: with or without softening. In combinations [tt], [dd], a long shutter is formed (i.e., a short delay before the explosion), which, when soft pronunciation the preceding consonant can be soft, and with a hard pronunciation - hard: o[d’d’]delit, o[t’t’]esnite or o[dd’]elit, o[t’]esnite.

In the position before soft dental [s'], [z'] consonants [t], [d] are pronounced with a minor fricative element, bringing them closer to affricates, which can be pronounced both softly (in accordance with the Old Moscow norm) and hard: o[ts's']elite, o[ts's']go, o[dㆀz'z']im and o[ts']elite, o[ts']go, o[dㆀzz'] spend the winter.

In the position before soft dental [n’], [l’] consonants [t], [d] are pronounced differently. Before [n'] they are pronounced softly both inside the root and at the junction of the root with a prefix (with possible hard pronunciation in this position) and a suffix: [d'n']evnoy, po[d'n']yat and po[ dn']yat, o[t'n']yat and o[tn']yat, plo[t'n']ee, which corresponds to the Old Moscow pronunciation; before [l'] these consonants can be pronounced both softly (in accordance with Old Moscow norms) and firmly: pe[t'l']ya and pe[tl']ya, po[d'l']e and po[ dl']e; to [sh’]shoulder, to [should’]hustle.

In the position before soft teeth [t'], [d'], [s'], [z'], the consonant [n] is pronounced softly: vi[n't']ik, ka[n'd']idat, pe [n's']iya, war [n'z']it. Before the soft [n’], the consonant [n], softening, merges with it into one long soft sound [『’]: weighty [『’]ii.

In the position before the dental affricate [ts], the consonant [t] is pronounced together with it as one long sound [〗] or as [ts], i.e. [ts] with a long shutter: o[〗]a or o[ts] a, o[〗]eat or o[t]eat.

§ 31. In the position in front of the soft labial [v'], [f'], [b'], [n'], [m'] dental [t], [d], [s], [z] are pronounced softly inside the root, as well as at the end of prefixes ending in z, s, which corresponds to the old Moscow norms (with the firm pronunciation of dental teeth before soft labials in the indicated positions acceptable in the speech of young people): [t'v']ber (proper topon.) and [tv']believe, [d'v']vest and [dv']vest, [s'v']et and [svet]vet, [s'v']vest and [sve']vest, [z 'believe and [beast'], ra[z'v']vest and ra[z']vest, [s'f']era and [sf']era, [s'p']ely and [sp']white, [z'b']it and [zb']it, [s'm']ena and [sm']ena, [s'm']eat and [sm']eat, [z 'm']ya and [zm']ya, r[z'm']yat and r[zm']yat. At the junction of the root with the prefix, the consonants [t], [d] in the position before the soft labials are pronounced firmly: o[tv']return, o[db']it, o[tp']it, o[tm']est , to[dm']eat. However, according to the Old Moscow norm, [t], [d] in the position in front of the soft labials were pronounced softly in this position: o[d'b']it, o[t'p']it, o[t'm']est, to [d'm']eat. Currently, this pronunciation is classified as colloquial.

In the position in front of the soft labials, the labial consonants [v], [f], [b], [p], [m] can be pronounced both softly (in accordance with the Old Moscow norm) and hard: [f'p']is and [fp']write, [v'b']it and [vb']it, [v'm']men and [vm']men, [in'm']nature and [vm']nature, ri[ f'm']e and ri[fm']e, o[b'm']en and o[bm']en. In the position before [v’], the consonant [v], softening, merges with it into one long soft sound [〃’]: [〃’] to speak, [〃’] to eat.

§ 32. In the position before [h], the consonant [t] (spelling t and d), softening, merges with the sound [h], forming a long soft shutter (i.e., a delay before the explosion): pique [t'ch] ik, le[t'ch]ik, uka[t'ch]ik, mone[t'ch]ik, pass[t'ch]ik.

In the position before [h], the consonant [s] (spelling s and z), softening, merges with it into one long soft consonant sound [〙’]: re[〙’]ik, but [〙’]ik.

The combination of letters thc is pronounced in fluent speech as [chsh']: [chsh']etno, [chsh']ately, and in distinct speech - as [t〙']: [t〙']etno, [t〙']definitely .

The combination of letters сш at the junction of a prefix and a root is pronounced as [〙’]. In distinct speech, it is possible to pronounce [sh’sh’], one part of which belongs to the prefix, and the other part to the root: ra[sh’sh’]epit.

In the position before [h], [〙’], the consonant [n] softens: po [n’ch]ik, kame [n’〙’]ik.

In the position in front of the palatodental fricatives [w], [z], the dental fricatives [s], [z] are similar to them in the place of noise formation, i.e., they become palatodental fricatives, merging with them into one long sound [〙], [ 〇]: [〙]it, and [〇]it (spelling, sew, get rid of).

In the system of consonant phonemes, correlative rows of phonemes are distinguished, paired by:

v Deafness - voicedness.

v Hardness - softness.

Therefore, Russian consonant phonemes can be neutralized according to the characteristics deafness/voice And hardness/softness.

Not all consonant phonemes can be neutralized on the basis of deafness - voicedness. For example, phonemes can be represented by one sound<б>And<п>in the position of the end of the word: oak /dup/, stupid /stupid/ or phonemes<в>And<ф>: moat /roof/, closet /cabinet/. But cannot be represented by the sound /p/, for example, no other phoneme except<р>, she doesn't have a partner. This means that only paired phonemes can be neutralized on the basis of deafness-voiceness. Paired phonemes according to deafness and voicedness are as follows:<б п б’ п’ в ф в’ ф’ г к д т д’ т’ ж ж’ ш ш’ з с з’ с’ >. Such consonant phonemes cannot be neutralized by voiceness-voicelessness<м м’ н н’ л л’ р р’ j ц ч х>- these phonemes do not have a pair.

