Artistic culture in the 17th century. Artistic culture of Europe in the 17th – 18th centuries. The 17th century turned out to be surprisingly favorable for the development of artistic culture.docx

17th century- age of rebellion The uprising of Ivan Bolotnikov, Stepan Razin. Salt, Copper riots. "Time of Troubles" until 1613.

17th century- active secularization of art (death). The weakening of the religious principle.

Signs of deadening:

1) The appearance of the parsuna (from persona). This is a transitional genre from an icon to a portrait. A portrait made in the iconographic style.

Parsuna Ivan the Terrible

"Prince Fyodor Ivanovich"

2) Icon value changes. According to the new worldview, the icon carries a joyful, positive feeling of being. The icon loses its religious functions, acquiring the value of an aesthetic function.

3) The emergence of historical prose and versification. The first historical book is the Synoxis.

4) The emergence of the theatre. The theater is a spectacle.

5) The appearance of cants, everyday songs. They came to us from Poland, they were called kantychki, they became especially common in the 18th century.

6) The emergence of civil architecture. Naryshkin baroque. Moscow baroque 17th century.

There are two art schools:

Stroganovskaya

Godunovskaya

Stroganovskaya the school was innovative.

Godunovskaya traditional. (Creativity Rublev, Dionisy)

The innovations of the old school are to try to create a realistic painting. In changing traditions, in denying traditions.

In art history, this is called combination of old and new styles.

17th century completed the art of Ancient Russia. At the same time, it became the beginning of the formation of secular art and secular worldview.

Secularization was influenced by the split of the church in the 17th century (1653).

The brightest representative of the old school was Procopius Chirin:

a) "Nikita Warrior"

b) "Our Lady of Vladimir"

c) John the Baptist

a) Icon, offset to the left, secular dandy. Breaking all traditions.

b) Clamps and pictures from the life of the Mother of God.

The master of the armory was especially famous Simon Ushakov:

He became famous as a painter, graphic artist, art historian. The first wrote a theoretical treatise on icon painting, demanding images as in life. He stood at the origins of realistic painting.

- " Archangel Michael"

- "Savior Great Bishop"

- "Trinity" (landscape in the background)

- "The Last Supper"

New schools are being formed in provincial towns. The school in Yaroslavl is especially famous, and the master Gury Nikitin. He tried to bring the icons closer to earthly life.

Church of Elijah the Prophet "The Flood", a prototype of Bryullov's "The Last Day" and "Adam and Eve".

V 17th century large monasteries are rebuilt: Donskaya and Novodevichy in Moscow, Pokrovsky, Savior - Efimevsky in Suzdal, Alekseevsky in Uglich.

V 17th century masterpieces of wooden architecture were built. Church of the Transfiguration in Kizhi. Church of the Ascension in Torzhok.

Moscow Naryshkin baroque.

To Russia Baroque came through Poland, in the second half of the 17th century. Baroque has become for Moscow a symbol of European thinking.

From Western Europe we took the polyphony of the universe, its changeable essence, versatility, musicality. It is believed that the domestic baroque of the 17th century is more similar to the western Renaissance.

Moscow baroque, in addition to Western European traditions, used the traditions of ancient Russian wooden architecture.

- Moscow baroque magnificent, monumental, decorative. It has two colors, which gives the buildings a festive look. Basic: white, red.

Bell tower of the Petrovsky Monastery in Moscow:

1) Two colors

2) Column styling

3) Window decoration (small patterns)

Multi-tiered architecture, each next tier is smaller than the previous one.

Belfry of the Novodevichy Convent.

Church located in Moscow on Donskaya street:

Use hipped architecture:

Church of the Savior in Ubory (village)

Peter and Paul Cathedral in Kazan

Sukharev Tower in Moscow (Secular building. Under Peter there was a Navigation school. It was destroyed under Stalin (during the straightening of the streets).

Terem Palace in the Kremlin (Like a toy, diamond roof)

Trinity Church in Ostankino (Sheremetyev Theatre-Museum)

Assumption Church in Arkhangelskoye (Color changes to yellow, round windows)

Assumption Church in the Novodevichy Convent (Overload with white details)

Church of Boris and Gleb in Zyuzino (Three-domed)

Church in Dubrovitsy (Ukraine. Sculpture on the lower tier)

Church of John the Warrior on Yakimanka in Moscow

Church of the Intercession in Fili (Renaissance)

Church of the Life-Giving Trinity in Moscow (Five-domed, tented, two-color)

Artistic culture of Russia in the 18th century.

Age of Enlightenment. Divided into periods of government:

1) Petrovsky until 1725.

2) Anna Ioannovna (10 years old)

3) Elizaveta Petrovna (17 years old)

4) Catherine II (34 years old)

Development of the Baroque style => classicism => the beginning of the Empire.

In the 18th century Russia becomes a European power. A national music school is being created: Bortnyansky, Khandoshkin, Berezovsky.

The first secular public theater is created:

1750 in Yaroslavl

1756 In Petersburg

Building a secular culture, appearance orchestras, portraiture, civil architecture.

Significance of Peter's activity.

1) Appearance newspapers, magazines, civil type.

2) Opening museums(Kunstkamera). Peter was the first guide.

3) built town On a European scale, Russia has taken a new path of development.

4) Introduced rituals, customs of Western Europe (for this, Peter was accused of violating national traditions). 300 years of experience in Europe Russia mastered for 50 years. The phenomenon of "Russian Europeanness" (a combination of one's own and another's) was created.

5) Peter gave a woman new social status.

6) Peter did leisure European. He held balls, masquerades, dances: minuet, polonaise.

7) Peter brought musical instruments from abroad. He hated Moscow (they wanted to kill him at the age of 14, he fled).

8) Peter I introduced awards and career outside of social status.

9) Introduced the system retirement(training of talented people abroad, at the expense of the state).

First buildings: Peter and Paul Fortress, Peter and Paul Cathedral (it was impossible to build higher than the spire). Tomb of the Romanovs.

Petra's wooden house

- Peter I decided to do Petersburg similar to European cities. For this, a direct perspective of the streets was made. All life was subject to order, regularity.

General plan construction of St. Petersburg developed Jean Baptiste Leblond. Managed all work Domenico Trezzini. Helped Peter Eropkin- Russian architect, who was executed for conspiratorial activity.

Trezzini's work:

Summer Palace of Peter (modestly)

Peter and Paul Cathedral (with a spire)
- Aleksnadro - Nevsky Monastery

Building of the Twelve Collegia (all officials)

Peter Eropkin. Studied abroad for 8 years. Built a palace in Strelna. He took part in the construction of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra Cathedral. Published architectural treatise.

Petrovsky Cathedral- modest window decoration, rounding. Modest decoration - early baroque.

Simplicity, modesty, expediency, rigor - Peter's demand.

V Middle Ages start working Carlo and Bartolomeo Rastrelli. Father is a sculptor, a favorite of Catherine II. The son is an architect.

