What is the Indians' house called? Wigwam - traditional dwelling of the North American Indians. Painted tipi tire of the Cheyennes.

National best reflect their image and lifestyle, which largely depends on the type of occupation of people and climatic conditions of the environment. Thus, sedentary peoples live in semi-dugouts and semi-dugouts, nomads live in tents and huts. Hunters cover their homes with skins, and farmers cover their homes with leaves, plant stems and soil. In previous articles we told you about and, and today our story is dedicated to American Indians and their famous traditional dwellings – tepees, teepees and hogans.

Wigwam - home of North American Indians

The wigwam represents the main type of North American Indians. In essence, a wigwam is an ordinary hut on a frame, which is made of thin tree trunks and covered with branches, bark or mats. This structure has a dome-shaped, but not conical, shape. Very often a wigwam is confused with a tipi: take for example Sharik from famous cartoon“Prostokvashino”, who was sure that he had drawn a wigwam on the stove. In fact, he drew a tipi that is shaped like a cone.

According to legends American Indians the wigwam personified the body of the Great Spirit. The rounded shape of the dwelling symbolized the world, and a person leaving the wigwam into the white light was supposed to leave behind everything bad and unclean. In the middle of the wigwam there was a stove with, which symbolized the world axis, connecting the earth with the sky and leading directly to the sun. It was believed that such a chimney provided access to heaven and opened the entrance to spiritual power.

Another interesting fact is that the presence of a fireplace in a wigwam does not mean that the Indians cooked food there. The wigwam was intended exclusively for sleeping and resting, and all other business was done outside.

Tipi - portable house of nomadic Indians

The tipi, which, as we have already said, is often confused with a wigwam, is a portable device of the nomadic Indians of the Great Plains and some mountain tribes of the Far West. The tipi is shaped like a pyramid or cone (slightly slanted back or straight), made from a frame of poles and covered with a cloth of stitched deer or bison skins. Depending on the size of the structure, it took from 10 to 40 animal skins to make one tipi. Later, as America established trade with Europe, tipis were often covered with lighter canvas. The slight slope of some cone-shaped teepees made them able to withstand the strong winds of the Great Plains.

Inside the tipi there was a fireplace in the center, and on top (on the “ceiling”) there was a smoke hole with two smoke valves - blades that could be adjusted using poles. The lower part of the tipi was usually equipped with an additional lining, which insulated the people inside from the flow of outside air and, thus, created fairly comfortable living conditions during the cold season. However, in different Indian tribes tipis had their own design features and were somewhat different from each other.

Surprisingly, during the pre-colonial era, transportation of tipis was carried out mainly by women and dogs, and they spent a lot of effort on this due to the fairly large weight of the structure. The appearance of horses not only eliminated this problem, but also made it possible to increase the size of the tipi base to 5-7 m. Tipis were usually installed with the entrance to the east, but this rule was not observed if they were located in a circle.

Life in Indian tipis proceeded according to its own special etiquette. So, women were supposed to live in the southern part of the house, and men - in the northern. You had to move in the tipi according to the sun (clockwise). Guests, especially those who came for the first time, had to stay in the women's section. It was considered the height of indecency to walk between the fireplace and someone else, as this disrupted the connection of everyone present with the fire. To get to his place, a person, if possible, had to move behind the backs of the people sitting. But there were no special rituals for leaving: if someone wanted to leave, he could do it immediately and without unnecessary ceremony.

In modern life, tipis are most often used by conservative Indian families who sacredly honor the traditions of their ancestors, Indianists and historical reenactors. Also today, tourist tents called “teepees” are produced, the appearance of which is somewhat reminiscent of traditional Indian dwellings.

Hogan - home of the Navajo Indians

Hogan is another American Indian species, most common among the Navajo people. The traditional hogan has a conical shape and a round base, but today you can also find square hogans. As a rule, the hogan door is located on its eastern side, since the Indians are sure that when entering through such a door, the sun will definitely bring good luck to the house.

The Navajo believed that the first hogan for the first man and woman was built by the Coyote Spirit with the help of beavers. The beavers gave Coyote logs and taught him how to. Today such a hogan is called "male hogan" or "fork pole hogan", and its appearance resembles a pentagonal pyramid. Often, from the outside, the pentagonal shape of a house is hidden behind thick earthen walls that protect the structure from winter weather. At the front of such a hogan is the vestibule. Men's hogans are used primarily for private or religious ceremonies.

The Navajo used it as housing. "women's" or round hogans, which were also called “family houses”. Such dwellings were somewhat larger than the “male hogans” and did not have a vestibule. Until the beginning of the 20th century, the Navajo Indians built their hogans in accordance with the described method, but then they began to build houses in hexagonal and octagonal shapes. According to one version, such changes were associated with the advent of the railway. When the Indians got their hands on wooden sleepers that had to be laid horizontally, they began to build spacious and tall ones with additional rooms, but at the same time retaining the shape of a “female” hogan.

It is also interesting that the Indians had numerous beliefs associated with the hogan. For example, it was impossible to continue living in a hogan that was rubbed by a bear, or near which lightning struck. And if someone died in the hogan, then the body was walled up inside and burned along with it, or they took it out through the northern hole made in the wall, and the hogan was left forever. Moreover, the wood of abandoned hogans was never reused for any purpose.

In addition to hogans, the Navajo people also had underground, summer houses and Indian steam houses. Currently, some old hogans are used as ceremonial structures and some as dwellings. However, new hogans are rarely built with the purpose of further living in them.

In conclusion, I would like to say that wigwams, tipis and hogans are not all types American Indian National Houses . There were also such constructions as vikupa, maloka, toldo, etc., which had both common and distinctive features with the designs described above.

John Manchip White::: Indians of North America. Life, religion, culture

As we have already seen, the Hohokam and Anasazi peoples who lived in the southwest (which was settled before any other area) at the dawn of our era were already skilled architects. The Hohokam Indians built their famous buildings, including the Casa Grande, from either adobe - bricks made from sun-dried mud, or Kalish - bricks made of dried hard clay. Adobes and caliches, called "prairie marble" or "prairie marble" by early white American settlers, were cheap but strong and durable building materials; and today many residential and public buildings in the southwest are made from them. As for the Anasazi people, they showed themselves to be remarkable masters of stone architecture, transforming ordinary caves in Mesa Verde and other places into dwellings of truly fabulous beauty, and also building their famous free-standing “apartment buildings” in Chaco Canyon.

A little further north we encounter the earthen dwellings of their nomadic neighbors, the Navajo Indians. This large tribe of the Athabaskan language family wandered for a long time before settling in the area of ​​Pueblo settlements on the Rio Grande. These "dugouts" are unique in that, along with the Pueblo dwellings, they are the only true Indian dwellings still in use today. On the Navajo Indian Reservation, you can see these squat, conspicuous dwellings called hogans. The floor inside the hogan is shaped like a circle, symbolizing the sun and the universe; on top it is covered with a vault-shaped wooden roof, which in turn is covered with tightly compacted earth. The entrance is a simple opening covered with a blanket. It faces east - towards the rising sun. At a short distance from the main hogan there is a “bathhouse” - a smaller hogan without a smoke hole; In this structure, reminiscent of a sauna or Turkish bath, the family can relax and unwind. Such “baths” are very common and are found among almost all Indians of North America. Next to the main dwelling there was also ramada - a gazebo made of wooden posts under the shade of trees, in which old people could take a nap, children could play, and women could weave or cook.

Dwellings made of earth, of various types, could be found on the plains and prairies, but mostly in the northern regions, where summers were very hot and winters were harsh and cold. The Pawnee in Nebraska, as well as the Mandan and Hidatsa in North and South Dakota, dug their homes deep into the ground. If the dwellings of the Pawnee were round, simple dugouts, then the dwellings of the Hidatsa and Mandans were large, skillfully made structures, supported from the inside by a powerful branched wooden frame. Some of the Mandan dwellings occupied an area with a diameter of 25–30 m; Several families lived in such a dwelling, and there were also stalls for horses, which the owners did not risk leaving outside. The inhabitants of such dwellings rested and basked in the sun on the roof of the hogan. The Iroquois tribes were also "crowded" into one long house; according to the testimony of European missionaries who had to temporarily live there, it was very difficult to withstand the “bouquet” of the heat of fire, smoke, various smells and dog barking.

In the central part of the Plains region, that is, in most of North America, the main dwelling of the Indian was a tent-type structure, which was called types. A tipi is sometimes mistakenly called a wigwam, but this is a completely different structure, as we will now see. The tipi was a cone-shaped tent covered with painted buffalo hide; Such tents are well known from many films about Indians. The hunting tents were small in size, but the tents in the main camp, as well as the tents for ceremonies could reach 6 m in height and occupy an area with a diameter of 6 m; its construction required up to 50 buffalo skins. Regardless of their size, tipis were perfectly suited to both the terrain and the living conditions of nomadic tribes: they were easy to set up and roll up. The tipi “set” included 3-4 main support posts and 24 smaller wooden supports. When the tent was dismantled, the already mentioned drag frame could be assembled from the same structures, on which both the folded tipi and other loads were placed. In the camp, the main wooden supports were placed together in a large triangle and tied at its apex, then auxiliary supports were attached to them, the covering was pulled over the top and the whole structure, which resembled a giant crescent, was held together with straps of sinew. The covering below was secured with wooden pegs. In winter, the cover inside the tipi was tied to the supports, and from below it was fixed to the ground to retain heat. In summer, on the contrary, the covering was thrown up to provide access to fresh air. The fire was lit right in the center of the dwelling, and the smoke came out through a chimney neatly lined with reeds, tapering towards the top. If the wind blew in such a direction that the smoke remained inside the tipi, the position of the supports was very cleverly changed so that all the smoke escaped outside. Unlike dwellings made of earth, tipis were decorated on the outside with beads and porcupine quills; applied various signs and symbols of a religious and mystical nature; a personal sign or symbol of the owner of the home was also depicted outside. The tipis, which belonged to tribes such as the Cheyenne and Blackfeet, were truly remarkable structures of great beauty and originality. Not without reason, the Indians of the Plains region called paradise “the land of many teepees,” believing that it was an endless flowering land dotted with sparkling multi-colored teepee tents.