Paired phonemes, neutralized in weak positions, can be represented by voiceless or ringing sound. Neutralization occurs in the following positions:

Weak positions in deafness - voicedness:

1. at the end of a word. Voiced and voiceless consonant phonemes are realized in voiceless consonants: genus/mouth/ and mouth/mouth/, stupid/stupid/ and lips/gup/.

2. before voiceless noisy consonants. Voiced and voiceless consonant phonemes are realized in voiceless consonants: sleep/SP/at and from the desk/ISP/arts.

3. before voiced noisy ones. Voiced and voiceless consonant phonemes are realized in voiced consonants: from the bathhouse/IZB/ and with sauna/ZB/.

There is no neutralization for deafness - voicedness, which means sound is the main representative of the phoneme, in the following positions:

Strong positions on deafness - voicedness:

1. Position before a vowel.

2. Position before a sonorant consonant.

3. Position before [in] and [in’].

Unpaired phonemes<ч>, <ц>, <х>, , <м>, <н>, <л>, <р>, <м’>, <н’>, <р’>, <л’>do not participate in neutralization, but each of them is represented by variations, both voiceless and voiced:

<ц>

Consonant phonemes may not differ on the basis of hardness or softness. Consonant phonemes paired in hardness and softness are neutralized in the following positions:

Weak positions in terms of hardness and softness:

1. Dental before soft dental (except /l/). Soft and hard phonemes are realized in soft dental ones.

2. Before /sh’/, /ch’/ are neutralized<н>, <н’>. The soft and hard phonemes are realized in soft /n’/.

3. Dental before soft labial. Soft and hard phonemes are realized in soft dental ones.

There is no hardness-softness neutralization, which means sound is the main representative of the phoneme in the following positions:

Strong positions on hardness - softness:

1. at the end of a word.

2. before a vowel.

3. before the back lingual consonant.

Hard and soft phonemes are not distinguished in the following positions:

Unpaired phonemes by hardness - softness:

<к>, <г>, <х>, <ц>, <ч>, ,<л>, <л’>- these phonemes do not participate in neutralization by hardness - softness.

Consonant phonemes can be neutralized according to one more feature - the place of formation. Phonemes<с с’з з’ т т ’д д’ ц >are realized in dental noisy sounds / s’z z’ t t ’d d’ ts/. Phonemes<ш ш’ ж ж’ ч’>are realized in anteropalatal noisy / w w’ w w’ h’/. In the position in front of the anteropalatal noisy ones, the dental ones change to anteropalatal: sew/sew/, squeeze /burn/.

Questions and assignments.

1. What is neutralization?

2. Fill out the table:

Positions: at the end of a word, position before a vowel, position before a sonorant consonant, before a velar consonant, position before [в] and [в’].

3. Name unpaired phonemes based on deafness/voice, hardness/softness.

4. Determine the composition of phonemes in the following words:

house, family, mouth, with the wind, without the wind, out of trouble, out of the pond, cinema.

5. Determine the sound and phonemic composition of the following words:

With Shura, with Chuk, with Sasha, with Shchukar, with Zina, with Anya.

A correct understanding of position trading will allow you to add a powerful strategy to your arsenal for working in any financial markets.

The content of the article:

Before you start trading, you should understand the basic key concepts: What is position trading, how does it differ from swing trading and what is its strategy.

What is position trading in simple words and with examples

Position trading– this is working on a trend on a long-term basis, on charts covering large time scales. To implement this, fundamental and technical analysis is often used. Position trading is suitable for all types of markets: stocks, commodities, Forex.

Here's how Wikipedia described position trading:

Position trader (short-term) - makes transactions with a duration of several days, closes all positions before periods of decreased liquidity (holidays, summer holidays and so on.)

Positional trading has existed since the advent of the first speculators, when charts with short time intervals were not available to people, and quotes were updated only a few times a day manually on the board in brokerage offices. In such conditions, it was more profitable to trade in the long term and hold the position.

Today, positional strategy is used in the stock market and Forex, while positional traders are often identified with investors, but this is not entirely true. It is necessary to understand the difference between this style and others:

Thus, position trading is an independent style, significantly different from others. Market participants can use this approach to hold short- and long-term positions. Its advantages:

1. Does not take into account small price changes, that is, does not require constant monitoring of the situation;
2. There is no need to be near the computer all the time. In positional strategy, the most important thing is a deep and thorough analysis, on the basis of which further decisions are made;
3. An open position simply needs to be monitored if there is a situation that could change the position or price.

Position trading strategy on the real market

Position trading strategy is an analysis of daily, weekly and monthly timeframes; holding an open position for at least several days to a month.

Position trading in simple words– this is a meaningful and balanced entry into a transaction, based on maintaining a position in a trend.

Each strategy implies the presence of certain basic rules; positional trading is characterized by the following:

• The signal to enter a position is the beginning of a trend on a large timeframe (with a period of 1 day or 1 week);
• Exit from a transaction is carried out only if there are sufficient grounds for the end of the trend.

The simplest idea and interpretation of such a strategy is the phrase “ buy and hold", often applicable to long-term investors in stocks large companies(blue chips).

Let's look at a small example of positional stock trading retail network"Magnet".

As you can see, the price has been in a strong uptrend for several years, which would be a good opportunity to hold the position for a long time. The technical signal for entering a position is the exit from consolidation at the end of 2012. Until the beginning of 2014, the price grew steadily, reaching new highs. Only in March does a serious price drawdown appear, which breaks through the trend line and strong support levels. At this point, most position traders close their trades as the a clear sign that the trend is ending.