Works by Carlo Rastrelli:

Menshikov - bust

Peter I - bust

Wax figure of Peter

Monument to Peter

Anna Ioannovna with an Arab

Bartolomeo Rastrelli worked on the orders of Elizabeth Petrovna. He came up with the idea of ​​transferring the manor building principle to urban planning.

Works by Bartalomeo Rastrelli:

Vorontsov Palace (mature baroque)

Great Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo (abundance of decorations)

Palace, park area, sculpture - baroque ensemble.

Completed the Great Petersburg Palace. Finished in early baroque style

Winter Palace (statues), blue, gold, white

Smolny Monastery

St. Andrew's Church in Kiev

Amber Room (in the Catherine Palace)

Great Hall of the Catherine Palace. The windows are reflected in the mirrors. Increasing space.

Dance hall of the Petersburg Palace.

Entrance to the Winter Palace

Stroganov Palace

In the first half of the 18th century, the first Russian national art school was created.

Nikitin

Vishnyakov

Matveev

The first engraver appeared - Anton Zubov.

"Panorama of St. Petersburg" (central work)

"Peter's Gate"

"Captured Swedish ships"

Ivan Nikitin.

stood at the origins realistic portrait. Peter's favorite artist. He left several portraits of Peter I.

The best portrait of Peter:

"Portrait in a medallion"

"Peter I on his deathbed"

The most famous work was:

"Portrait of the Floor Hetman"

"Ceremonial portrait" (with orders on a dark background)

"Portrait of Anna Petrovna"

"Portrait of Elizabeth Petrovna"

"Natalya Alekseevna" (Peter's sister)

"Portrait of Catherine I" (Peter's wife)

"Portrait of a Young Man"

The 17th century turned out to be surprisingly favorable for the development of artistic culture. The successes of natural science have significantly expanded and complicated the concept of the world as a boundless, changeable and contradictory unity. The feeling of man's inextricable connection with this world, his dependence on the surrounding reality, on the conditions and circumstances of his existence dominated. That is why not only a person becomes the bearer of artistic creativity, but also the whole diversity of reality, its complex connections with a person. Accordingly, the themes of artistic creativity, the plot repertoire, became richer, new independent genres and styles were developed, those that had developed in previous cultural eras developed and deepened. In the 17th century, styles appeared almost simultaneously that had a national character and encompassed different types of art - classicism and baroque.

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The 17th century turned out to be surprisingly favorable for the development of artistic culture. The successes of natural science have significantly expanded and complicated the concept of the world as a boundless, changeable and contradictory unity. The feeling of the inseparable connection of a person with this world, his dependence on the surrounding reality, on the conditions and circumstances of his being prevailed.

vanity. That is why not only a person becomes the bearer of artistic creativity, but also the whole diversity of reality, its complex connections with a person. Accordingly, the themes of artistic creativity, the plot repertoire, became richer, new independent genres and styles were developed, those that had developed in previous cultural eras developed and deepened. In the 17th century, styles appeared almost simultaneously that had a national character and encompassed different types of art - classicism and baroque.

Classicism is represented in literature by such names as P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. B. Molière (France), D. Fonvizin (Russia); in painting - N. Poussin, K. Lauren (France); in sculpture - E. M. Falcone (France), Thorvaldsen (Denmark); in architecture - J. A. Gabriel, K. N. Ledoux (France); in music – K. V. Gluck, W. A. ​​Mozart (Austria).

The prominent representatives of the Baroque style in literature were Calderon (Spain), D. Milton (England); in painting - P. P. Rubens (born in Germany), in architecture - L. Bernini (Italy); in music - J. S. Bach, G. F. Handel (Germany), A. Vivaldi (Italy).

European art of the 18th century combined two different antagonistic principles: classicism and romanticism. Classicism meant the subordination of man to the social system, developing romanticism sought to maximize the strengthening of the individual, personal principle. However, the classicism of the 18th century changed significantly in comparison with the classicism of the 17th century, discarding in some cases one of the most characteristic features of the style - ancient classical forms. In addition, the "new" classicism of the Enlightenment, at its very core, was not alien to romanticism.

An important new beginning in the art of the 18th century was the emergence of trends that did not have their own stylistic form and did not feel the need to develop it. Such a major culturological trend was primarily sentimentalism, fully reflecting the enlightenment ideas about the original purity and goodness of human nature, lost along with the original "natural state" of society, its distance from nature. Sentimentalism was addressed primarily to the inner, personal, intimate world of human feelings and thoughts, and therefore did not require special stylistic design. Sentimentalism is extremely close to romanticism, the “natural” man he sings inevitably experiences the tragedy of a collision with natural and social elements, with life itself, which is preparing great upheavals, the anticipation of which fills the entire culture of the 18th century.

One of the most important characteristics of the culture of the Enlightenment is the process of replacing the religious principles of art with secular ones. Secular architecture in the 18th century for the first time takes precedence over church architecture in almost all of Europe. Obviously, the invasion of the secular principle into the religious painting of those countries where it previously played a major role - Italy, Austria, Germany. Genre painting, reflecting the artist's everyday observation of the real life of real people, is becoming widespread in almost all European countries, sometimes striving to take the main place in art. The formal portrait, so popular in the past, is giving way

intimate portrait, and in landscape painting, the so-called “mood landscape” (Watto, Gainsborough, Guardi) arises and spreads in different countries.

A characteristic feature of the painting of the XVIII century is the increased attention to the sketch, not only among the artists themselves, but also among connoisseurs of works of art. Personal, individual perception, mood, reflected in the sketch, sometimes turn out to be more interesting and cause a greater emotional and aesthetic impact than the finished work. Drawing and engraving are valued more than paintings because they establish a more direct connection between viewers and the artist. The tastes and requirements of the era have changed and the requirements for color picturesque canvases. In the works of artists of the 18th century, the decorative understanding of color is enhanced, the picture should not only express and reflect something, but also decorate the place where it is located. Therefore, along with the subtlety of halftones and the delicacy of colors, artists strive for multicolor and even variegation.

The product of a purely secular culture of the Enlightenment was the style "rococo", which received the most perfect embodiment in the field of applied art. It also manifested itself in other areas where the artist has to solve decorative and design tasks: in architecture - in planning and decorating the interior, in painting - in decorative panels, murals, screens, etc. Rococo architecture and painting are primarily focused on creating comfort and grace for the person who will contemplate and enjoy their creations. Small rooms do not seem cramped thanks to the illusion of “playing space” created by architects and artists who skillfully use various artistic means for this: ornament, mirrors, panels, special colors, etc. The new style has become, first of all, the style of poor houses, in which, with a few tricks, he introduced the spirit of coziness and comfort without underlined luxury and pomposity. The eighteenth century introduced many household items that bring comfort and peace to a person, warning his desires, making them at the same time objects of genuine art.

An equally significant aspect of the culture of the Enlightenment was the appeal to the imprinting of human sensations and pleasures (both spiritual and bodily) by artistic means. Among the greatest thinkers of the Enlightenment (Voltaire, Helvetius) one can find "gallant scenes" in which the protest against the sanctimonious morality of the time sometimes develops into frivolity. In France, from the very beginning of the 18th century, both the public and critics began to demand from the new art, above all, "pleasant". Such requirements were made to painting, and to music, and to the theater. "Pleasant" meant both "sensitive" and purely sensuous. Voltaire's famous phrase "All genres are good, except boring" most clearly reflects this requirement of the time.