Teepees were also common in other areas of North America; however, there they were not distinguished by such splendor as on the Plains. Some tribes did not decorate the tipi at all; others, especially those who lived in harsh climates, tried to insulate them as best they could, using mats, bedding, carpets and anything else that came to hand that could serve as insulating material. In Canada and on the northeast coast, birch bark was used as a covering, which was not suitable for abundantly decorating it with designs. It should be noted that tipi-type dwellings were known not only in North America, but also in other areas of the world, especially in Northeast Asia. It is likely that the ancient Asian hunters who came to America and Canada lived in caves in winter and in tent dwellings in summer; although, of course, such short-lived materials as leather and wood could not survive to this day, and therefore we have no archaeological confirmation of this assumption. People of that time are only called “cave people.”

Wigwam - a dwelling that has wooden supports, similar to a tipi, but its top is rounded, and it is covered not with skins, but with woven mats or birch bark. Often, for stability, a wooden frame was located inside the wigwam, resembling a platform of wooden scaffolding, which was firmly attached to the base with fiber ropes, which made the dwelling look like an overturned boat. More fragile, usually temporary dwellings, covered over the frame with bunches of reeds and dry grass, were called by pick-ups. Such huts were inhabited in desert regions like the Great Basin and in the arid outskirts of the southwest, inhabited by tribes living in poverty and at a very low level of material culture. Vikap was a typical dwelling of the Apaches - a brave but very backward tribe.

Wigwams and lodges should be distinguished from the stately residential structures covered with woven reed material that characterized the southern regions of the United States. These structures were built by people who settled in the southeast and Mississippi basin, where the builders of the famous “temple” mounds once lived and worked. These people built impressive and majestic-looking tall, rounded buildings with a powerful wooden colonnade. Often the roofs and walls of houses were covered with tightly woven and brightly decorated reed mats. The forest tribes of North and South Carolina, as well as the northeastern coast, lived in such houses. Long houses with domed roofs and lattice verandas were often found here. Along the entire length of these houses there were wide benches on which entire families ate, slept, entertained and performed religious rites, reminiscent of similar communities in Southeast Asia.

The culture of building "longhouses" reached its highest level in the north-west; as already noted, this area is famous for its cultural achievements and in a number of other areas. Tribes such as the Haida, Tsimshian, and Tlingit made planks and beams from red and yellow cedar that were used to build houses that could house 30 to 40 people. Such houses were almost always at least 15 m long and at least 12 m wide and were masterpieces of carpentry, timber architecture and tiled wood decoration. The boards had skillfully made grooves and tongues that fit firmly into the joint grooves. The roofs of the houses were covered with tree bark. The walls, both inside and outside, and the partitions that divided the interior into several rooms were decorated with carvings and drawings; their themes were associated with sacred spirits, which were supposed to protect the house and household members. The house of each leader was decorated in a special way, and uniquely individually. The roof ridge was covered with carvings and drawings, and the famous totem pole of the Northwestern Indians was placed in front of the house, which depicted the history of a given family or clan; at the top of the pillar a family or clan emblem was depicted. These pillars, sometimes reaching 9 meters in height, were clearly visible from afar, including from the sea, and served as a good landmark in the area. And today, residents of the Indian settlements of the north-west lead an active life, showing interest in professional occupations and crafts and the entire way of life of their great ancestors.

"Gringo Zone"

The mining village of Bonanza is lost in the Nicaraguan jungle among the hills in the west of the Zelaya department. It is about two hundred kilometers from the port city of Puerto Cabezas. Almost five hours drive, “if everything goes well.” In Zelaya you often hear this phrase when talking about traveling around the department. The road - or rather, not a road, but a path broken by wheels, washed out by downpours, marked on the maps with a dotted line - goes through the jungle, crossing it from east to west.

The only transport - a dilapidated Toyota pickup truck - goes to Bonanza once a day. It departs from the central square of Puerto Cabezas. The elderly driver is in no hurry: there is no schedule, and the more people packed into the pickup, the better. We sit in the shade and smoke. About fifteen minutes later, a tall young black man with a cap of curly, coarse hair approaches. Then two portly traders appear, they carry round baskets filled with vegetables and fruits. Finally, a junior lieutenant in full combat gear and a militiaman with a carbine cross the square. There are six of us. The driver, squinting, looks at the sun. Then, without saying a word, he walks to the car, gets in and starts the engine. We take our seats too. Portly traders squeeze into the cab with difficulty, men settle into the back. On the way out of town, a pick-up truck is stopped by a lean middle-aged man with a child in his arms. It turns out that this is a Cuban volunteer doctor who went to Puerto Cabezas to negotiate about medicines for the hospital in Bonanza. The junior lieutenant, looking at the child, bangs his fist on the wall of the cabin. The traders pretend that everything that happens does not concern them.

“Hey, senoritas, get into the back!” shouts the junior lieutenant. “Don’t you see the man has a child in his arms?” It’s okay, you’ll be shocked and in the back, it’s good for you...

The traders scold for a long time in two voices - the meaning of their words boils down to the fact that “the new government does not allow every brat to insult two respected women! They have sons his age! But if he thinks that since he has a machine gun in his hands, then everything is possible, he is mistaken!” - but still give way. While the women are climbing out of the cabin, the junior lieutenant starts talking to the Cuban.

“You see, he doesn’t want to part with me at all,” the doctor seems to apologize, nodding at the baby. The boy is thin, big-headed. He calls him dad. We found him six months ago in a hut. The gang attacked the village and killed everyone. But he survived. He sat alone in a hut for two weeks among the corpses of his parents and brothers until we found him. We then went to villages and vaccinated children against polio. The boy was dying of hunger. He's four years old, but he looks like two. I nursed him for six months and barely saved him. And since then he has clung to me and won’t let go. And my business trip is ending. You'll have to take it with you. I have five in Cuba. Where there are five, there is a sixth. Will you go to Cuba, Pablito? The boy nods happily, smiles and presses himself even tighter to the doctor’s shoulder.

We reach Bonanza in the evening. The road curves around a steep hill. This means that we are already in the village, and the road is not a road at all, but a street. To the right, below us, are the gaping failures of the drifts, workshops, cable lift towers, mechanical dredges. Mountains of waste rock... Mines. Behind the hill, on another peak, it’s like a mirage: a complex of modern cottages, trimmed lawns, flower beds, a banana grove, a blue swimming pool.

“The gringo zone,” explains the Cuban doctor, catching my amazed look.

I learn the details the next day, when I am taken around the mines by one of the activists of the local FSLN committee, Arellano Savas, a sedate, stocky and leisurely middle-aged miner.

“Before the revolution, the mine manager, engineers and company employees lived here,” says Arellano, gesturing around the cottages. All Americans, of course. So we nicknamed this place the “gringo zone.” We were not allowed to go there, and they only appeared in the village when they went to the office. The company knew how to divide people into “clean” and “unclean”.

- What kind of company is this, Arellano?

- Neptune Mining. This is the last one, but there were others here before. I started working for her in the fifties, as a boy. My father was also a miner until he died. Probably my grandfather, but I don’t remember him. My father said our family moved here from Matagalpa, so we are “Spaniards.” And there are also Miskitos, mestizos, blacks... The company owned everything, even the air, they even owned our lives. The land on which we built our houses belonged to the company, the building materials too, the company brought food to the village and sold it in its stores. Light in houses, electricity are also the property of the company, as well as boats, and piers on rivers, and in general any transport to go to Cabezas or Matagalpa... Do you know who the manager was for us? By God! He punished and had mercy. True, he rarely showed mercy. He won’t give you coupons for food, so live as you want. Or he will refuse to send you for treatment. The hospital also belonged to the company. And you can’t run away - you’re in debt all around. And if you do escape, the National Guard will definitely find you and bring you back. They will also beat you up, or even shoot you as a warning to others...

“Yes, compañero,” Arellano continued, sitting down on a stone by the side of the road. “Here, in the mines, every person let the revolution into his very heart.” As the company was kicked out, everyone sighed. We saw life. The mines are now state-owned, we work for ourselves. Imagine, there are no spare parts, many cars have stopped working, because the gringos do not supply us with parts. But - we are working! And we live joyfully. The school was built, the hospital is now ours, we distribute food fairly. Located in the “gringo zone” kindergarten, the kids are swimming in the pool, and in former club there is a library and a cinema hall.

Arellano and I walked down the worn steps to the mine management, and tired workers in miner's helmets, many with rifles over their shoulders, rose up to meet us. The next shift was returning from the mine. Their faces were black from ineradicable dust, covered in light streaks of sweat, but they joked with each other, laughing cheerfully and contagiously. And Arellano also smiled through his thick mustache...

New Guinea

I never expected to meet anyone, but Wilbert, in Puerto Cabezas. From his rare letters that arrived in Managua, I knew that he was fighting in Nueva Segovia. And on a stuffy evening at the entrance to the city square, a short army sergeant held me by the elbow. He adjusted his glasses with a familiar gesture, smiled with a familiar smile...