The result of the transaction could be a 120% increase; if trading is carried out with a leverage of 1:20, then it was possible to increase the capital by more than 40 times, with just one transaction.

In terms of technical tools, positional trading involves the use of:

• trend channels;
• support and resistance levels;
• moving averages, especially those with a 200-day period.

The main task is to identify a strong global movement, so analysis of news and fundamental background is used. However, news does not have a decisive meaning in position trading, but only serves as confirmation of technical signals.

Poll: What type of trading do you prefer?

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Difference from investing

Positional trading refers to holding a transaction for a relatively long time in the direction of the global trend.

It is a mistake to believe that position trading is similar to investing in the popular sense. Let's look at their main differences:

• trading as the main source implies income from the profitable resale of an asset (stocks, futures, currency), and investing is of no less importance passive income(dividends, monthly payments);
• investors rely on fundamental analysis of the asset (company performance indicators, business growth prospects), and the trader is more focused on charts, using economic indicators for confirmation only;
• Returns are often calculated at the end of the year, and a successful investor can wait for the final results for decades.

The only similarity between a position trader and an investor is the long-term holding of an asset and nothing more. Thus, each market participant needs to decide who he really is - an investor or a speculator.

Differences between position trading and swing trading

Other popular strategy– this is something that differs from positional trading, if not radically, then quite significantly. The swing focuses on average time intervals and most traders receive income from entering the market based entirely on changes in the exchange rate, which will lead to a change in the value of the open position. For analysis, not a fundamental, but only a technical approach is used.

Position traders, in turn, work over large periods of time. They do not dwell on small price fluctuations, but study the long-term perspective of the development of the economic situation. The strategy is drawn up taking into account the trend of changes in the financial situation over the course of days, weeks and even months.

This is the biggest difference between position trading and swing trading. The former take into account fundamental components in their decisions, such as long-term forecasts, political and economic decisions of the government, financial models, etc. And the latter open transactions, looking at the short-term perspective of price fluctuations of the selected currency.

Position trading, unlike other business strategies, is most similar to investing, which means it provides a full range of financial instruments for stock transactions. the main objective Such trading means holding a stock for as long as possible while it makes a profit. This period can last from several days to months. Here the main task is to carefully study a certain sector of the economy and its general condition at the time of opening a position, as well as predicting the situation for the future in order to avoid risks. Useful assistant tools:

• Indicators;
• Trend lines;
• Long-term charts with non-technical information;
• Short-term charts with monthly and weekly changes;
• Fundamental analytics.

So, the whole strategy consists of three main steps:

1. Analysis of the economic sector and the position of the selected group of shares;
2. Choosing the most profitable moment to open a position;
3. Holding a stock for the longest period of time, and closing it if the economic situation suddenly changes.

You need to choose a positional trading strategy only for those assets for which you can conduct fundamental analysis and technical analytics, give the most accurate forecasts and be confident that the price trend will continue for a long period (at least a week).

Positional trading on Forex

Most Forex participants use positional trading as the main approach to making money. This is due to the fact that this particular method in the Forex market has the following advantages:

• Low commission costs;
• More time to make the right decision;
• There is no need for constant analysis and daily monitoring of the media and for adjusting positions.

As in stock trading, a trader must have a reserve of capital that can cover possible losses. When choosing a currency pair, one strong and one weak currency are accepted. Many participants make the mistake of analyzing only one currency and neglecting the analytics for the second.

Positional trading on the stock exchange has several basic principles, adhering to which you can ensure a 90% probability of successful trading:

1. Analysis of structure and market restrictions;
2. Determination of monthly trend reversals;
3. A calm approach to business without unnecessary risks and excessive greed;
4. Confidence in your own decisions made taking into account news statements, forecasts and analysts’ comments;
5. Cool study of the media;
6. Entering a transaction with a size of assets that can be at least 5% at risk of loss.

Advantages and disadvantages

Any trading style has its advantages and disadvantages. In scalping, this means a long stay at the computer and strong nervous tension, but high level potential profit. The advantages of position trading include the following aspects:

• a relatively high percentage of profitable trades, since long-term trends are much more common on large time intervals and it is difficult to manipulate the market (put out stop orders);
• no need for a long stay at the monitor - the position can be monitored once a day or even a week;
• the possibility of a calm and long-term analysis (you can think about it for several days before entering);
• lower risk of psychological breakdown due to less frequent monitoring of the schedule;
• Huge profit potential with gradual increase and retention of a position.

The list is not exhaustive; the most significant advantages of the positional style are presented here. Let's move on to the disadvantages:

• long waits for results that can only really be measured months or years later;
• high responsibility for each forecast and analysis, since it can take many days and weeks in holding the wrong position;
• slow progress in trading (it’s good to hold positions if the trader already has experience, but you won’t be able to gain it quickly by opening trades once a year);
• the need for significant capital investments (you can only get significant income from positional trading if you have a decent amount of money in your account).

As a result, holding a position in certain cases is a significant advantage for an experienced trader, but disastrous for novice speculators.

Conclusion

So what is position trading - investing or trading?

Still, positional trading, in simple words, is not an investment, but trading, since the investor only hopes for growth, believes in the company, and he may not analyze the market, but influence the company itself. A position trader can trade for lower prices and in different markets.

Position trading is significantly different from day trading, scalping or swing in that it is aimed at holding a position throughout the entire trend, and not a specific part of it (fluctuations).

This approach is well suited for experienced traders with significant capital investments, and less so for beginners with a small deposit.