The attraction of visual arts to entertaining, narrative and literary explains its rapprochement with the theater. The 18th century is often referred to as the "golden age of the theatre". The names of Beaumarchais, Sheridan, Fielding, Gozzi, Goldoni constitute one of the brightest pages in the history of world drama.

The theater turned out to be close to the very spirit of the era. Life itself went to meet him, suggesting interesting plots and conflicts, filling old forms with new content. It is no coincidence that it was during the Enlightenment that the famous Venetian carnival became not just a holiday, but precisely a way of life, a form of life.

Music occupies an important place in the hierarchy of spiritual values ​​in the 18th century. If the fine arts of the Rococo seek, above all, to decorate life, the theater -

expose and entertain, then the music of the Enlightenment strikes a person with the scale and depth of analysis of the most hidden corners of the human soul. The attitude towards music is also changing, which in the 17th century was just an applied instrument of influence both in the secular and in the religious spheres of culture. In France and Italy in the second half of the century, a new secular form of music, opera, flourished. In Germany and Austria, the most "serious" forms of musical works developed - the oratorio and the mass. The achievement of the musical culture of the Enlightenment, no doubt, is the work of Bach and Mozart.

The Age of Enlightenment is characterized by a craving for adventure, adventure, travel, the desire to penetrate into a different "cultural" space. She found her manifestation in magical operas with many extraordinary transformations, in tragicomedies, fairy tales, etc.

An outstanding contribution to the history of world culture was the publication of the fundamental Encyclopedia of Sciences, Arts and Crafts, launched D. Diderot(1713-1784) and D "Alamber. The Encyclopedia systematized the most important scientific achievements of mankind and approved a system of cultural values ​​that reflected the most progressive views of that time.

He fully reflected in himself the signs of the time, all its complexity and inconsistency - a philosopher, naturalist, poet and prose writer - Voltaire. One of the most profound and sharply satirical works of Voltaire "Candide, or the Optimist" fully reflected the general trends in the development of educational literature.

The founder of enlightenment romanticism in literature - J. J. Rousseau. His moral and aesthetic ideals are fully reflected in the most famous and significant novel "New Eloise". The followers of Russianism were Karamzin ("Poor Lisa"), Goethe ("The Suffering of Young Werther"), Chaderlo de Laclos ("Dangerous Liaisons").

The Age of Enlightenment was a major turning point in the spiritual development of Europe, which influenced almost all spheres of socio-political and cultural life. Having debunked the political and legal norms, aesthetic and ethical codes of the old class society, the Enlighteners did a titanic work on creating a positive system of values, addressed primarily to a person, regardless of his social affiliation, which organically entered the flesh and blood of Western civilization. Kul-134

The tour heritage of the 18th century still amazes with its extraordinary diversity, richness of genres and styles, depth of comprehension of human passions, great optimism and faith in man and his mind.

I. Russian art and architecture of the 17th century.

1. The development of Russian painting in the 17th century.

In the development of Russian painting of the 17th century, two trends collide. On the one hand, the traditions of the canon were still strong in painting, persistent attempts were made to make traditions inviolable. On the other hand, in the 17th century, the desire to break out from under the pressure of outdated traditions was felt, Western European traditions began to penetrate, and the church became worldly.

The church schism further aggravated the contradictions of the cultural development of the 17th century. Disputes between the schismatics and the official church in the field of art took the form of a struggle between two aesthetic views. Supporters of the new sought to ensure that the icon was first of all beautiful, thereby replacing the concept of the divine with the concept of beauty. Aesthetic criteria for assessing painting come to the fore. Attempts to bring art closer to reality are becoming more and more noticeable. Defenders of traditions, on the contrary, defended their attitude to the icon in every possible way, as to an object of worship, in which every feature and even the icon board itself is sacred. Religious art, according to their ideas, had no connection with reality, with reality. So, for example, the faces of saints cannot be similar to the faces of ordinary people.

Painting schools.

In the painting of the first half of the 17th century, two trends dominate. The icon-painting tradition continues to exist, focused on repeating the pictorial manner of the great masters of the past: Andrei Rublev and Dionysius - the so-called "Godunovskaya" school , formed at the end of the 16th century, whose representatives worked on orders from the royal court and thus represented the “official” direction in art. Godunov's iconographers inherited the monumental traditions of the past, strictly followed the iconographic canons, trying to revive the fading spirit of ancient Russian art. Nevertheless, in the works of the "Godunov" school, a desire to convey the materiality of objects is noticeable, although only the first steps are being taken in this direction.

At the same time, a new artistic phenomenon is emerging - "stroganoff" school , which got its name from the merchants Stroganovs, who owned huge monetary wealth and acted as patrons-customers. Adjoining the school were not only Stroganov icon painters, but also Moscow, royal and patriarchal masters. The "Stroganov" icon is small in size, not so much a prayer image as a precious miniature, distinguished by its decorative effect and designed for connoisseurs of art. It is characterized by careful, very small writing, virtuoso drawing, rich ornamentation, an abundance of gold and silver. The merit of the "Stroganov" masters is that for the first time in the history of ancient Russian painting they discovered the beauty and poetry of the landscape.

Simon Fyodorovich Ushakov.

In the middle of the 17th century, the Armory became the artistic center not only of Moscow, but of the whole country. The best artistic forces are concentrated here. Here, for the first time, first invited foreigners, and then Russian masters, began to paint portraits of the tsar, the patriarch, and the boyars close to the tsar. All paintings in the Armory were headed by the royal master Simon Ushakov , who becomes one of the central figures in the art of the second half of the 17th century. Ushakov was a man of a new era, a new type of thinker and creator. He abandoned the tradition of depicting planar, incorporeal images, which had come from Byzantine art, and strove to give the image a resemblance to real life, to achieve “living likeness”, and demanded a truthful, realistic image from painters.

From the first years of independent creativity, Ushakov's interest in depicting a human face was determined. His favorite topic is Savior Not Made by Hands. The artist sought to get rid of the conventional canons of the icon-painting image and achieve a flesh-colored complexion, its volume and almost classical regularity of features. Thus, he may unwittingly humanize the traditional image of God. In 1668, Ushakov painted an icon of the Mother of God of Vladimir, bearing the name "Planting the tree of the Russian state". This icon can be considered a picture of the triumph of Russian statehood. In the lower part of it are depicted - the wall of the Moscow Kremlin, behind it the Assumption Cathedral, the main shrine of the Russian state. At the foot of the cathedral, Prince Ivan Kalita, the collector of Russian lands, and Metropolitan Peter, who was the first to transfer the metropolitan see from Vladimir to Moscow, are planting the tree of the Russian state. On the branches there are medallions with portraits of the most significant political figures of Ancient Russia. In the central medallion, there is an icon of Our Lady of Vladimir, revered as the patroness of Moscow.