- Wilbert! What destinies?!

- Translated. How did you end up here?

- On business...

Then we spent a long time remembering the trip with the “bibliobus”, the guys and that black night on the road that led from the New Guinea to the village of Jerusalem...

New Guinea - south of the Celaya department. The Indians of the Rama tribe live there - they plow the land around tiny and sparse villages, graze their herds on the plains. The mountains in the south of Zelaya are low, with flat peaks, as if cut off by a giant knife. They are scattered, like Scythian mounds, and therefore seem superfluous on the green, flat tabletop of the steppe, where the grasses hide the rider’s head. Cattle-breeding paradise, New Guinea... I went there in April 1984 with students from the capital's technical school "Maestro Gabriel".

My acquaintance with these guys began a long time ago. Back in 1983, students found an old rusty Volkswagen minibus in a car dump on the outskirts of Managua. They carried this junk in their arms across the city to the technical school workshop. It is difficult, almost impossible, to obtain spare parts in Nicaragua, which is caught in the grip of a blockade. But they took it out, repaired it, then covered it with yellow paint and wrote on the sides: “Youth bus - library.” Since then, the “bibliobus” began to run around the most remote cooperatives and villages, among student production teams harvesting cotton and coffee. And on one of the flights the students took me with them.

New Guinea - a dusty and noisy town - comes to life with the first rays of the sun. When the “bibliobus”, rattling and bouncing on potholes, rolled into the winding streets, the roosters in New Guinea were crowing loudly and selflessly. At the zonal headquarters of the Sandinista Youth, columns of student production teams were forming, leaving to collect coffee. In the courtyard, at a small rickety table, a border guard sergeant sat with sleepy eyes and, moving his lips, wrote down in a dirty notebook the numbers of machine guns issued to students, the number of ammunition and grenades.

While Wilbert was hustling around the headquarters, figuring out the route, Gustavo and Mario stood in line for weapons. The sergeant looked at them with a puzzled look:

-Are you from the brigade?

“No...” the guys hesitated, looking at each other.

The sergeant, again buried in his notebook, silently waved his palm from top to bottom, as if cutting them off from the entire queue. Clear. It is useless to talk to him: an order is an order. It is unknown how everything would have turned out if Lieutenant Humberto Corea, the head of state security for the region, had not appeared at the table.

“Give them four machine guns with spare magazines, sergeant,” he said evenly and in a calm voice.- These are the guys from the “bibliobus”. Did not recognize?

And then, turning to Wilbert, who had arrived in time, he said quietly:

— The zone is now uneasy. Again the Traitor's youths began to stir. Yesterday our people ran into an ambush, seven died. Your route is difficult, you’ll be going through state farms, right? So, Wilbert, I allow movement only during the day. Of course, our patrols are on farms, and students also post their posts, but there may be surprises on the roads...

The whole day we wandered around the villages that lined the roads. A crowd gathered everywhere around the bus in a matter of minutes: peasants who had recently learned to read and write, students, women with children; The little girl goggled with curious eyes at the hitherto unprecedented sight. Gustavo, Mario, Hugo, Wilbert handed out books, explained, told stories...

In the evening, seven kilometers from the village with the biblical name Jerusalem, rare for these places, the minibus stopped. The lean, agile, short driver Carlos, looking into the engine, sadly waved his hand: it would take two hours to repair. From the height of his thirty-six years, he looked at “these boys” patronizingly and swore that he was traveling with them for the last time. Nevertheless, Carlos did not miss a single trip - and there were more than thirty of them - without, of course, receiving a single centavo for it.

It got dark quickly. The sunset spilled like red gold across the pale sky. The shadows disappeared, and the round fruits of the wild oranges looked like yellow lanterns hung in the dark foliage. Wilbert and Mario, hanging their machine guns on their chests, went to the right of the road, Hugo and Gustavo to the left: military guard, just in case. I shined a portable lamp on Carlos, who had climbed under the bus and was tinkering with the engine.

Suddenly, to the left, very close, machine gun fire was heard. Somos! One, second turn. Then the machine guns barked excitedly, filling the air with a loud knocking and ringing. Mario ran across the road. He didn’t even look in our direction and disappeared into the dense bushes approaching the side of the road. Then Wilbert appeared.

“Soon?” he asked, gasping for air.

“I’m trying,” Carlos breathed, without stopping his work.

“Give me a beep,” and Wilbert disappeared into the bushes again.

The shooting rolled in, became satanic, furious. Finally, Carlos got out from under the car and jumped into the cab in one jump. With a trembling hand, he turned the ignition key - the engine came to life. In joyful excitement, Carlos hit the horn with force - the car roared with an unexpectedly powerful bass.

“Drive!” Wilbert ordered in a whisper, while the guys on the move, sending fiery streams of tracks into the dark wall of the bush, jumped into the open door of the “bibliobus.”

And Carlos, turning off the headlights, drove the bus along a ribbon of road barely visible in the night. To Jerusalem.

There were also books waiting there...

Return of Nar Wilson

Tashba-Pri is translated from the Miskito language as “free land” or “land of free people”. In February 1982, the revolutionary government was forced to resettle the Miskito Indians from the border Coco River to the specially built villages of Tashba Pri... Endless raids by gangs from Honduras, murders, kidnappings across the border, robberies - all this brought the Indians to the brink of despair. Intimidated by counter-revolutionaries, who often turned out to be relatives or godfathers, the Indians increasingly moved away from the revolution, closed in on themselves, or even fled wherever they looked.

Having resettled the Indians from the war zone deep into the department, the government not only built them houses and schools, churches and medical posts, but also allocated communal lands. A year later, many of those who had once left the contras returned to their families in Tashba-Pri. The Sandinista government declared an amnesty for Miskito Indians who were not involved in crimes against the people.

So Nar Wilson, the Indian whom I met in the village of Sumubila, returned to his sons.

When Nar Wilson got married, he decided to leave the community. No, this did not mean at all that he did not like life in the village of Tara. It’s just that Nar Wilson was already a serious man in those years and therefore decided that it was not worth living with his father and brothers under the same roof. I wanted to have a home - my own home, my own.

And Nar went with his wife ten kilometers downstream of the Coco River, separating Nicaragua from Honduras. There, in deserted, deserted places, in the jungle, on a piece of land reclaimed from the jungle, he set up his house. I installed it firmly, for years. As expected, he dug piles of strong ceiba trunks deep into the damp clay soil, made a flooring of red kaoba boards on them, and only then erected four walls, covering them with wide leaves of wild bananas. It was twenty-five winters ago. Twenty-five times the Coco waters swelled from the rains, approaching the very threshold, and the house stood as if it had been built just yesterday. Only the piles had turned gray from moisture and sun and the steps had been polished to a shine.

Everything in the world is subject to time. Nar Wilson himself has changed. Then he was eighteen, now he is already forty-something. It swelled in the shoulders, the palms became wide and calloused, the temples turned gray, time cast a network of wrinkles on dark face. Life flowed like a river in summer - smoothly, measuredly and leisurely.

Nar fished, hunted, and did a little smuggling. He didn't like smuggling, but what could he do? After American companies walked through the forests, there was very little game left. The manatee disappeared from the mouth of the Koko, and even then we had to run after the wild boar.

Children were born, grew up, matured. The elders, having married, set up their houses nearby, behind the bend of the coast, on a green, low cape. The grandchildren are coming. This is how everyone around lived, not noticing time. The years were distinguished only by rich catches and outbreaks in the number of animals in the jungle. It seemed like nothing was happening in the world. News from the west, from the Pacific coast, rarely came, and new people came from there even more rarely.

From childhood, Nar remembered the important fat sergeant, the head of the border guard post in Tara, to whom his father paid a weekly bribe for smuggling. Then Nar began to pay it off just as carefully. It was military power. The Venerable Peter Bond personified spiritual authority. Priest Bond, like the sergeant, had lived in the village since time immemorial. He baptized and instructed Nara, then Nara’s children, grandchildren...

Change came unexpectedly. Suddenly the sergeant disappeared. They said he fled to Honduras, crossing the Coco by boat. And Bond began to tell incomprehensible things in his sermons about some Sandinistas who want to deprive all Indians of democracy. Then Peter Bond closed the church altogether, saying that the Sandinistas forbade praying to God. Then everyone was outraged. How is it possible, no one has seen them, these Sandinistas, and they no longer allow people to go to church! The elderly were especially dissatisfied. And when the Sandinistas appeared in the area, they greeted them unfriendly and silently. For the most part, the Sandinistas turned out to be young guys from the West, “Spaniards”. The guys were passionate, they held rallies, talked about revolution, about imperialism. But few people understood them.

Gradually the storm of events calmed down. Instead of the previous sergeant, another one appeared in Tara - a Sandinista. He did not take bribes and did not allow smuggling, which angered many. Reverend Bond reopened the church. Nar was already beginning to think that life would slowly return to its previous course, but his hopes were not justified. Pedro, the Sandinista boss from Tara, began to visit Wilson’s house more and more often. Starting a conversation from afar, he ended with the same thing every time - he convinced Nara to create a cooperative. They say that everything will be as before and Nar will be able to grow rice, bananas, and fish - but not alone, but together with other peasants. In the words of Sergeant Nar, Wilson felt meaning and truth: indeed, he, his older sons and his neighbors, working together, could live better without smuggling. But, being cautious, Nar remained silent and pretended that he did not understand everything. Pedro spoke Spanish, a language Nar actually knew very poorly.