Positional trading is trend trading on long time frames. Position trading is usually carried out on the basis of. This method of trading is used on almost all exchanges. Traders who use this style of trading maintain long time Both sell and buy transactions are open.

Sell ​​transactions make a profit when the price of an asset depreciates, which usually happens during times of economic/financial turmoil. This method of earning money brought many speculators considerable profits in 2008, when there was a sharp drop in prices in many markets.

Features of position trading

The essence of position trading is to open trades in order to obtain maximum income from a trend. Position traders do not pay attention to minor price fluctuations and noise in the market. They try to find a major trend that may last for more than a few months. This method of trading has its advantages. The main one is that to trade in this way, a trader does not need to constantly be in front of a computer monitor. A trader just needs to carry out the analysis correctly, make a forecast for the future and open trades. Next, the trader simply watches the transactions and adjusts them if necessary. At the same time, the trader does not pay attention to market noise and minor pullbacks, so there is no need to constantly monitor orders.

Positional trading is the exact opposite, where the trader needs to take Active participation in conducting trade. There is also another style of trading - swing trading, which involves opening orders once a week or month. Position traders create a couple of orders per year. Traders who swing trade create up to one hundred trades per year. As for day traders, they create about 1000 trades per year.

How to identify places to enter the market

Revealing suitable places To enter the market in positional trading, it is carried out using several methods. Some speculators are looking for assets with good trend potential, but which are still fluctuating within a certain range. Sometimes you can open trades on assets that have already started a trend. The second case is more convenient for traders, since the trend has already appeared and its direction is known. All a trader needs to do is simply open an order in the direction of the trend. In this case, there is no need to spend special effort and time on conducting analysis and making a forecast. The main goal of a position trader is to identify an emerging trend and open an order in accordance with its direction.

Risks of position trading

Position trading, like any other type of trading in the foreign exchange market, is subject to certain risks. Among the main risks associated with this trading method, it is worth noting the danger of a trend change before the created orders are closed. Under unfavorable circumstances, even weak corrections can cause a trend change.

Position trading also has some limitations due to the fact that traders invest existing capital for a fairly long period of time. For this reason, before creating an order, a trader must plan his investment in such a way as to prevent exit from the position due to a drawdown of the deposit.

Advantages of position trading

Among the many advantages of position trading, the following deserve special attention:

1. This method of trading allows you to determine the true situation on the market, which, in turn, helps to identify the true direction of movement of the price level. Due to the fact that the trader is not distracted by small price fluctuations, he makes significantly fewer mistakes.
2. Ability to apply fundamental analysis. Having familiarized himself with the situation in the economy of a particular state, he will be able to quite accurately predict changes in the quotations of the national currency.
3. Position trading involves more measured and calm trading, since there is no need to quickly make decisions. After opening orders, the trader only needs to monitor the situation on the market from time to time.

Is it worth using positional trading?

In order to receive good income When conducting positional trading, you need to have a certain a sum of money. With a small initial capital, a trader has no right to count on serious income. And the money management recommendations here are somewhat different. The stop loss, due to work on older time periods, is set a little further. Therefore, if a trader violates money management recommendations and invests most of the initial capital into a position, then Stop-Loss will not save him from losses if the price level begins to move in a direction unfavorable for the trader. And this can happen at any moment. The size of the correction or sideways movement can be 500 points on pairs with high volatility. It is recommended to start with a small deposit at first so that the trader can understand whether he can trade in such conditions. Not every trader will be able to keep an order open for several months, let alone years. While testing, you can continue to day trade and occasionally test your position trading trades. This method will help the trader understand for himself whether position trading is suitable for him.

If you cannot boast of having a large amount of free Money, then position trading most likely will not suit you, since with its help it is impossible to quickly disperse a small deposit.

Position trading is the best choice for patient traders who are not chasing short-term income and can afford to invest capital in trading for a relatively long period.

In this chapter:

§1. Sound

Sound- the minimum unit of sounding speech. Each word has a sound shell consisting of sounds. The sound corresponds to the meaning of the word. Different words and word forms have different sound patterns. The sounds themselves are not important, but they serve an important role: they help us distinguish between:

• words: [house] - [tom], [tom] - [there], [m’el] - [m’el’]
• forms of the word: [house] - [lady´ ] - [house´ ma].

Note:

words written in square brackets are given in transcription.

§2. Transcription

Transcription is a special recording system that displays sound. The following symbols are used in the transcription:

Square brackets indicating transcription.

[ ´ ] - emphasis. The accent is placed if the word consists of more than one syllable.

[b’] - the icon next to the consonant indicates its softness.

[j] and [th] are different designations for the same sound. Since this sound is soft, these symbols are often used with an additional designation of softness: [th’]. This site uses the notation [th’], which is more familiar to most guys. The soft icon will be used to help you get used to the sound being soft.

There are other symbols. They will be introduced gradually as you become familiar with the topic.

§3. Vowels and consonants

Sounds are divided into vowels and consonants.
They have different natures. They are pronounced and perceived differently, and also behave differently in speech and play different roles in it.

Vowels- these are sounds during the pronunciation of which air passes freely through the oral cavity without encountering an obstacle on its way. Pronunciation (articulation) is not focused in one place: the quality of vowels is determined by the shape of the oral cavity, which acts as a resonator. When articulating vowels, the vocal cords in the larynx work. They are close, tense and vibrate. Therefore, when pronouncing vowels, we hear a voice. Vowels can be drawn out. You can shout them. And if you put your hand to your throat, you can feel the work of the vocal cords when pronouncing vowels, feel it with your hand. Vowels are the basis of a syllable; they organize it. There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels. For example: He- 1 syllable, she- 2 syllables, Guys- 3 syllables, etc. There are words that consist of one vowel sound. For example, unions: and, and and interjections: Oh!, Ah!, Oooh! and others.