Parsing.

A harbinger of the art of the future era was the emergence of a purely secular genre - the portrait. They were called parsers (from the distorted word "persona" - personality). The genre originated at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries. Images of Ivan IV, Prince M.V. Skopin-Shuisky according to the method of transformation, they are still close to the icon, but they already have a certain portrait resemblance. There are also changes in the language of the image. With all the naivety of form, static, locality, there is already, albeit timid, an attempt at light and shade modeling. In the middle of the 17th century, some parsunas were made by foreign artists. It is assumed that the brushes of the Dutchman Wuchters belongs portrait of Patriarch Nikon with clergy. Parsons of the steward V. Lyutkin, L. Naryshkina the end of the 17th century can already be called full-fledged portraits.

Fresco painting.

In the fresco ensembles of the 17th century, the frescoes cover the walls and pillars with one continuous pattern, in which genre scenes are intertwined with intricate ornaments. The ornament covers the architecture, figures of people, their costumes, landscape backgrounds grow out of ornamental rhythms. Decorativism is one of the distinguishing features of fresco painting of the 17th century. The second feature is the festivity and constant interest in a person in his daily life, the emphasis in the plots of Holy Scripture on the beauty of nature, human labor, that is, life in all its diversity. In such frescoes, scenes from scripture often turn into a fascinating story, in which secular moments often prevail directly over religious content. An example of such painting is fresco ensemble of the Church of Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl , painted in 1681 by a master from the Armory Gury Nikitin with his artel. The main theme in the murals of the church is a fascinating story about a beautiful world in which not so much ascetic-minded saints live and act as ordinary mortal people. This was reflected in the artist's predilection for depicting a handsome man, surrounded by an equally beautiful landscape and rich architecture.

Thus, in the 17th century, the idea that the task of painting is to reflect reality is more or less clearly formed. In the 17th century, art started talking about a simple, "earthly" person. However, scattered realistic observations have not yet constituted a new creative method as a whole, a new approach of the artist to reality. This was the historical task of the art of the next century.

The development of Russian painting in the 17th century

2. Monuments of Russian architecture XVII century.

Early XVII century was marked by Troubles. The economy of the country fell into decay: the peasant fields were overgrown with shrubs, in the cities many craftsmen were forced to leave their craft. Therefore, until the 20s. 17th century there was no construction in Moscow. When the new Tsar Mikhail Romanov decided to commemorate the final victory over the foreigners by erecting a temple in his Rubtsovo estate, the building turned out to be massive, simple and rough - as if the stonemasons had forgotten how to hold their simple tools.

Only in the 30s. 17th century Russian architecture has entered a new path of development. An important milestone in this path was the Moscow Trinity Church in Nikitniki , set in the yard of a wealthy merchant Grigory Nikitnikov. It is small - a merchant with his family did not need a large temple - but it is elegant. White-stone details stand out against the red background of the brick walls: intricate architraves, paired columns that divide the facades and carved cornices. At the top, rows of pointed kokoshniks are placed one on top of the other, giving the top of the temple a resemblance to a cedar cone; There are five domes on the kokoshniks, moreover, the light one, with windows, only the middle one, and the side domes are simply added for beauty. The church has two independent small temples, as well as a gallery, a porch and a bell tower. Such bell towers were not built before: a tent was placed over its high octahedron (octahedron), and windows were made in the tent. These windows are called rumors. They are needed so that the sound of the bells does not fade under the roof of the tent, but goes outside.

All previous Russian churches look sublimely austere. The Church of the Trinity in Nikitniki, on the contrary, strikes with its unusual liveliness, diversity and seems to be a product of the noisy life of the commercial Kitai-Gorod of Moscow. All its parts are set asymmetrically; everything seems to be growing, moving, developing before our eyes. Inside the church is cozy. There are no pillars in it, a lot of light pours from large windows, and the space lies lightly and calmly. Colorful murals cover the walls with a solid carpet. People came here to pray not to the God they feared, but to the one who helped a person in his earthly everyday affairs. This joyful architecture does not elevate, but on the other hand it does not frighten the heart of a person.

By the middle of the XVII century. Russia has fully recovered from the consequences of the Time of Troubles. Industry and trade began to develop actively. Yaroslavl at that time, in terms of the number of inhabitants and manufactured goods, was in second place after Moscow. The Yaroslavl merchants, the Skripin brothers, amassed huge capital on the fur trade and became almost richer than the tsar. When Mikhail Fedorovich needed money, he turned to the Skripins, who became, as it were, the royal bankers. And in gratitude for the loans, the king presented the brothers with a miraculous relic - part of the robe (clothes) of Christ. The brothers decided to express their gratitude to God by building a large temple. Church of Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl (1647 - 1650) is not much inferior in size to the cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin. And it was erected not on the square and not even on the street, but only in the Skripinsky courtyard among housing and storerooms, just like the Moscow Trinity Church - in the Nikitnikovs' courtyard.

The widespread fashion for "patterned" was not liked by all representatives of the clergy. Patriarch Nikon forbade the construction of tent churches and tried to build on Russian soil a copy of the Church of the Resurrection and the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem in the New Jerusalem Monastery near Moscow. However, Nikon himself did not have to rule for long. The tsar was dissatisfied with the claims of the patriarch to the supreme power in the state. The gap between Nikon and Alexei Mikhailovich led to the exile and deposition of the patriarch. And the patterned architecture continued its victorious march across the country.

In the 17th century, palaces, administrative buildings, residential buildings, guest yards were built on an unprecedented scale. Their architectural appearance reflected not only the desire of architects to follow the best traditions of the past, but also the desire to create completely new types of buildings, to develop a new style.

Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin , built in 1635 - 1636, with its size, magnificent splendor of the decor seemed to challenge the building traditions of the previous century. The traditional tiered-step alternation of volumes, the picturesque asymmetry of the outbuildings, the pointed roofs are combined here with elements of the new style - symmetry and regularity. The facades, evenly divided by pilasters and window openings, create a clear rhythm, window trims decorated with floral ornaments, as well as relief blades and cornices with tiles, give them splendor and elegance. The architecture of the Terem Palace was several decades ahead of its time and influenced the construction of other buildings in the Kremlin.

A unique creation of Russian architecture of the XVII century. was wooden palace in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow , built in 1667 - 1669. It consisted of multi-framed choirs, placed on basements (lower floors of economic importance). The facades of residential front rooms were richly decorated with carved architraves and various endings in the form of tents, barrels, cubed and ledge roofs. The picturesque composition of log cabins with porches and bright tinting of details made a festive impression. According to the foreigner J. Reitenfels, the palace resembled "a jewel just taken out of a case." The real palace in Kolomenskoye has not been preserved (it was dismantled due to dilapidation in the 18th century), but one could get an idea of ​​​​its appearance thanks to drawings and models. At the beginning of the 21st century, a reconstruction of the famous palace appeared in Kolomenskoye.