Starting in May 1981, people from the other side of the border began to visit Nara. Among them were Honduran and Nicaraguan Miskitos, and there were also “Spaniards”. They crossed the river at night and stayed in his house for several days, taking advantage of the host's hospitality. After all, Nar is a Miskito, and a Miskito cannot drive a person away from his hearth, no matter who he is. The aliens were a dangerous people, even though they spoke Naru’s native language. They did not part with their weapons, cursed the Sandinistas and persuaded Nara to go beyond the cordon with them. He remained silent, although he found neither truth nor meaning in their words.

One day in November, when after long rains the village was saturated with moisture, like a sponge in the sea, a large detachment of about a hundred people landed at Nara’s house, who sailed from Honduras on ten large boats. Among them, Nar saw his older brother William and his brother-in-law, the husband of his sister Marlene. The rest were unknown to him. Nara was asked to lead the detachment overland to the village of Tara. Nar refused for a long time, but William, after talking with the commander, promised that then he would immediately be allowed to return home and be left alone.

The attack on the village was short-lived. Half an hour of firefight, and the detachment burst into the narrow streets of Tara. Only then did Nar understand what he had done and realized that there would be no return to his previous life. The border guards were killed, Sergeant Pedro was hacked to death with a machete. They raped and then shot a young teacher who had recently arrived in the village from Managua.

The Somosites returned to the boats excited, flushed with success. William walked next to Nar, was silent for a long time, and then finally said:

Nar just shook his head silently. He had no intention of going anywhere. I didn’t want to leave my home, leave my boat, or part with my family. However, I had to. Before loading, the leader of the detachment said, narrowing his eyes angrily: “Come with us, Indian.” The leader was not Miskito, nor was he Nicaraguan. That’s why he said it as if he had given an order: “You will come with us, Indian.” Nar shook his head again, without making a sound. The leader, grinning, pointed his finger at him, and the two bandits buried the muzzles of their rifles in Nar's chest. The Indian shook his head for the third time. The leader began shouting and waving his arms. Nar stood silently. Finally, the leader, having yelled, shook his head - three of his men dragged Nara’s wife and children out of the house, put them with their backs to the river, walked away and prepared to shoot. “Will you go now, Indian?” asked the leader and grinned again. Nar still silently walked along the sand towards the boats. Behind him, the bandits pushed the woman and children with their rifle butts.

While they crossed the river, Nar stood at the stern, facing the Nicaraguan shore, and, holding back the sobs that rose in his throat, watched his house burn. Crimson reflections ran across the water.

“Why did they set it on fire?” Nar asked in a whisper, without taking his eyes off the fire.

“And so that you don’t get pulled back,” someone’s mocking voice answered from the darkness.

In Honduras, Nara was placed in a training camp; the family lived nearby in a village. In the Nar camp, under the leadership of Honduran officers and two Yankees, he was engaged in military affairs: crawling, shooting, throwing grenades, studying a machine gun. Three months later, he was assigned to a group of three hundred people and sent to Nicaragua to kill. For several weeks they hid in the jungle, set up ambushes on the roads, attacked villages and units of the Sandinista army. And all this time Nara did not give up the thought of escape. But how? After all, there is family behind Coco.

He managed to escape only a year after that fateful November night. His wife had died by that time, and Nara was allowed to visit his children more often. On one of these days, the five of them left - Nar and four sons. We wandered around the jungle for several days, confusing our tracks, escaping the Hondurans and Somos. One day I had to shoot. But thanks to the Americans and other instructors, they taught me. Nar had been a good shooter before, but now he had in his hands not a hunting shotgun, but an assault rifle. In the shootout, he knocked down two, the rest fell behind.

Then Nar and his sons sailed across the Koko raft and came to Tara. But the village was empty. Tara became extinct, many houses stood burnt, and from others only black brands remained. The five fugitives were met by an army patrol. Nara was sent to Puerto Cabezas, and from there to Managua. The five years of imprisonment determined by the court did not seem to Naru to be an excessive term. I understood: he deserved more for what he managed to do on the soil of Nicaragua. He served only a few months - an amnesty arrived. What to do in freedom, where to go? Nar was advised to go to Zelaya, to Tashba-Pri. They said his sons, with whom he came from Honduras, also live there.

Nar walked along Sumubile and could not believe his eyes. The Indians have good houses, a school, and a medical center on the hill. Music comes from the wide open doors - the radios are on, the kids are playing in the clearing in front of the kindergarten. And most importantly, many in the village have weapons. But in Honduras they told him that the Sandinistas were oppressing the Indians, taking away their children and wives, and that the bosses were dividing the Miskito property and lands among themselves... So they were lying? It turns out so. It turns out that the Indians do not need the protection of the Somos at all. On the contrary, they themselves took up arms to defend themselves from these “defenders”, from him, Nara...

I met Nara on the outskirts of Sumubila, at the very edge of the jungle. He dug deep holes in the clayey, wet soil. Thick white ceibe trunks lay nearby.

“I thought I’d settle down separately,” he said, sitting down on a log and lighting a cigarette. “Soon another son will leave me - he’s decided to get married.” I will stay with the three youngest, send them to school, let them study. I'll feed you. I'll join the cooperative. I’ll just build a new house...” And he affectionately stroked the slightly damp, still living trunks with his wide palm...

A teepee is often confused with a wigwam. In fact, a wigwam is quite an ordinary hut. On a wooden frame, covered with hay, straw, branches, etc. Unlike a tipi, a wigwam is round in shape:

wigwams

Housing wigwam among the American Indians it is a ritual for purification and rebirth and represents the body of the Great Spirit. Its round shape personifies the world as a whole, steam - visible image The Great Spirit, performing cleansing and spiritual transformation. Coming out into the white light from this dark room means leaving behind everything unclean. The chimney provides access to Heaven and an entrance for spiritual power.

Tipi(in the Sioux language - thipi, means any dwelling) - a universally accepted name for the traditional portable dwelling of the nomadic Indians of the Great Plains with a fireplace located inside (in the center). This type of dwelling was also used by the mountain tribes of the Far West.
The teepee has the shape of a straight or slightly backward-sloping cone or pyramid on a frame of poles, with a cover made from cured bison or deer hides. Later, with the development of trade with Europeans, lighter canvas was more often used. There is a smoke hole at the top.

The entrance to the tipi is always located on the eastern side, which has its own poetic explanation. “This is so,” say the Blackfoot Indians, “so that when you leave the tipi in the morning, the first thing you do is thank the sun.”

RULES OF CONDUCT IN THE TYPE.

Men were supposed to be in the northern part of the tipi, women in the southern part. In the tipi, it is customary to move clockwise (with the sun). Guests, especially those who came to the home for the first time, had to be accommodated in the women's section.

It was considered indecent to pass between the central hearth and someone else, since it was believed that in this way a person violated the connection of those present with the hearth. To get to their place, people, if possible, had to walk behind the backs of those sitting (men to the right of the entrance, women to the left, respectively).

It was forbidden to go behind the back of the tipi, which meant going behind the altar; in many tribes it was believed that only the owner of the tipi had the right to go behind the altar. There were no special rituals for leaving the tipi; if a person wanted to leave, he could do it immediately without unnecessary ceremony, but for non-participation in important meetings he could later be punished.

How to set up a Crow tipi

WHAT IS WHERE IN THE TEEPI

The first tipis were made from buffalo skins. They were small, since dogs could not transport large, heavy tent tires during migrations. With the advent of the horse, the size of the tipi increased, and from the second half of the 19th century, the Indians began to use tarpaulins for tires.

The structure of the tipi is perfect and well thought out. Inside the dwelling, a lining was tied to the poles - a wide strip made of leather or fabric that reached to the ground, which protected against drafts on the floor and created draft in the upper part of the tent. In large tipis they had an ozan - a kind of ceiling made of leather or fabric that retained heat. It did not completely block the space above the fire - there was a path for the smoke to escape through the top. Ozan was also used as a mezzanine for storing things.

The entrance was closed from the outside with a “door” - a piece of leather, sometimes stretched over an oval frame made of rods. Inside, the doorway was covered with a kind of curtain. The space in a large tipi was sometimes partitioned with skins, creating the semblance of rooms, or even a small tipi was placed inside, for example, for a young family, since the spouse; according to custom, he should not talk or even see his wife’s parents. The outer cover of the tipi had two flaps at the top that closed or opened depending on the wind. From below, the tire was not pressed tightly to the ground, but was attached with pegs so that there were gaps for traction. In hot weather, the pegs were removed and the tire was lifted up for better air circulation.

The frame of the tent consisted of 12 or more poles, depending on the size of the tipi, plus two poles for the flaps. The poles were placed on a supporting tripod. The rope that tied the tripod was connected to an anchor peg, which was stuck in the center of the floor. The fireplace was set up slightly away from the center - closer to the entrance, which always faced east. The most honorable place in the tipi was opposite the entrance. An altar was built between this place and the hearth. The floor was covered with skins or blankets, beds and chairs were made from small poles and twigs, covered with skins. Pillows were made from leather and stuffed with fur or aromatic grass.

Things and products were stored in rawhide boxes and in parfleches - large leather envelopes.

Layout of the large Assiniboine tipi:

a) hearth; b) altar; c) men; d) male guests; e) children; f) eldest wife; g) grandmother; h) female relatives and guests; i) the owner's wife; j) grandfather or uncle; k) things; m) products; m) dishes; o) meat dryer; n) firewood;

For the fire, the Indians used, in addition to wood, dry bison dung - it burned well and gave a lot of heat.