In a word, vowels can be in stressed and unstressed syllables.
Stressed syllable one in which the vowel is pronounced clearly and appears in its basic form.
IN unstressed syllables vowels are modified and pronounced differently. Changing vowels in unstressed syllables is called reduction.

There are six stressed vowels in the Russian language: [a], [o], [u], [s], [i], [e].

Remember:

There are words that can only consist of vowels, but consonants are also necessary.
In the Russian language there are many more consonants than vowels.

§4. Method of formation of consonants

Consonants- these are sounds, when pronounced, the air encounters an obstacle in its path. There are two types of obstruents in the Russian language: gap and stop - these are the two main ways of forming consonants. The type of obstruction determines the nature of the consonant sound.

Gap is formed, for example, when pronouncing sounds: [s], [z], [w], [z]. The tip of the tongue only approaches the lower or upper teeth. Friction consonants can be pulled: [s-s-s-s], [sh-sh-sh-sh] . As a result, you will clearly hear the noise: when pronouncing [c] - whistling, and when pronouncing [w] - hissing.

Bow, The second type of articulation of consonants is formed when the organs of speech close. The air flow abruptly overcomes this obstacle, the sounds are short and energetic. That's why they are called explosive. You won't be able to pull them. These are, for example, the sounds [p], [b], [t], [d] . Such articulation is easier to feel and sense.

So, when pronouncing consonants, noise is heard. Presence of noise - hallmark consonants.

§5. Voiced and voiceless consonants

According to the ratio of noise and voice, consonants are divided into voiced and unvoiced.
When spoken voiced consonants, both voice and noise are heard, and deaf- only noise.
Deaf words cannot be spoken loudly. They cannot be shouted.

Let's compare the words: house And cat. Each word has 1 vowel sound and 2 consonants. The vowels are the same, but the consonants are different: [d] and [m] are voiced, and [k] and [t] are voiceless. Voicedness-deafness is the most important sign consonants in Russian.

voiced-voiceless pairs:[b] - [p], [z] - [c] and others. There are 11 such pairs.

Voiceless-voiced pairs: [p] and [b], [p"] and [b"], [f] and [v], [f"] and [v"], [k] and [d], [k"] and [g"], [t] and [d], [t"] and [d"], [w] and [g], [s] and [z], [s"] and [ z"].

But there are sounds that do not have a pair on the basis of voicedness - deafness. For example, the sounds [r], [l], [n], [m], [y’] do not have a voiceless pair, but [ts] and [ch’] do not have a voiced pair.

Unpaired according to deafness-voicing

Voiced unpaired:[r], [l], [n], [m], [th"], [r"], [l"], [n"], [m"] . They are also called sonorous.

What does this term mean? This is a group of consonants (9 in total) that have peculiarities of pronunciation: when they are pronounced, obstacles also arise in the oral cavity, but such that the air stream, passing through an obstacle produces only a slight noise; air passes freely through an opening in the nasal cavity or mouth. Sonorants are pronounced using the voice with the addition of slight noise. Many teachers do not use this term, but everyone should know that these sounds are unpaired voiced sounds.

Sonorants have two important features:

1) they are not deafened, like paired voiced consonants, before voiceless consonants and at the end of a word;

2) before them there is no voicing of paired deaf consonants (i.e. the position in front of them is strong in deafness-voicing, just like before vowels). See more about positional changes.

Voiceless unpaired:[ts], [h"], [w":], [x], [x"].

How can it be easier to remember lists of voiced and voiceless consonants?

The following phrases will help you remember lists of voiced and voiceless consonants:

Oh, we didn’t forget each other!(Here only voiced consonants)

Foka, do you want to eat some soup?(Here only voiceless consonants)

True, these phrases do not include pairs of hardness and softness. But usually people can easily figure out that not only hard [z] is voiced, but also soft [z"] too, not only [b], but also [b"], etc.

§6. Hard and soft consonants

Consonants differ not only in deafness and voicedness, but also in hardness and softness.
Hardness-softness- the second most important sign of consonants in the Russian language.

Soft consonants differ from solid special status language. When pronouncing hard words, the entire body of the tongue is pulled back, and when pronouncing soft words, it is moved forward, and the middle part of the tongue is raised. Compare: [m] - [m’], [z] - [z’]. Voiced soft ones sound higher than hard ones.

Many Russian consonants form hardness-softness pairs: [b] - [b’], [v] - [v’] and others. There are 15 such pairs.

Hardness-softness pairs: [b] and [b"], [m] and [m"], [p] and [p"], [v] and [v"], [f] and [f"] , [z] and [z"], [s] and [s"], [d] and [d"], [t] and [t"], [n] and [n"], [l] and [l"], [p] and [p"], [k] and [k"], [g] and [g"], [x] and [x"].

But there are sounds that do not have a pair on the basis of hardness and softness. For example, the sounds [zh], [sh], [ts] do not have a soft pair, but [y’] and [h’] do not have a hard pair.

Unpaired in hardness-softness

Hard unpaired: [zh], [w], [ts] .

Soft unpaired: [th"], [h"], [w":].

§7. Indication of softness of consonants in writing

Let's take a break from pure phonetics. Let's take a practical look important question: How is the softness of consonants indicated in writing?

There are 36 consonant sounds in the Russian language, including 15 hard-soft pairs, 3 unpaired hard and 3 unpaired soft consonants. There are only 21 consonants. How can 21 letters represent 36 sounds?