Various types of civil buildings also included residential buildings, gostiny yards, cells and refectories of monasteries, storage chambers, towers and solemn gates, various administrative buildings - from small vaulted chambers to the majestic Sukharev Tower (end of the 17th century). Not only in large cities, but also on the outskirts of the state, Russian architects created genuine masterpieces of civil architecture.

At the end of the XVII century, on the outskirts of Moscow in the village of Fili, a relative of the young Tsar Peter, Lev Kirillovich Naryshkin, ordered the construction of a church. Naryshkin did not need a large building, because the church was intended for his family, but he wanted the building to be tall and representative. Church of the Intercession in the village of Fili - a new type for Russia, which came from Ukraine. Its base is a cube (chetverik). On all sides, semicircular ledges adjoin the cube, so that the plan of the church looks like a flower with four petals. A wide octahedron (octahedron) is placed on top of the cube, another narrower one is placed on it; with openings for bells, and on top of the third - the octahedral base of the head. The building turned out to be high, solid, but it did not rush upwards, like a spear aimed at the sky, but rose solemnly and smoothly. The craftsmen did not spare white stone for decoration: intricate platbands frame the windows, columns stretch in the corners, and each tier of the building ends with ridges resembling white stone foam - “cockscombs”. The new architectural decor became similar to that which was fashionable in Western Europe; this is no longer the former pattern, but a premonition of future changes. White stone and red brick look elegant against the sky, surrounded by green foliage in summer or white snow in winter. This architecture was called by the researchers Moscow, or Naryshkin, baroque.

Naryshkin buildings have amazing organicity, integrity and artistic perfection. They became a bridge between the old and the new, between the Byzantine and the European, between the Moscow of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and the Northern Palmyra of his son, Emperor Peter the Great.

Russian architecture of the 17th century

Russian architecture of the 17th century

II. Russian art of the 18th century.

Reforms carried out by Peter I affected in Russia not only management, the army and the economy, but also art. The goal of the first Russian emperor was to put Russian art on a par with European art, to surround the courtyard with architects, artists, sculptors, and to promote the spread of interest in "arts" among the enlightened public. Both Peter and his heirs on the Russian throne in the 18th century believed that architecture, sculpture and painting should glorify the power of the Russian state, its victories and other accomplishments, spread enlightenment and piety.

In the seventeenth century, slowly, little by little, medieval Russia began to evolve into a state of modern times. In the eighteenth century, in just two decades, Russian art turns from religious to secular, mastering new styles (baroque, in the second half of the century - classicism), genres (for example, portrait, landscape and still life in painting) and themes (mythological, historical). At the beginning of the century, dozens of talented young people were studying the arts abroad, and foreign masters became teachers in Russia. In the middle - the second half of the century, the Academy of Arts begins to work, where you can already learn from compatriots and work with foreigners on an equal footing. By the end of the century, Russian art appears in a renewed form, with many art collections that were not inferior to the oldest European collections in size and quality.

1. Architecture of the Peter the Great Baroque (first quarter of the 18th century).

Based on the rich architectural heritage of Russia and the theory of world architecture, the architects of the first quarter of the 18th century were able to create many magnificent buildings and, most importantly, lay the foundations for a new Russian architectural school.

The first buildings, which clearly combined Russian and Western traditions, appeared in Moscow at the very end of the 17th century. One of them was the famous Sukharevskaya (Sukhareva) tower built by the architect Mikhail Choglokov. The tower got its name in honor of Lavrenty Sukharev, whose streltsy regiment at the end of the 17th century came to the defense of Peter during the conflict with Tsarevna Sophia. In gratitude, the king ordered to build a new stone gate with a clock on the site of the old gate. Later, the famous Navigation School and the first observatory in Russia were located in the building of this gate. Unfortunately, in 1934 the tower was dismantled. "interfered with traffic." Projects for its restoration have not yet been implemented. But preserved Menshikov Tower - Church of the Archangel Gabriel. The temple was built in 1707 by order of Alexander Menshikov. The author is Ivan Zarudny. The basis of the composition is a voluminous and high baroque bell tower.

In the second decade of the 18th century Petersburg becomes the center of development of Russian architecture. Founded during the Northern War as a fortress to protect the reclaimed lands, Peter immediately liked Petersburg I , who did not like old Moscow and dreamed of creating a "paradise" here - an ideal perfect city. After the victory at Poltava, the tsar decides to move the Russian capital here. The best foreign architects are invited here, who for the first time in the history of Russia draw up construction plans (the plans of Leblon, Trezzini). The main thoroughfares were the Neva with its numerous branches, channels and tributaries and dug canals, as in Amsterdam. Bridges were deliberately not built in order to accustom Petersburgers to the water element. Much attention was paid to the appearance and beautification of the city: the houses were built "in the red line", the streets were straight and wide, mostly paved, before street lamps appeared in many European capitals. Model projects of houses for different categories of citizens were developed; the owners were obliged to keep the local area clean. Stone construction was even banned throughout Russia so that the new capital could quickly find its splendor. You can imagine the appearance of Petrovsky Petersburg from old engravings, from preserved monuments, from the layout of streets on the Admiralteysky, Vasilyevsky Islands, and the Petrograd side. Since then, the special appearance of the center has been preserved, where a wide river is framed by well-groomed embankments with even rows of houses, and high-rise dominants make the flat landscape picturesque.

Building of the Twelve Collegia on Vasilyevsky Island was intended to accommodate the Senate, the Synod and collegiums - the highest bodies of government of Russia, established by Peter I. According to the plan of Tsar Strelka of Vasilyevsky Island, it was supposed to become the front center of the city, which was to be closed from the west by a grandiose building. Therefore, the elongated building of the Twelve Colleges faces the Neva with its end facade and is divided into independent, but identical in size, three-story buildings. In the 18th century, each building was covered with a separate roof and had its own entrance. All of them were combined into a single rectilinear composition (total length - about 400 meters). The facades are identically processed in the spirit of the Petrine baroque. They were painted in orange-red, against which white pilasters, vanes, and window frames stood out in relief. The plan of the building is symbolic: it reflects the independence of each collegium and at the same time emphasizes their commonality in solving state problems. After Peter's death I the purpose of the building and the role of Vasilievsky Island as a whole have changed. Due to the vagaries of northern weather and floods, the island was often cut off from the main areas of the city. Because of this, according to a new plan approved in 1737 under Anna Ioannovna, the Admiralty side became the center of St. Petersburg, on which the highest government bodies began to be located. The building of the Twelve Collegia was partially empty. In the 19th century, part of the premises of the building of the Twelve Colleges were transferred to the Main Pedagogical Institute, and then to St. Petersburg University, in connection with which it was partially rebuilt.