When camp was set up, the tipi was usually placed in a circle, leaving a passage on the east side. The tipis were assembled and dismantled by women who handled this task very quickly and deftly. The camp could be rolled up and ready for the road in less than an hour.

When migrating, the Indians built unique horse-drawn drags - travois - from tipi poles. Two poles were fastened crosswise on the sides of the horse or on the back. At the bottom, the poles were connected by crossbars made of poles or tied together with strips of leather, and things were placed on this frame or children and the sick were seated.

The entrance to the tipi is in the east, and at the far wall of the tipi, in the west, is the owner's place. The south side is the side of the housewife and children. North is the male half. Guests of honor are usually located there.

People who are unfamiliar or who come to the tipi for the first time do not go further than the owner’s place and therefore sit down immediately at the entrance (when entering the tipi it is customary to move in the direction of the sun (clockwise), that is, first through the female half).

This division is explained by the fact that in the north there live forces that help men, and in the south there are female forces. People close to the owner, when they come to visit, sit in the north. The owner can give up his place to the most honorable and respected.

This is due to the meaning of the altar, that is, it is undesirable for a stranger to pass between you and the altar. When you have a lot of guests, the newcomers walk behind the backs of those sitting so as not to disrupt their connection with the hearth.

HIRE and ALTAR

The first thing you do when you set up a tipi is create a fireplace for yourself. To do this, you find, if possible, a dozen or two stones and lay them out in a circle. If you want to make an altar for yourself, then you need to find one large flat stone, which is placed in a circle opposite the sleeping place (the place of the owner of the tipi).

The hearth should be as spacious as possible (as much as the size of the tipi allows), because then there will be fewer problems with spilling coals and the stones heated by the hearth will be closer to the sleeping places, which means it will be warmer.

It’s better not to throw cigarette butts, garbage and other trash at him, because he might get offended and very realistically, at a minimum, it will stink up the whole guy. And in general, it’s nice when the fire is clean for many reasons. It’s always a good idea to feed the fireplace, not only with firewood, but he also loves porridge.

In general, if you want to be friends with fire, then you need to share something good with it too. A good sacrifice to fire is a pinch of tobacco, if you smoke, sweet grass, sage or juniper. When you live in a tipi long enough, you begin to treat fire with respect, because it does a lot of good things, both warmth and food...

The stone closest to the entrance is moved aside if necessary so that someone, about whom we usually write in green, can enter (and this is also useful when you are drowning with long poles or logs). In some Indian tipis this stone was always pushed aside.

The hearth is the center of life in the tipi.

ALTAR

It has many meanings. One of them is the place where your gifts to the fire are placed. You can put objects that have meaning to you on it when you go to bed (this phrase caused everyone to laugh). Usually a pipe is kept under the altar. This clean place, try to keep the surroundings clean too.

A simple altar for temporary standing is a flat stone that is placed in front of the host's place.

If you expect to live in the tipi for a long time, and therefore communicate with everything that lives in the tipi with you, then you can make yourself a large altar. It is done like this: a pile of sand is poured in front of the large altar stone (sand is cleaner than earth, it can reflect the sun, so it is best suited). Two small wooden spears are stuck at the edges, and a thin stick is placed across it. It can be decorated with scraps of fabric, braid; the Indians preferred the color red and hung bird feathers and porcupine quills on it.

The altar is the gate.

A road runs through them that connects you with invisible forces. They say there are a lot of them around.

The pile of sand symbolizes the earth.

Rogatins are two world trees, and the crossbar above them is the vault of heaven.

The altar stores everything that connects you with invisible forces, so talismans and objects of power are hung on it. From time to time, sage, wormwood, and sweetgrass (sacred herbs of the Indians) are burned on it.

The figure below shows the arrangement of places and objects in the tipi.

This is how the seats in the tipi of the Indians were located. This suggests the location of the rest of your decoration. Firewood usually lies at the entrance on the men's side (before there was no feminism, women were stronger and were involved in preparing fuel, and the firewood lay on the women's side), and the kitchen (supplies, pots and other utensils) is located on the women's side.

Things you rarely use can be put behind the canopy. If you have a kind old lady available, and you are a real Indian, put the old lady in the wood-burning corner (the Indians called it "old lady's corner"). She will be fine there. It is believed that old people suffer from insomnia, and therefore in cold weather your old lady herself will throw wood on the fireplace all night long. It will be warm for both you and the old lady.

Cellophane in a tipukha is inconvenient. To store food, it is better to use fabric bags hung on wooden hooks and crossbars, tied between the poles on which your tipi stands, so that they hang higher above the ground and do not get damp.

If you are a rich Indian, it is more convenient to hang large bags on a wooden tripod (this is if you are a trusting Indian and are not afraid of the invasion of the Iroquois or other hungry tribes (see photo)). If you are the mohawk, use other people's large bags to hang them on your tripod.

To boil water, you need to hang it over a fire. To do this, you can make (or borrow from a neighbor a wooden tripod with a hook.

An option for small teepees where a tripod is inconvenient is a cross pole tied above the fireplace, as shown in the picture below. Try to make the hook suspended from this pole longer so that the rope does not burn out. Choose a rope from natural materials, otherwise it will flow smoothly into your soup. In a large tipi, such crossbars can be conveniently used as drying racks for blankets, clothes, herbs, berries and mushrooms. By the way, it would also be good to dry the blankets in the morning. Regardless of the weather, inside the tipi you will sweat as you sleep, the blankets will become damp, and you will smell like a Mongol warrior.

Beds. Living in a tipi, sometimes you have to lie down. To protect yourself, your belongings and your children from dampness and rheumatism, you can build beds from dry thin poles. The poles are covered with grass. Some people use spruce branches for this, but they probably don’t feel sorry for the trees at all. It is better to use dry herbs from last year. You can take the grass that grew in the place of the tipi, but it will still be trampled down. In cold and rainy weather, it is very pleasant to place a stone wrapped in a rag and heated in the fireplace at your feet, and a thick, warm squaw at your side (therapeutic set “stone + squaw”). It is inconvenient to make beds in a small teepee - you can separate the sleeping area with a long pole, secured to the ground with pegs and placed along the sleeping area closer to the fireplace. Then you won't be trampling on blankets and sleeping bags.

The bedding that the Indians used is actually difficult to make, but some things can be explained. It was made from thin willow twigs, tying them together as shown in the figure below. Its thin end was hung on a tripod at a convenient height. If necessary, it was taken outside and used as a chair (to admire the sunset). There is an English name "backrest". This device folds up very conveniently and weighs little.

What's around the tipi

It is better if around your tipi there are: a forest, a river, a blue sky, green grass and good neighbors, and not tin cans, bottles and cigarette butts; and certainly not scraps or waste from the human body or sick minds. In short, it’s clean where they don’t litter.
In the forest not far from the parking lot and closer to animal trails, they chose a place where they took scraps and leftover food. Such places were called "veykan". They did not dig a hole under the weikan, but on the contrary, they made it on a hill so that animals and birds would not be afraid to approach it.

Economic buildings.

Use long poles (you can use the valve poles of your neighbor's teepee) to make your own blanket drying rack. It's just a big tripod with crossbars between the poles.

Fencing structures.

If you don't want to lose anything, do this:
From two thin poles (a neighbor’s tripod for a pot will do), tie a crosspiece and “close” the door from the outside with it. But don't forget to go inside, otherwise your condensed milk will be eaten by your squaw. This type of “lock” is also often used when you are leaving the tipi for a short time. A cross at the door means that the tipi's occupants should not be disturbed. This sign is widely used by those who live in teepees (not just the Indians who invented it).

According to tradition, trees growing near the tipi are decorated with colorful rags. The Indians often hung all sorts of gifts on them in order to appease the forces guarding the place. As long as you live next to trees, you share the earth with them. You will be pleased to return to them and see them beautiful

HOW TO SEW A TIPI.

The basis is a rectangle of fabric measuring, for example, 4.5 x 9 meters. You can sew a larger tipi, the main thing is to maintain the proportions.

Tipi fabric

It is advisable to choose a fabric that is loose, waterproof, lightweight and fire-resistant. This can be all types of tarpaulin, double-thread, glued calico, or tent fabric. The best option is, of course, traditional canvas. You can use tent fabric

There is a suspicion that if all this does not burn, it would be nice. It is better if the fabric does not stretch and does not react to heat and moisture.

It is better to sew with a harsh thread, with elements of synthetics.

If the fabric is narrow, then the rectangle is sewn from strips. In this case, it is advisable to overlap the seams on one side so that when it rains, water can flow down them. For thin fabrics, it is good to use a sail stitch. The seams can be waxed (coated with melted wax).

When the rectangle is already sewn, you can start cutting. It is most convenient to first draw a contour with chalk on a string 4.5 meters long. The end of the rope is fixed in the center of the larger side of the rectangle and a semicircle is drawn with chalk, like a compass (Figure A). If you don’t have enough fabric, you can immediately sew the strips not in a rectangle, but in a semicircle with steps (Figure B).

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Valve, fastener and inlet size ratio:

This ratio varies among different tribes, but on average it is 1:1:1 if the tipi is not too large (4-4.5 meters)

There are various options. On pattern of a Sioux tipi, and on - a Blackfoot tipi

valves

To regulate the draft (cover the chimney on the leeward side), the tipi has valves.

In the forest and steppe, tipi valves are attached in different ways - in a forest where there is no wind, the lower edges of the valves can hang freely or be attached with a rope to the tire, as shown in the steppe, so that the wind does not tear the valves, their lower ends are usually tied rope on a free-standing pole

The shape of the tipi as a whole depends on the shape of the valves.