Various methods are used for this:

• iotized letters e, e, yu, i after consonants, except w, w And ts, unpaired in hardness-softness, indicate that these consonants are soft, for example: aunt- [t’o´ t’a], uncle -[Yes Yes] ;
• letter And after consonants, except w, w And ts. Consonants indicated by letters w, w And ts, unpaired solids. Examples of words with a vowel letter And: nothing- [n’i´ tk’i], sheet- [l’ist], Cute- [Cute'] ;
• letter b, after consonants, except w, w, after which soft sign is an indicator of grammatical form. Examples of words with a soft sign : request- [prose], stranded- [m’el’], distance- [gave’].

Thus, the softness of consonants in writing is conveyed not by special letters, but by combinations of consonants with letters and, e, e, yu, I And b. Therefore, when parsing, I advise you to pay special attention to adjacent letters after the consonants.

Discussing the problem of interpretation

School textbooks say that [w] and [w’] - unpaired in hardness and softness. How so? We hear that the sound [w’] is a soft analogue of the sound [w].
When I was studying at school myself, I couldn’t understand why? Then my son went to school. He had the same question. It appears in all children who approach learning thoughtfully.

The confusion arises because school books They don’t take into account that the sound [sh’] is also long, but the hard sound [sh] is not. Pairs are sounds that differ in only one attribute. And [w] and [w’] - two. Therefore [w] and [w’] are not pairs.

For adults and high school students.

In order to maintain correctness, it is necessary to change the school tradition of transcribing the sound [w’]. It seems that it is easier for the guys to use one more additional sign than to face an illogical, unclear and misleading statement. It's simple. So that generation after generation does not rack their brains, it is necessary to finally show that a soft hissing sound is long.

For this purpose, in linguistic practice there are two icons:

1) superscript above the sound;
2) colon.

Using a superscript is inconvenient because it is not provided by the set of characters that can be used in computer typing. This means that the following possibilities remain: using a colon [w’:] or a grapheme denoting the letter [w’] . It seems to me that the first option is preferable. Firstly, children often mix sounds and letters at first. The use of a letter in transcription will create the basis for such confusion and provoke an error. Secondly, the guys are now starting to study early foreign languages. And the [:] symbol, when used to indicate the length of a sound, is already familiar to them. Thirdly, transcription indicating longitude with a colon [:] will perfectly convey the features of the sound. [sh’:] - soft and long, both features that make up its difference from the sound [sh] are presented clearly, simply and unambiguously.

What advice can you give to children who are now studying using generally accepted textbooks? You need to understand, comprehend, and then remember that in fact the sounds [w] and [w’:] do not form a pair in terms of hardness and softness. And I advise you to transcribe them the way your teacher requires.

§8. Place of formation of consonants

Consonants differ not only according to the characteristics already known to you:

• deafness-voice,
• hardness-softness,
• method of formation: bow-slit.

The last, fourth sign is important: place of education.
The articulation of some sounds is carried out by the lips, others - by the tongue, it in different parts. So, the sounds [p], [p'], [b], [b'], [m], [m'] are labial, [v], [v'], [f], [f' ] - labiodental, all others - lingual: anterior lingual [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [n], [n'], [s], [s'], [z ], [z'], [w], [w], [w':], [h'], [c], [l], [l'], [r], [r'] , middle lingual [th’] and back lingual [k], [k’], [g], [g’], [x], [x’].

§9. Positional changes of sounds

1. Strong-weak positions for vowels. Positional changes of vowels. Reduction

People do not use spoken sounds in isolation. They don't need it.
Speech is a sound stream, but a stream organized in a certain way. The conditions in which a particular sound appears are important. The beginning of a word, the end of a word, a stressed syllable, an unstressed syllable, a position before a vowel, a position before a consonant - these are all different positions. We will figure out how to distinguish between strong and weak positions, first for vowels, and then for consonants.

Strong position one in which sounds do not undergo positionally determined changes and appear in their basic form. A strong position is allocated for groups of sounds, for example: for vowels, this is a position in a stressed syllable. And for consonants, for example, the position before vowels is strong.

For vowels, the strong position is under stress, and the weak position is unaccented..
In unstressed syllables, vowels undergo changes: they are shorter and are not pronounced as clearly as under stress. This change in vowels in a weak position is called reduction. Due to reduction, fewer vowels are distinguished in the weak position than in the strong position.

The sounds corresponding to stressed [o] and [a] after hard consonants in a weak, unstressed position sound the same. “Akanye” is recognized as normative in the Russian language, i.e. non-discrimination ABOUT And A in an unstressed position after hard consonants.

• under stress: [house] - [dam] - [o] ≠ [a].
• without accent: [d A ma´ ] -home´ - [d A la´ ] -dala´ - [a] = [a].

The sounds corresponding to stressed [a] and [e] after soft consonants in a weak, unstressed position sound the same. The standard pronunciation is “hiccup”, i.e. non-discrimination E And A in an unstressed position after soft consonants.

• under stress: [m’ech’] - [m’ach’] - [e] ≠[a].
• without accent: [m’ich’o´ m]- sword´ m -[m'ich'o´ m] - ball´ m - [and] = [and].
• But what about the vowels [i], [s], [u]? Why was nothing said about them? The fact is that these vowels in a weak position are subject to only quantitative reduction: they are pronounced more briefly, weakly, but their quality does not change. That is, as for all vowels, an unstressed position for them is a weak position, but for a schoolchild these vowels in an unstressed position do not pose a problem.

[ski´ zhy], [in _lu´ zhu], [n’i´ t’i] - in both strong and weak positions the quality of vowels does not change. Both under stress and in unstressed position we clearly hear: [ы], [у], [и] and we write the letters that are usually used to denote these sounds.

Discussing the problem of interpretation

What vowel sounds are actually pronounced in unstressed syllables after hard consonants?