The architect of the building of the Twelve Colleges Domenico Trezzini (c. 1670 - 1734) was one of the most successful and prolific craftsmen who worked in Peter's Petersburg. We know very little about Trezzini himself: an Italian by origin, he received a good education, he came to Russia from Copenhagen, the capital of Russia's allied Denmark. This means that he already knew the Northern Baroque style, a more restrained version of the Catholic Baroque. Peter liked this style after his trip to Holland. Domenico Trezzini became the chief architect of Peter's Petersburg. According to his projects, Kronstadt and the Alexander Nevsky Lavra were laid, in 1706 the rebuilding of the Peter and Paul Fortress in stone began, part of the regular planning of Vasilyevsky Island was completed, and summer palace Peter I in the Summer Garden, Petrovsky Gates and Peter and Paul Cathedral Peter and Paul Fortress, Galernaya Harbor and a large number of other buildings that have not survived (for example, Gostiny Dvor, 2nd Winter Palace); it was he who developed the standard projects of private residential buildings. Trezzini's buildings are distinguished by strict geometry and "regularity" of plans, modesty of decor and decoration, a combination of individual order elements with baroque details. All buildings are decorated with flat pilasters with graceful capitals, drawn cornices, rustication, frame architraves with "ears", high Dutch roofs "with a break" and elegant two-tone coloring.

Peter and Paul Cathedral and now looks unusual for an Orthodox church. It is not a dome that dominates the building, but a sharp spire of a multi-tiered bell tower. There is no usual altar apse. Huge windows are made in the walls, which, together with the painted walls in artificial marble, luxurious chandeliers and the shining gold carved iconostasis in the form of a triumphal arch (master Ivan Zarudny), resembles a palace interior. The Peter and Paul Cathedral is a typical example of a church built in the Peter the Great Baroque style.

Other significant buildings of Petrine Petersburg that have survived to this day are Menshikov Palace (D. Fontana, I. Shedel), Kunstkamera building (G. Mattarnovi, N. Gerbel, G. Chiaveri and M. Zemtsov), Sampson Cathedral , Peter's palace II and some others.

Architecture of the Peter the Great Baroque

2. Architecture of the era of magnificent Russian (Elizabeth) baroque (mid-18th century).

By the middle of the 18th century. baroque art in Russia reached its peak. The brightest creations of architecture were concentrated in the new capital of the state - St. Petersburg. Among the craftsmen who worked in the city, Bartolomeo Francesco (Barfolomey Varfolomeevich) Rastrelli stood out for his talent and hard work.

Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli was born in 1700 in Paris. In 1716, he arrived in St. Petersburg with his father, the sculptor Bartolomeo Carlo Rastrelli, where he began work the very next day. At first he helped his father, then he went to France, where he completed his studies. He returned to Russia, became an independent master and worked exclusively in our country.

Rastrelli was in the service of the Russian court for 48 years and created magnificent palaces, mansions, religious buildings, among which they amaze with the boldness of architectural solutions and scale. Palace of Count Vorontsov on Sadovaya Street (1749), Grand Palace in Peterhof (1747 - 1752), Palace of Counts Stroganovs on Nevsky (1753), Smolny Monastery (1748 - 1754), Catherine's Palace in Tsarskoe Selo (1752 - 1757) and the greatest creation Winter Palace (1754 - 1762) . For more than 20 years, Rastrelli was the official head of all architectural activities of the government and shaped the appearance of the new capital of Russia - St. Petersburg.

One of the best works of Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli - Smolny (Resurrection Novodevichy) Monastery was ordered to the architect by Empress Elizaveta Petrovna. The traditional Russian five domes, embodied in elaborate baroque forms, here organically merged with the main volume of the cathedral building. The high two-height main dome, crowned with an onion cupola, is surrounded on four sides by high side towers. Clear ledges of the walls, decorated with bunches of columns, pediments of various shapes, curls of volutes, overhanging cornices create an amazing play of light and shadow. White details on the azure background of the walls, an abundance of gilding emphasize the superbly found balance of shapes and proportions of the building. The cathedral, which has the shape of an equal-ended cross, looks equally good from all sides. The construction of the cathedral dragged on and was never completed by the time of the death of Empress Elizabeth. Architect V.P. Stasov, completing the construction of the monastery in 1832-1835, abandoned the luxurious baroque decor and gave the interior decoration a more austere character, contrary to the plan of F.B. Rastrelli.

In 1746-1755, the architect worked on the creation of the Peterhof ensemble. Grand Peterhof Palace a spacious open lobby overlooks the Upper Garden, on the road running overland. The main facade of the palace faces the sea. From the stalls of the park with fountains, wide terraces lead to the top of the ridge, where the palace was erected. The palace rises above the terraces, trying to get off the ground. The new building stretched almost 300 meters in length. The blue of the sea, the rustle of fountain jets, the turquoise walls of the palace against the sky, the white radiance of the roof, the gilding of carved decorations sparkling in the sun - everything merges into a single ensemble. And in all cases, the amazing luxury of the interior design with an abundance of mirrors, gilded carvings, and decorative painting. The well-known art historian and artist of the 20th century Alexander Benois wrote, admiring the creation of Rastrelli: "Peterhof, as it were, was born from sea foam. Peterhof is the residence of the king of the seas."

Winter Palace - the most brilliant creation of Rastrelli, his architecture is a real anthem in honor of the era of Russian baroque. The structure, complex in its outlines, approached the shape of a square with a closed courtyard in plan. The facade overlooking the Neva embankment was designed for viewing from afar, the opposite, southern facade is oriented towards the front Palace Square, facing the city.

The palace was striking in its size. It had more than 1050 separate rooms and rooms, 1886 doors, 1945 windows and 177 stairs. None of the facades repeated the other; in their design, the author's fantasy seemed to know no bounds. The complex rhythm of the columns, the richness and variety of forms of architraves, the abundance of stucco details, the many decorative vases and statues located above the parapet and above the numerous pediments create the decorative decoration of the building, exceptional in its splendor and magnificence. The southern façade is cut through by three entrance arches that lead to the main courtyard, where the central entrance to the palace was located in the center of the northern building.

Rastrelli lived for seventy-one years, most of them in Russia. Arriving in the northern capital as a young man, a student of his father, he achieved all the honors possible for an architect, but due to a change in the tastes of customers (the new Empress Catherine II preferred the style of classicism) died idle, in modest prosperity (1771). The burial place of the great architect is unknown. But the palaces and temples he built - both those that survived and those that were raised from the ruins after the end of the Second World War - cause us genuine admiration today, because they are part of the spiritual and artistic culture we received as a heritage.

In addition to Rastrelli, in the era of magnificent Russian baroque, other talented craftsmen created their buildings: according to the project of S.I. Chevakinsky in St. Petersburg, the Nikolo-Epiphany Naval Cathedral and the famous "Fountain House" - the Sheremetev Palace on the Fontanka (together with F.S. Argunov), D.V. Ukhtomsky designed the bell tower of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery in Sergiev Posad and others.

Elizabethan Baroque architecture

3. Russian architecture of the era of classicism (second half of the 18th century).

Classicism (from Latin сlassicus - exemplary), a stylistic trend in art and architecture, which is based on the cult of reason and ideal order, and ancient heritage is used as a source. The architecture of classicism is characterized by strictly geometric forms of volumes, symmetry, architectural order as the main motif of the scenery, large-scale structure, hierarchical subordination of forms, synthesis with painting and sculpture.