Wu Siu valve one-piece (cut entirely, together with the cover) among the Blackfoot they are sewn to the tipi separately (sew-on valve). A tipi with full flaps has a shorter back wall and therefore it is slightly tilted back and extended upward. A teepee with sewn flaps looks like a smooth cone and has more space.

Here are examples of possible layouts for flaps and flap pockets:

One-piece valves were usually made 20 centimeters longer and narrower. In order to expand a one-piece valve, it is necessary to sew a wedge into it, cutting the valve from the top to approximately half (Figure 5)

A little about valve size ratios. You should try to avoid making the valves too long - when the tipi is standing, rain will drip into the hole between them and blow out the heat. You need to sew a loosely dangling piece of fabric onto the bottom of the valve and strengthen the joint between the lower end of the valve and the fabric with a square (Fig. 6). Again, the width of the top of the flap should be in relation to the size of the tipi itself. For a tipi 4.5 x 9, a width of about a cubit is suitable. The lower part of the valve (the hemmed piece) is two palms wide and suits many people. The distance between the valves (including the tongue) is approximately 70 centimeters.

The saddle between the valves should cover the entire pole harness, but not increase the width of the valve with its size. A tongue is sewn into the middle of it for tying the tire. The saddle can be of various shapes, but it is in this place that the strongest tension arises; the tongue is sewn as firmly as possible so that it can support the weight of the entire tire. A rope is attached to it and the tipi is tied to a pole (attachment options in Figure 7). Pockets are sewn no less firmly on the upper corners of the flaps, on their outer side. You will insert adjustment poles into them. Attach long ropes to the bottom corners of the valves to tighten the valves. Instead of pockets, you can make large holes (as the Blackfoot and Crow did). Then a crossbar is tied to the pole, some distance from its end, and so it is inserted into the hole. The Indians hung scalps on the free end of the pole, and we, after mature reflection, decided that we were law-abiding Indians and would not do that.

Entrance

The entry height should be approximately shoulder level, starting from the edge of the tire. And you need to cut it out by retreating 20 centimeters, which falls on the threshold. The depth of the cutout is about 2 palms. Both halves are turned off with a strip of strong fabric under which a rope is inserted (see Figure 8). When installing the tipi, the ends of the rope are tied to prevent the entrance from being stretched too much. If the tire is made of coarse fabric, such as canvas, one rim, without a rope, will be enough.

The door can be made simple, or it can be more intricate.

An example of a twisted door is Figure 10. It can be made either from a large skin or from a piece of fabric cut approximately to the shape of the skin. This is a trapezoidal door with a long tongue on the top, which is pinned to the cover of one of the wooden “clasp” sticks. It is better to make the tongue as long as possible in order to hang the door higher - this way it will be more convenient to recline. Another example of a convoluted door is the oval-shaped wicker-framed door you see on the right side of Figure 10.

On some tipis there were no doors at all and the edges of the tire were simply folded over one by one.

Clasps.

Usually, two holes for fasteners are made on each side of the tire, so that the holes match, otherwise the fabric will wrinkle. Sometimes they also make two holes on one side and one on the other. This makes it easier to tighten the tire, but the tension weakens. The edge of the fabric with two holes is placed on top (no brainer).

Canopy.

The canopy is a very important thing in a tipukha. This is what basically keeps you warm; the tire only serves to protect you from rain and wind. It is better to make it from thick fabric (if you are not too lazy to carry such a weight). Sometimes the canopy weighs as much as the entire tire. The space between the canopy and the tire is used for storing things.

Canopy straight . (Figure 12) Its height is about 150 cm. For reference, a tipi with a diameter of 4.5 meters requires approximately 12 meters of fabric per canopy. It's easy to make, but it eats up a lot of space inside the tipi. Along the upper edge, at an equal distance (about a meter), laces are tied for hanging on a rope stretched along the perimeter between the poles.

The canopy is trapezoidal. (Figure 13) Sewn together from wide trapezoids. Therefore, unlike a straight canopy, it can be pulled strictly along the poles. Usually it is made of three sectors (as seen in Figure 14) and in such a way that the middle sector overlaps the two outer ones. For reference, a 5-meter tipi requires about 20 meters, and a 4.5-meter tipi requires about 18..

In any of these cases, the length of the canopy should be enough for you to wrap it at the entrance, and the more margin, the better. Try to find a light-colored fabric for the canopy so that the tipi does not feel dark.

Additional details

Azan - something like a visor that is suspended above the sleeping place so that warm air accumulates under it. Usually this is a piece of fabric in the shape of a semicircle, which, with its rounded part, is tied to a cord on which the canopy hangs. The azan fabric is tied with a margin so that you can tuck it behind the canopy and close the gap - it will be warmer! The radius of the azan should be equal to the radius standing tipi.

Rain triangle. A small but very useful detail. During heavy rain, the draft deteriorates, so the valves need to be opened wider, but then rain will pour inside. To ensure that the head is completely dry (sorry, boom-shankar confused), cut out an isosceles triangle from thick waterproof fabric, such a size that it can cover the hearth. The triangle is tied at the top, under the chimney, to three poles.

Staging the tipi.

The tipi is placed on poles. You need between 9 and 20 poles, depending on the size of the tipi. The most common number of poles for tipis with a diameter of 4.5-5 meters is twelve.

When choosing a place for a tipi, make sure that there are fewer trees nearby (after rain, water drips from them onto the tire for a long time), so that the place is level, so that the tipi does not stand in a hollow. You don’t have to pull out the grass, because it will quickly be trampled anyway.

So, you found all the poles and dragged them to the parking lot. Don’t forget to clear them of bark (so that it doesn’t fall on your head) and knots (so that the tire doesn’t tear, however).

First you need to tie the tripod - that's how the Indians did it

Then, at equal intervals, three poles are placed one after another, starting from the eastern (door) pole, moving against the sun (counterclockwise). Then the next three poles are on the other side of it, moving towards the sun. And the next two are also in the direction of the sun in the remaining gap; they are placed side by side, leaving room for the last pole with a tire (it will stand behind them).

All this time, the poles are tied in parallel for strength. This is done like this: take the tail of the rope with which the tripod is tied, and one of your assistants, running in a circle, grabs the installed poles with the rope. In this case, a full turn is made on every three poles (and on the last two). It is more convenient to do this by slightly tugging the rope, when it covers the rosette of the poles, then it slides with each jerk towards the knot and fits more tightly to it.

Then the tire is tied tightly to the last pole, and so that the lower end of the pole protrudes beyond the edge of the tire by about a palm. All this equipment is raised and the pole is put in its place. If you have a heavy tire, it is better not to do it alone. To do this, it is better to assemble the tire to it with an accordion before lifting the pole and then, when the pole is raised, two people take the edges of the tire and begin to separate, wrapping it around the frame so that the entrance is between the eastern tripod and pole number 4 in Figure 18. The tire is fastened with fasteners. top down. After this, you can move the poles apart so that the fabric stretches and fits tightly around the frame.

Next, strings are tied around the perimeter of the tipi, in the middle between each pair of poles (see Figure 19). Take a small pebble, a cone or something else round, wrap it in tire cloth, stepping back from its edge to the width of your palm, and tie it tightly with a rope as shown in Fig. 19 . Additionally, two ties are tied on both sides of the entrance, near the poles. Now the tire is held to the ground by pegs.
Insert two short, light poles into the valve pockets to control them. Drive a pole for pulling the valves three steps opposite the entrance and tie the ropes from the valves to it.

Canopy.
To begin with, take a very long rope. It is tied to the poles inside the tipi (I wrote this just in case, you never know...) at a height slightly lower than the height of the canopy.

It is better to start from a pole with a tire. A pair of sticks are slipped under each turn of the rope; these are small, but very sacred sticks, and if you do not attach any importance to them, then when it rains, echoing streams of water will flow down the poles, falling with an eerie roar right onto your bed. For tying method, see Figure 20.

Then the canopy is hung, starting from the entrance and covering it with its first sector, so that the edges are drawn back like curtains. The bottom of the canopy is pressed down from the inside by heavy objects (stones, backpacks, tomahawks, guests, etc.)

Hearth

Don't dig a hole for the fireplace, otherwise you'll have a swimming pool. Cover it with large or small stones. It is best to place the fireplace slightly offset from the center of the tipi towards the entrance. Now light the fire, if it smokes, then go back to page 1 and see how to sew a tipi correctly.
Reginald and Gladys Laubin

Tipi coloring page

And now the tipi stands, you live in it and, apparently, you feel good in it. And one day, going out into the street and looking around, you are overcome by a vague languor - you want to do something.

You probably won't be able to do anything about the environment, but the tipi tire might be something completely different. This thing is quite difficult - keep in mind that most drawings sooner or later become boring if they are made thoughtlessly and without any special meaning.

It seems to us that the theme of the picture on the tire should mean something to you, first of all, it’s okay if others don’t understand it. But in general, of course, this is a personal matter for everyone and their artistic and other tastes. Therefore, we will not burden you with our thoughts on this topic (maybe a little), but will try to provide as many drawings as possible - examples of how others did it.

And yet, there is traditional symbolism, many of the details of the painting meant something else, and if you are interested in learning about this, then we can tell you something. Otherwise, you can easily skip all this.

Along the lower edge of the tire, the tipi inhabitant drew something symbolizing the earth, say a strip of mountains, prairie, stones, in general, what he sees around him. This was usually drawn in red, the color of the earth.