When performing phonetic analysis and transcribing words, many guys express bewilderment. In long polysyllabic words, after hard consonants, it is not the sound [a] that is pronounced, as school textbooks say, but something else.

They are right.

Compare the pronunciation of words: Moscow - Muscovites. Repeat each word several times and listen to what vowel sounds in the first syllable. With the word Moscow it's simple. We pronounce: [maskva´] - the sound [a] is clearly audible. And the word Muscovites? In accordance with the literary norm, in all syllables except the first syllable before stress, as well as the positions of the beginning and end of the word, we pronounce not [a], but another sound: less distinct, less clear, more similar to [s] than to [ a]. In the scientific tradition, this sound is designated by the symbol [ъ]. This means that in reality we pronounce: [mаlako´] - milk ,[khrasho´ ] - Fine ,[kalbasa´] - sausage.

I understand that by giving this material in textbooks, the authors tried to simplify it. Simplified. But many children with good hearing, who clearly hear that the sounds in the following examples are different, cannot understand why the teacher and the textbook insist that these sounds are the same. In fact:

[V A Yes ] - water´ -[V ъ d'inoy'] - water:[а]≠[ъ]
[other A wa´ ] - firewood´ -[other ъ in’ino´ th’] - wood-burning:[а]≠[ъ]

A special subsystem consists of the realization of vowels in unstressed syllables after sibilants. But in school course This material is not presented at all in most textbooks.

What vowel sounds are actually pronounced in unstressed syllables after soft consonants?

I feel the greatest sympathy for the children who study from textbooks that offer on-site A,E, ABOUT after soft consonants, hear and transcribe the sound “and, inclined to e.” I think it is fundamentally wrong to give schoolchildren as the only option the outdated pronunciation norm - “ekanya”, which is found today much less often than “icanya”, mainly among very elderly people. Guys, feel free to write in an unstressed position in the first syllable before the stress in place A And E- [And].

After soft consonants in other unstressed syllables, except for the position of the end of the word, we pronounce a short weak sound reminiscent of [i] and denoted as [b]. Say the words eight, nine and listen to yourself. We pronounce: [vo´ s’m’] - [b], [d’e´ v’t’] - [b].

Do not confuse:

Transcription marks are one thing, but letters are another.
The transcription sign [ъ] indicates a vowel after hard consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the first syllable before stress.
The letter ъ is a solid sign.
The transcription sign [b] indicates a vowel after soft consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the first syllable before stress.
The letter ь is a soft sign.
Transcription signs, unlike letters, are given in square brackets.

End of the word- special position. It shows clearing of vowels after soft consonants. System unstressed endings is a special phonetic subsystem. In it E And A differ:

Building[building n’ii’e] - building[building n’ii’a], opinion[mn’e´ n’i’e] - opinion[mn’e´ n’ii’a], more[mo´ r’e] - seas[mo´ r’a], will[vo´l’a] - at will[na_vo´l’e]. Remember this when doing phonetic analysis of words.

Check:

How your teacher requires you to mark vowels in an unstressed position. If he uses a simplified transcription system, that's okay: it's widely accepted. Just don’t be surprised that you actually hear different sounds in the unstressed position.

2. Strong-weak positions for consonants. Positional changes of consonants

For all consonants without exception, the strong position is position before vowel. Before vowels, consonants appear in their basic form. Therefore, when doing phonetic analysis, do not be afraid to make a mistake when characterizing the consonant in strong position: [country house] - country house,[t'l'iv'i´ z'r] - TV,[s’ino´ n’ima] - synonyms,[b'ir'o´ zy] - birch trees,[karz"i´ny] - baskets. All consonants in these examples come before vowels, i.e. in a strong position.

Strong positions on deafness of voicedness:

• before vowels: [there] - there,[ladies] - I'll give,
• before unpaired voiced [p], [p’], [l], [l’], [n], [n’], [m], [m’], [y’]: [dl’a] - For,[tl'a] - aphids,
• Before [in], [in’]: [own’] - mine,[ringing] - ringing.

Remember:

In a strong position, voiced and voiceless consonants do not change their quality.

Weak positions in deafness and voicedness:

• before paired ones according to deafness-voicing: [sl´ tk’ii] - sweet,[zu´ pk’i] - teeth.
• before voiceless unpaired ones: [aphva´ t] - girth, [fhot] - entrance.
• at the end of a word: [zup] - tooth,[dup] - oak.
  

Positional changes of consonants according to deafness-voicing

In weak positions, consonants are modified: positional changes occur with them. Voiced ones become voiceless, i.e. are deafened, and the deaf are voiced, i.e. call out. Positional changes are observed only for paired consonants.

Stunning-voicing of consonants

Stunning voiced occurs in positions:

• before paired deaf people: [fsta´ in’it’] - V put,
• at the end of the word: [clat] - treasure.

Voicing of the deaf occurs at position:

• before paired voiced ones: [kaz’ba´ ] - to With bah´

Strong positions in terms of hardness and softness:

• before vowels: [mat’] - mother,[m’at’] - crush,
• at the end of the word: [von] - out there,[won’] - stench,
• before labialials: [b], [b'], [p], [p'], [m], [m'] and posterior linguals: [k], [k'], [g], [g' ], [x[, [x'] for sounds [s], [s'], [z], [z'], [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [n ], [n'], [r], [r']: [sa´ n'k'i] - Sa´nki(gen. fall.), [s´ ank’i] - sled,[bun] - bun,[bu´ l’qt’] - gurgle,
• all positions for sounds [l] and [l’]: [forehead] - forehead,[pal'ba] - firing.