Russian classicism is one of the brightest pages in the history of world architecture. Born in Europe in the 17th century, the classicism style penetrated Russia in the middle of the 18th century. It went through several stages in its development and reached its peak at the end of the 18th century during the reign of Catherine II.

The early stage in the development of classical architecture (60-70s of the 18th century) can be characterized as a transitional one: baroque elements are still present in buildings with the dominance of classicism features. An example is the Petersburg building of the Academy of Arts built according to the project Alexander Fedorovich Kokorinov in collaboration with Jean-Baptiste Vallin-Delamote. The center of the main façade is a spectacular four-column portico, gently turning into the extended wings of the building. In this technique, you can see the echo of the outgoing baroque. Another example - marble palace created by the project Antonio Rinaldi. Its façade facing the Neva is simple and austere, while the central building overlooking the courtyard is punctuated by a small risalite ending in an attic with an elegant baroque turret.

Strict classicism (80-90s of the 18th century) is the complete opposite of the Baroque style, its antithesis. He is characterized by a strict and consistent use of the forms and techniques of classical architecture of antiquity. It is not allowed to use any decorative motifs in appearance, the use of sculpture is excluded. In Moscow, the brightest master of strict classicism was Matvei Fyodorovich Kazakov. His buildings, among which the most remarkable are Senate building in the Moscow Kremlin and Golitsyn hospital , characterized by simplicity, brightness of rhythms, clarity of silhouettes. The buildings are raised to a high rusticated ground floor, on which a portico is placed in the central part of the composition.

Petersburg, the best examples of strict classicism are building of the Academy of Sciences on the University embankment of Vasilievsky Island (architect Giacomo Quarenghi) and Tauride Palace (architect I.E. Starov).

Ivan Yegorovich Starov (1745-1808) is an outstanding master of Russian classicism. He studied at the gymnasium at Moscow University, then at the newly founded Academy of Arts, from which he graduated in 1762. Shortly after returning from a pensioner's trip and receiving the title of academician, Starov began extensive practical work, including city planning, the construction of public buildings, city palaces, estates, temples. According to his designs, the Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, the Demidovs' manor house in Taitsy, and Catherine's Palace were built. II in Pele, the layout of Yekaterinoslav (now Dnepropetrovsk in Ukraine), a number of projects for Nikolaev and numerous buildings in Moscow and the Moscow region were developed. But in the history of Russian architecture, Starov's name is primarily associated with the construction Tauride Palace - the huge city estate of G.A. Potemkin.

In the depths of the front courtyard, separated from the street by a low fence, there is a central two-story building with a six-column portico topped with a flat dome on a low drum; the smooth planes of the walls are cut through by high windows and completed with an entablature of a strict design with a frieze of triglyphs. Its appearance is extremely simple, the walls are left smooth. The laconic Doric order determines the main scale of the entire structure. The main building is united by one-story galleries with side two-story buildings that limit the wide front yard.

Initially, the Tauride Palace was open to the Neva, from which there was a canal, ending in a ladle harbor. This architectural perspective, which was part of the panorama of the Neva banks, existed before the construction in the middle of the 19th century. opposite the palace of the water tower and other structures of the Central city waterworks. The exquisite modesty and simplicity of the facades of the Tauride Palace contrasted with the exceptional luxury and splendor of the interior decoration, but the interiors were preserved only in a few rooms, and even then only partially. This was facilitated by numerous redevelopments of the palace associated with changes in its fate.

At the end of the 18th - the first third of the 19th century, the classicism style in Russia reaches its peak. This era will be discussed in the next lesson.

Classicism in Russian architecture of the 18th century

4. Russian painting of the first third of the 18th century

Until the beginning of the 18th century, mainly icon-painting traditions developed in Russian fine arts. However, in the 18th century, painting gradually began to acquire European features: artists mastered linear perspective, sought to correctly convey the volume of objects using chiaroscuro, studied anatomy in order to accurately depict the human body. The technique of oil painting spread (icons were painted with tempera), new genres developed. A special place in Russian art of the 18th century was occupied by a portrait. The earliest examples of this genre in the 18th century. close to the parsuna - the characters on them are static and solemn.

Ivan Nikitich Nikitin (circa 1680 - 1742) was one of the first Russian portrait painters. He was born in the family of priest Nikita Nikitin, who served in Izmailovo near Moscow. Nikitin began to study the art of painting, probably under the guidance of the Dutchman A. Shkhonebek in the engraving workshop at the Moscow Armory. Apparently, he learned to paint portraits on his own, studying and copying the works of foreign masters available in Russia. Already in his early works - portraits of sister Peter I Natalya Alekseevna and his daughter Anna Petrovna , created around 1715-1716, Nikitin, with rare skill for that time, conveys the volume and natural poses of the models. True, at the same time, he still does not know how to fit the figures into the environment, convey the structure of the figure and show the texture of the materials.

In 1716-1719, Nikitin studied in Venice and Florence, and after returning to St. Petersburg he became a hofmaler (court painter). By Peter's decree, the artist began to build at the expense of the treasury on the Admiralty side, on the "Mye River" near the Blue Bridge, a workshop that was not completed during the life of the king. A trip to Italy contributed to the growth of the painter's skill, his drawing became more sophisticated, he was able to free himself from the constraint inherent in parsing Russian painting. In the 20s. 18th century Nikitin creates his best works: "Portrait of Count G. I. Golovkin", "Portrait of the Outdoor Hetman" , and famous "Portrait of Peter I". On the "Portrait of the floor hetman" we see a man immersed in his own thoughts. His tired posture, slightly lowered head, disorderly tangled hair, slightly reddened inflamed eyelids, tightly compressed lips - all emphasize the difficult life path of a strong and courageous person. Despite the difficulties and hardships, his strong will did not weaken, his energy did not fade away.

After the death of the tsar, Nikitin remained in the court staff, but had practically no work. His subsequent fate was dramatic. In August 1732, he was arrested for possession of a notebook with a libel on Feofan Prokopovich. Nikitin was under investigation by the Secret Chancellery, was in solitary confinement in the Peter and Paul Fortress, according to the sentence he was beaten with whips and exiled to Tobolsk "to live forever behind the guard." Three decrees were issued on his pardon: by Anna Ioannovna before her death, by Anna Leopoldovna at her accession to the throne, and by Elizaveta Petrovna. On the way from exile to St. Petersburg, the artist died.

By the end of the 20s - 30s of the 18th century, there is a short but bright work of the painter Andrey Matveev (1701-1739). After spending more than 10 years in Holland and Flanders, Matveev became the first Russian master who could "paint stories and persons", that is, not only portraits, but also paintings on mythological and historical subjects. The young artist returned to Russia after the death of his royal patrons - Peter I and Catherine I. From the documents it is known that Matveev painted battle paintings for the Summer House, paintings for Peterhof, participated in the painting of the Peter and Paul Cathedral, decorated the Anichkov and Admiralty triumphal gates that were not preserved .