The top, accordingly, meant the sky, often black, bottomless in color. Sitting in such a tipi, you feel like you are in the center of a painted universe, and in most cases this was enough, and the painting of the tipi stopped (such a drawing can hardly get boring, right?). However, sometimes another drawing was applied to the tipi cover, which was an image of something unusual that happened in a person’s life or appeared to him in a dream (which from the Indian’s point of view is the same thing).

The Indians generally attached great importance to dreams; sometimes a dream a person had could change the course of his life, and therefore it was natural for him to depict such an important event on his house. So if someone painted anything on their tipi, just like that, then somehow they would not understand him.

In a consciousness undistorted by various plastic bells and whistles, there is a very strong connection between the object and its image (the same was with pagan idols and, later, Russian icons), therefore depicting something on the tipi, you are it something attract. It is not for nothing that the frequent subject of drawings on tipi were symbolic images of guardians and helpers who appeared in dreams, usually in the form of animals with which a person previously had a close relationship.

Painted Cheyenne tipi tire

It is better to start painting the tipi before it is set up, this will make it easier to get to its top part. The bottom can be painted when the tipi is already standing. Natural colors look more natural, from which the eyes do not get tired (unless, of course, you are a fan of techno music, then your eyes have not seen such horror...).

The Indians painted tipis with colors that could be obtained from nature, so there are only a few traditional colors. But colors, like everything else, were full of meaning for them, so even when they had the opportunity to buy synthetic paints (oil or acrylic), they still chose a range that made sense to them.

These are: red, yellow, white, blue or light blue and black.

Red and yellow paints can be made from ocher, if it is crushed and mixed with fat, vegetable oil or just with water. If you are lucky, petrified ocher can be found near rivers, wood ocher can be taken from under aspen or pine bark (which is very difficult to do), sometimes earthen ocher is thrown away along with the soil by moles, as fortunately for us happened here in Toksovo.

Blue and white paints can be made from colored clay in the same way as red, black from crushed coal, and blueberries can be used instead of blue paint. All these paints, even diluted in water, are perfectly absorbed into the fabric, although the blue color easily fades in the sun.

Red is the color of Earth and Fire. This is the most sacred color, revered not only by the Indians, but also by many other peoples who connected their lives with the earth.

Yellow - this is the color of Stone, as well as Lightning, which, according to many beliefs, has a connection with stones, earth and fire.

White and blue - the color of Water or empty space - Air, transparent like water.

Black blue colors are the Sky, bottomlessness.

Sometimes, in order to show the connection between sky and water, the sky was depicted in white or blue (after all, water falls from the sky). For the same reasons, water was sometimes depicted as black or blue.

Sometimes the blue color was replaced with green (when oil paints appeared, green paint is difficult to find in nature) due to the fact that ancient peoples did not have a difference between blue and green colors. Same with navy blue and black.

As for the drawings themselves, the most important thing is to understand one thing: it is best to see the beautiful in the simple. It seems to us that this applies not only to drawings, but also to everything else that we do and think about in our lives (hey, cart!). Don't try to fill the space too much small details, emptiness will only emphasize the meaning of your drawing. We can advise not to fall for a common mistake; when you lay the tipi on the ground and make a drawing, it seems much larger than it actually is, don't be afraid to paint a large area with one color - when the tipi stands up, the perspective will change and everything will look different.

It’s very long and probably not necessary to describe all the details and squiggles that the Indians used, but we can describe several common simple characters. Most often there are various triangles - they mean mountains and, accordingly, earth. The small circles combined with them are stones. A widespread symbol that confused Christian missionaries was the cross, meaning the four sacred directions, the four cardinal directions, or the celestial bodies. Of course, all these are generalized things, there were much more symbols and their different interpretations, so don’t be surprised if you come across other information in other sources (we are the source? Wow, cool!).

If you use some traditional Native American elements in the coloring of your teepee, you will also help this culture survive in its natural way.

Shishmarev Ilya

The work examines various types of dwellings of Indians living in North America.

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MUNICIPAL STATE

GENERAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

"SECONDARY EDUCATIONAL SCHOOL No. 1" p. GRACHEVKA

DIRECTION: LINGUISTICS (ENGLISH LANGUAGE)

SUBJECT: "NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN SETTLEMENTS"

Completed by: Shishmarev Ilya

student of grade 6 "B"

Scientific adviser: Tulchina E. S.

English teacher

Grachevka, 2013

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………3

1. Indian settlements………………………………………………………..5
2. Types of North American Indian houses…………………………………..6

1. Home of the Hohoki and Anasazi Tribes……………………………………………………6
2. Navajo houses………………………………………………………..6
3. Hogans of the Pawnee and Mandan tribes……………………………………………………………6
4. Irakez and their home……………………………………………………….7
5. Wigwams…………………………………………………………………………………7
6. Vikapas - a typical dwelling of the Appalachian tribe…………………………….8
7. The culture of building long buildings……………………………….8
8. Totem pillars……………………………………………………………..8
9. Interior decoration………………………………………………………9

1. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………10
2. List of used literature……………………………………………………11
3. Application

Introduction

Indians are the indigenous people, the aborigines of America. Their life story is tragic. Very often, Indians are associated with scary films about cowboys and Indians, where the latter act as villains and scoundrels. In fact, the history of the American Indians is the history of the most brutal, ruthless genocide in modern history.

Before the first European settlers arrived in North America in the 1500s, it was home to millions of people calledNorth American Indians. Indians came to North America thousands of years ago and settled throughout the continent.

The Indians lived in groups called tribes. By the time the first Europeans arrived, about 300 different tribes lived in North America, each with its own form of government, language, religious beliefs and culture. According to experts, before the discovery of America, up to 3 million people lived in the territory of the modern USA and Canada. By the end of the 19th century, their numbers had dropped to 200 thousand.

The tribe's way of life was mainly determined by the natural conditions of its habitat. The Inuit (Eskimos), shackled by the cold of the Arctic, hunted seals for food. They made houses, boats and clothing from seal skins. In the dry and hot southwest of the continent, the Pueblo Indians built adobe dwellings. Water was precious, so they invented special methods to extract water from deep underground.

The daily life of the North American Indian tribe was focused on the most basic needs - food and shelter. The main crops that the Indians grew were corn, squash and beans. Many tribes lived by hunting bison and other game or collecting berries, roots and other edible plants.

Religion occupied an important place in the lives of all Indians. They believed in a powerful world of spirits on which all people depended.

A variety of North American Indian household utensils, made of wood or stone, are also decorated with the heads of animals or people, or have the distorted shape of living creatures.

Such utensils include festive masks, the fantastic grimaces of which indicate the inclination of the imagination of this people towards the terrible; this also includes gray clay pipes with distorted figures of animals depicted on them, similar to those found in Melanesia; but first of all, pots used for food and fat, as well as drinking cups in the shape of animals or people, belong to this type of work. Animals (birds) often hold other animals or even tiny people in their teeth (beaks). The animal either stands on its feet, with its back hollowed out in the form of a shuttle, or lies on its back, and then the role of the vessel itself is played by the hollowed belly. In Berlin there is a drinking cup in the form of a human figure with sunken eyes and crooked legs.

This work examines only one side of the life of the Indians: their home.

The dwellings of North American Indians of different tribes were very different. Some used mobile dwellings, while the people of the Great Plains built tipis, conical tents lined with buffalo hides stretched over a wooden frame.

It is clear from the descriptions given that this was truly a great civilization and is an important part of American culture.

Relevance This work is the need to prove that the Indians were a highly developed society.

Goal of the work: find description various types dwellings of different tribes, compare the types of dwellings.

Tasks study material on the topic, select an object of study, systematize the data obtained.

Research methods. This work uses search, selection, analysis, synthesis and systematization of information.

Practical orientation. The work allows you to use the material in English, Russian, history lessons, in extracurricular activities, as well as by people learning the language.

Object of study: the way of life of North American Indians, their homes, as evidence of a high level of development.

Subject of study:types of dwellings of North American Indians.

Hypothesis: North American Indians, the aborigines of North America, are a highly developed civilization that possessed enormous knowledge in various fields and had an original, unique culture.

1.Indian Settlements

Just imagine that you visited one of the Indian settlements at any time between 1700 and 1900 and, having taken the warm welcome of the hospitable hosts who were always glad to give shelter to any traveler or stranger, made a little tour about the village. What would you have seen and paid attention to?

First of all you would have noticed that regardless of the sight of the settlement itself and its building, the site had been chosen with great care. Even in the places with no trees, mercilessly sun scorched and blown through with winds, Indians could find the place for their settlement, which was most protected from the sun, wind and rain. There in such a place, was to be some water source neaby. It could be a natural spring, a river, a brook or a stream with fish. There was to be some place for deer or some other wild animals to come and have a drink. The settlement could be built on the banks of great rivers which had been giving food for different cultures during the whole history of mankind and civilizations. And the place was to be protected from enimies attacks as much as possible.

Usually from 100 to 300 people lived in the settlement, though some of them could be very big: they housed about one thousand people. The territory was devided between clans and about 30-50 man, women and children lived in the plot. Some Indian camps didn't have any fortification. Others, on the other had been fortified very carefully. They had banks or wooden walls-it depended on the material they could find nearby. And this was the main factor for the sight and type of their homes. They were different in every region of the cultural distribution.