Remember:

In a strong position, hard and soft consonants do not change their quality.

Weak positions in hardness-softness and positional changes in hardness-softness.

• before soft [t’], [d’] for consonants [c], [z], which are necessarily softened: , [z’d’es’],
• before [h’] and [w’:] for [n], which is necessarily softened: [po´ n’ch’ik] - donut,[ka´ m’n’sh’:ik] - mason.

Remember:

In a number of positions today, both soft and hard pronunciation is possible:

• before soft front-lingual [n’], [l’] for front-lingual consonants [c], [z]: snow -[s’n’ek] and , make angry -[z’l’it’] and [zl’it’]
• before soft front-lingual, [z’] for front-lingual [t], [d] - lift -[pad’n’a´ t’] and [padn’a´ t’] , take away -[at’n’a´ t’] and [atn’a´ t’]
• before soft front-lingual [t"], [d"], [s"], [z"] for front-lingual [n]: vi´ntik -[v’i´ n"t"ik] and [v’i´ nt’ik], pension -[p'e´ n's'ii'a] and [p'e´ n's'ii'a]
• before soft labials [v’], [f’], [b’], [p’], [m’] for labials: enter -[f"p"isa´ t’] and [fp"is´ at’], ri´ fme(Dan. fall.) - [r'i´ f"m"e] and [r'i´ fm"e]

Remember:

In all cases, positional softening of consonants is possible in a weak position.
It is a mistake to write a soft sign when softening consonants positionally.

Positional changes of consonants based on the method and place of formation

Naturally, in school tradition It is not customary to present the characteristics of sounds and the positional changes that occur with them in full detail. But general patterns phonetics need to be learned. It's hard to do without it phonetic analysis and complete test tasks. Therefore, below is a list of positionally determined changes in consonants based on the method and place of formation. This material is a tangible help for those who want to avoid mistakes in phonetic analysis.

Assimilation of consonants

The logic is this: the Russian language is characterized by similarity of sounds if they are similar in some way and at the same time are nearby.

Learn the list:

[c] and [w] → [w:] - sew

[z] and [zh] → [zh:] - compress

[s] and [h’] - at the root of words → [sh’:] - happiness, score
- at the junction of morphemes and words → [w’:h’] - comb, dishonest, with what (a preposition followed by a word is pronounced together as one word)

[s] and [w’:] → [w’:] - split

[t] and [c] - in verb forms → [ts:] - smiles
-at the junction prefixes and roots → [tss] - sleep it off

[t] and [ts] → [ts:] - unhook

[t] and [h’] → [h’:] - report

[t] and [t] and [w’:]←[c] and [h’] - Countdown

[d] and [w’:] ←[c] and [h’] - counting

Dissociation of consonants

Dissimilarity is a process of positional change, the opposite of assimilation.

[g] and [k’] → [h’k’] - easy

Simplifying consonant clusters

Learn the list:

vst - [stv]: hello, feel
zdn - [zn]: late
zdc - [sc] : by the reins
lnts - [nts]: Sun
NDC - [nc]: Dutch
ndsh - [ns:] landscape
NTG - [ng]: x-ray
rdc - [rts]: heart
rdch - [rh’]: little heart
stl - [sl’]: happy
stn - [dn]: local

Pronunciation of sound groups:

In the forms of adjectives, pronouns, participles there are letter combinations: wow, him. IN place G they are pronounced [in]: him, beautiful, blue.
Avoid reading letter by letter. Say the words him, blue, beautiful Right.

§10. Letters and sounds

Letters and sounds have different purposes and different nature. But these are comparable systems. Therefore, you need to know the types of ratios.

Types of relationships between letters and sounds:

1. The letter denotes a sound, for example, vowels after hard consonants and consonants before vowels: weather.
2. The letter does not have its own sound meaning, for example b And ъ: mouse
3. A letter represents two sounds, for example iotated vowels e, e, yu, i in positions:
   • the beginning of a word
   • after vowels,
   • after separators b And ъ.
4. A letter can denote a sound and the quality of the preceding sound, such as iotated vowels and And after soft consonants.
5. The letter may indicate the quality of the preceding sound, for example b in words shadow, stump, gunfire.
6. Two letters can represent one sound, usually a long one: sew, compress, rush
7. Three letters correspond to one sound: smile - shh -[ts:]

Test of strength

Check your understanding of this chapter.

Final test

1. What determines the quality of a vowel sound?

   • From the shape of the oral cavity at the moment of pronouncing the sound
   • From the barrier formed by the speech organs at the moment of pronouncing a sound

2. What is reduction called?

   • pronouncing vowels under stress
   • pronouncing unstressed vowels
   • special pronunciation of consonants

3. For which sounds does the air stream encounter an obstacle on its path: a bow or a gap?

   • In vowels
   • In consonants

4. Can voiceless consonants be pronounced loudly?

5. Are the vocal cords involved in pronouncing voiceless consonants?

6. How many pairs of consonants are formed according to deafness and voicedness?

7. How many consonants do not have a voiced-voiced pair?

8. How many pairs do Russian consonants form according to hardness and softness?

9. How many consonants do not have a hard-soft pair?

10. How is the softness of consonants conveyed in writing?

    • Special icons
    • Letter combinations

11. What is the name of the position of a sound in a stream of speech in which it appears in its basic form, without undergoing positional changes?

    • Strong position
    • Weak position

12. What sounds have strong and weak positions?

    • In vowels
    • In consonants
    • For everyone: both vowels and consonants

Right answers:

1. From the shape of the oral cavity at the moment of pronouncing the sound
2. pronouncing unstressed vowels
3. In consonants
4. Letter combinations
5. Strong position
6. For everyone: both vowels and consonants

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