2. Types of Houses

2.1. Types of Houses of Hohoks and Anasasi

People of Hohoks and Anasasi who lived in the south-west, the region which was populated earlier that any other region at the beginning of our era, were skilled architects. They built their famous constructions including Kasa-Grande either with adobes, that is the bricks from the dirt dried in the sun or from kalishi the bricks made from dried hard clay. Adobes and kalishi which were called “the marble of the prairies” or “the marble of the steppe” by the first white Americans. The bricks were cheep and long lasting building material in the south-west. As for the people of the Anasazi culture they appeared to be wonderful architects of stone, having turned the caves of Mesa-Verde and in other places into the places of fantastic beauty. They also built their famous dwelling houses in Chako-Canyon which stand separately.

2.2. Houses of Navaho Indians

A little to the north we can see mud-hut houses of their nomadic neighbors – Navaho Indians. These mud-huts are unique because together with pueblos they are the only Indian houses which are used nowadays.

In the Navaho reservation you can often see these low habitation which are called Hogans is a circle which symbolized the sun and the Universe. On the top of it there is a wooden roof which has the from of a vault. The entrance is a simple doorway curtained with a blanket. It faces the rising sun and looks east. Not very far from it there is a bath-house which is a smaller Hogan, the place where a family can relax and rest. This bath-house is like a sauna or a Turkish bath. The baths like these are rather spread and can be seen practically in the settlements of all Indians of North America.

There was a “kamada” near the main building. The summer house was made of wooden posts under the trees and was the place for old people to rest, for children to play, for women to weave or cook food in.

2.3. The Hogans of Pauni and Mandanas

The dwellings in the ground of a lot of types could be found in the valleys and in the prairie, but mostly in the steps of Northern districts where the summer was very hot and the winter was very cold and severe. The Pauni in Nebraska and the Mandanas and the Hidatsas in South and North Dakota made their homes deep in the ground. Some of the dwellings of the Mandanas occupied the area of ​​25-30 meters and some families lived in them and there were also stalls for horses. The inhabitants of such houses rested and basked in the sun on the roofs of a Hogan.

2.4. The Irakeze and Their Teepees

The Irakeze tribes clustered in one long house. Some missionaries who had to live for some time at such a place stated that it was very difficult to endure the adore of fire heat, smoke different smells and barking of dogs, it was the usual type of living of an Indian in the central part of the Valley Region. It means on the most part of the territory were constructions of a marquees type which were called teepees. Some people call such dwellings wigwams, but it is a mistake. They are different. ”Tipi” is a cone-shaped tent fit close by painted bison skins. Such tents are familiar to many people from many films about Indians. Hunter tents were not very big, but the tents in the main camp and the tents for solemn ceremonies could be as high as 6 meters and occupy the territory of 6 meters by diameter. It took up to 50 bison skins to cover such a dwelling. Despite the size suited both the conditions of the territory and that could easily be put and rolled up. In summer the cover could be turned up to let fresh air in and in winter the cover was tied to a bearing and the latter was fixed to the ground to preserve warmth. The fire was made in the middle of the dwelling and smoke rose up through a chimney, made of reeds. The chimney was narrowing at the top. If the wind blew and there was smoke inside the tipi, the disposition of the bearing was changed and the smoke went out. Teepees were decorated inside with glass beads, porcupines quills, different signs and symbols of religious and mystical type. There was also a personal sing or a personal symbol of the owner of the tipi on the skin.

The teepees, which belonged to such tribes as the Shyens and the Blackfoot, were really wonderful constructions of remarkable beauty and peculiarity. So the Indians of the valley region had grounds to call the place they lived in “the land where there are a lot of teepees” - a paradise. They considered that it was boundless flourishing land, studded with glittering multi-colored tents-teepees.

They were common to other regions of South America, though they were not notable for such splendor as they were in the Valley region. Some tribes didn't decorate them at all. Others, especially those who lived in severe climate tried as they as they could to make them habitable, using mats, beddings carpets an everything they could find and all kinds of things that could serve as an insulating material.

In Canada and north-eastern coast people used birch bark and it wasn’t suitable for being decorated with drawings. It should also be mentioned that dwelling like teepees were known not only in North America, but in other regions of the world as well, especially in South-Eastern Asia. It is probable that ancient hunters from Asia who had come to Canada and North America lived in caves in winter and in camps in summer. Of course, such short-live materials like leather and wood couldn’t have remained preserved up to our time, so we have no archeological evidence of this proposition.

2.5. Wigwam

“Wigwam” was a dwelling which had wooden bearings like teepee, but its top is a cupola and it is covered not by skins but by woven mats of birch burk. For making the construction firm there was a wooden carcass inside. It resembled rostrum wooden saffoldings which were firmly tied to the foundation with ropes of fiber and it made the dwelling look like an upturned boat.

2.6. “Vikap” – a typical dwelling place of the Appalachian

Temporal Britter dwelling which were covered with wisps of reed and dry glass were called vikaps. Both Indians of deserts like the district of the Great Basin and of dry outskirts of south-west lived in such huts. They lived in poverty and had a low level of material culture. “Vikap” was a typical dwelling place of the Appalachian, the tribe of very brave but retarted people.

Wigwams and vikaps must be distinguished from the majestic dwelling houses covered with woven material of reed and which was characteristic for southern districts of the USA. These constructions were built by people who settled in the north-east and in the Mississippi Basin, the place, where once the builders of the famous temple mounds had lived and worked. These people built high imposing and majestic buildings of a rounded form with very hard wooden colonnade. Very often the houses were covered by a tightly women and painted mats made of reed. Forest tribes of North and Southern California, and those of north-east coast used to live in such houses with cupola roofs and trellis verandahs. Alone the whole length of such houses there were wide long benches on which people ate, slept, enjoyed themselves and had performances of religious rites. It was just the same way of life like that of different communities of South-East Asia.

2.7. The culture of “long house building”

The culture of “long house building” reached its peak in the South-west. It was already mentioned that this region was famous for its cultural achievements in a number of other spheres. Such tribes as Naiad, Tsimshian and Tlinkits made planks of red and yellow cedar and used them in house building which could have room for 30-40 people. Such buildings were as long as 15 meters wide. They were chef-d-oeutres of carpentry, of wooden architecture and tiled wooden decorations. The roofs were covered with barks of trees. The walls both inside and outside, partitions which divided inner lodgings into several rooms, were decorated with carvings and drawings. The themes of the drawings were connected with the Holly Spirits which were to protect the house and the household. The house of each chief was decorated in a particular way, and it was done with unique individuality. The ridge of the roof was also cared and drawn.

2.8. The Totem Pole

A well-known totem pole of the Indians of the North-west was placed in front of it. The History of the given family or that of the whole generation was reflected on the pole and the family emblem was placed on the top of the pole. Such poles were about 9 meters high were seen from far away and from the sea too and were a good orienteer. Even now the citizens of the Indian settlements lead an active life, expose interest to professional activities and handicraft and to the way of life of their great ancestors.

2.9. The Inner Decoration

If you were invited to enter an Indian house you would see there was almost no furniture. The rammed ground floor as smooth as parquet or glass, neatly swept with a broom of brunches or grass and covered with furs, fells and mats. There were curtains and amulets. The members of the family slept along the walls and each had his own place. Sometimes they slept on the bench, but more often they slept on the ground having wrapped oneself in a warm blanket. A typical kind of furniture was an Indian chaise lonque which gave support to the man who was sitting on the floor. Some parts of the house were intended for religious symbols and for the sacrit shaman ties. The houses were marked with stones, so that everyone should go round them as they were Jestined for the spirits of the dead ancestors or more aimed for religious-spiritual aims.

There was a hearth in the middle of the dwelling and the five was burning brightly during the day and it was choked a little during the night Fire was considered to be the gift of gods and it was kept vigilant watch on. Fire symbolized the sun, and the dwelling around the fire symbolized the universe: the door of the house faced the East to meet the first rays of the rising sun. The fire was carried from place to place in a buffalo horn, in a closed pitcher, or kept it inside a big wisp of a slowly smoulderng moss. A lot of tribes worshiped fire and there was “eternal fire” burning in their dwelling and a specially appointed fire custodian was responsible for it. The custodian had to keep it burning all the time.

3. Conclusion

The Indians who live or lived throughout North America east of the Rocky Mountains are the real “redskins,” their scattered remnants still living among the “pale-faces,” who deprived them of their ancient dwellings, their ancient faith, their ancient art. What we know about the art of these "real" Indians belongs largely to history.

They achieved great results in their development and made a huge contribution to world culture. One has only to look at the grandiose Pueblo buildings, maindas made of adobe brick, hogans, tipias, wigwams, vikaps, long huts, and one can immediately understand that these unique structures could only be made by amazingly talented, thinking, developed people.

The situation of modern North American Indians on the reservations of the USA and Canada is a separate topic. Some tribes were able to adapt better to the new conditions imposed on them, others worse. And yet, among today's Americans, Indians still stand apart. They were never able to fully fit into the new American nation, as blacks, Latin Americans, and descendants of immigrants from Europe and Asia fit into it. Residents of the United States still perceive Indians as something special, alien, and incomprehensible. In turn, the Indians cannot fully accept civilization white man. And this is their tragedy. Their old world destroyed, and there was no worthy place for them in the new one. For people who were morally superior to their enslavers and observed the covenants of the Great Spirit cannot accept more primitive morality and come to terms with the fact that in the new society money is still remembered more often than God.

4. List of used literature

1. American History. Office of International Information Programs United States Department of State, 1994.
2. G. V. Nesterchuk, V. M. Ivanova “The USA and the Americans”, Minsk, “Higher School”, 1998.
3. The Internet
4. Myths and Legends of America, Saratov, 1996.
5. Paul Radin, Trickster. Study of the myths of North American Indians, St. Petersburg, 1999.
6. F. Jacquin, Indians during the European conquest of America, M., 1999.