The most interesting of the remaining legacy of Andrei Matveev is his portraits. Very few of them have survived to our times, among them the famous "Portrait of spouses" , on which, most likely, the artist depicted himself with his wife, that is, this is the first self-portrait in Russian painting. Matveev surprisingly subtly conveys the feeling of mutual love and tenderness that reigns in the family. Carefully, barely touching, the artist hugs his wife by the shoulders. Spouses keep simply and naturally, radiating good energy. Muted colors emphasize the chamber nature of the portrait.

Andrei Matveev died, like many domestic artists, in poverty. In April 1739, the widow wrote in a petition that “she was left after her husband Matveev with her young children and her husband did not have anything to bury her body in.”

Creation Ivan Yakovlevich Vishnyakov (1699-1761) associated with St. Petersburg, where he arrived among the "craftsmen" involved in the construction and decoration of the new capital. In contrast to his older contemporaries I. Nikitin and A. Matveev, Vishnyakov did not study abroad - his art was formed under the influence of the Russian school of painting of the pre-Petrine time.

Vishnyakov received recognition mainly as a portrait painter. Refinement of the image, warmth of mood, lack of mannerisms, silver color - these are the characteristic features of his artistic manner. Most Exquisite portrait Vishnyakova portrays Sarah Eleanor Fermor , daughter of the head of the Chancellery from buildings (1749). A young girl in a luxurious silver-gray satin dress embroidered with flowers is preparing to curtsy. She gracefully holds a fan in her hand. The fine lace painting and the decorative landscape background, the motifs of which resonate with the embroidery on the dress, attract attention.

Ivan Nikitin, Andrei Matveev and Ivan Vishnyakov did not shake the foundations of world art with their work, but they made a huge contribution to the development of Russian painting, taking the first confident steps in the development of the portrait genre.

Russian painting of the early 18th century

When compiling the texts, materials from Yu. Pelevin and G. Danilova were used.

5. Russian artists of the middle - second half of the XVIII v.

Alexey Antropov (1716-1795)

In the work of Alexei Petrovich Antropov, continuity is clearly traced between the retired painters of the era of Peter I and the artists of the second half of the 18th century. The master achieved the greatest success in the portrait genre. It is in this area that Antropov plays a decisive role in strengthening national traditions, expressed in a realistically accurate and unbiased reflection of reality.

A.P. Antropov was born in the family of a "locksmith" of the Armory. He began his long career in the reign of Anna Ioannovna. A. P. Antropov spent many years under the guidance of the famous artist Ivan Vishnyakov. The novice artist worked on the decoration of palaces and cathedrals, took part in the painting of the Summer, Winter, Anichkov, Peterhof and Catherine's palaces. Of great importance for his creative development was the work in Kiev on the iconostasis and murals in the Cathedral of St. Andrew the First-Called, which was rebuilt according to the project of F. B. Rastrelli.

Early easel works by A. P. Antropov, for example, a portrait of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna and paired portraits of Grand Duke Pyotr Fedorovich and Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna were executed from the established and tested from “painting samples” created by foreign court masters. In 1758, a new stage in the artist's work began in St. Petersburg. At the forty-second year of his life, he enters the study of portrait art with Pietro Rotari, an Italian artist at the court of Elizabeth Petrovna. The Italian master was pleased with his student and even called him "the best painter in Russia."

Since the late 1750s, one can speak of the beginning of an independent artistic path of A.P. Antropov as a portrait painter. One of his most significant works is considered to be portrait Anastasia Mikhailovna Izmailova, senior maid of honor under Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. The painter portrayed the lady of state directly and simply, without any flirtatious twists, with the utmost honesty: the court person is shown as a flabby old woman, with a deliberate artificial blush, darkened eyebrows and slightly watery eyes. The main feature of the artistic method of A.P. Antropov was reflected in the portrait - the natural authenticity of the appearance of the model. The heyday of his work falls on the 60s, when he created his best canvases, such as portraits of M. A. Rumyantseva, V. V. Fermora, A. V. Buturlina. In all these works, the artist does not at all seek to penetrate the complex world of spiritual experiences of those whom he depicts, but only captures their appearance with the utmost accuracy. At the same time, in the portrait manner of A.P. Antropov, throughout all periods of his work, the influence of the old painting traditions of the late 17th - early 18th centuries is felt. The connection with the technique of the icon and parsuna is evident in many of his works. In addition, one should not forget that A.P. Antropov painted icons all his life. A similar orientation affected a number of works by A.P. Antropov, for example, a portrait of A.L. Apraksina, as well as numerous portraits of clergy, whom he often had to paint as an artist who was at the Synod.

In 1762, after the death of Elizabeth Petrovna and the accession to the throne of Peter III, the Holy Synod entrusted A.P. Antropov with a ceremonial portrait of the new emperor. There was a real opportunity to declare oneself at the royal court; luck, it seems, smiled at the artist. A.P. Antropov paints three large ceremonial portraits of the sovereign. However, the new emperor reigned for only half a year and was overthrown by his wife, the future Empress Catherine II. A.P. Antropov never became a court painter, which put a barrier to his popularity in society - after all, in Russia it was possible to achieve universal fame, honor, money only through recognition from the august persons.

In the 1770s-1780s, the creative forces of A.P. Antropov were declining. In the last period, A.P. Antropov works less and less from nature, but creates many icons. Until the end of his days, the master painted images "for offering to the highest persons." The Synod entrusts him with various assignments related not only to control over icon painters. So, he was sent to Moscow to inspect the Kremlin cathedrals. In 1789, the artist made an important act - he transferred his own house to the Order of the Public Charity for the establishment of a public school in it. He also opens a private school of painting, among whose students was the future great portrait painter D. G. Levitsky.

Antropov died in 1795 and was buried in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, for which he once painted icons and portraits. The tombstone on his grave has survived to this day. Alexei Petrovich Antropov occupies a worthy place in the Russian artistic culture of the 18th century. The outstanding talent of the painter, strict truthfulness in the depiction of nature, as well as pedagogical activity brought the master well-deserved recognition.

Fyodor Rokotov (1735?-1808)

The largest Russian portrait painter of the second half of the 18th century - Fedor Stepanovich Rokotov - was completely forgotten by his descendants. His works had to be rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century.

The origin of Rokotov is not exactly known. He was born in Moscow. According to some sources, Fedor Stepanovich came from a family of serfs, according to another hypothesis, he was the illegitimate child of Prince P.I. Repnin. Information about the first teachers of the artist has not been preserved, perhaps in his youth he studied in Moscow with icon painters. In 1760, “by verbal order” by I. I. Shuvalov, Rokotov was admitted to the Academy of Arts. The young artist is making rapid and noticeable progress. Palace commissions contribute to his ascent up the ladder of recognition. Rokotov writes "Portrait of Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich in childhood." With the advent of Catherine II to the throne, Rokotov was brought closer to the court. In 1763 he painted a formal portrait of the Empress in connection with her coronation in Moscow. For this creation he was awarded. The artist is also instructed to paint the royal favorite Grigory Orlova and the illegitimate son of Catherine II and Grigory Orlov - Alexei Bobrinsky.

The artist succeeds: he acquires his own workshop, he has students. He creates a portrait gallery of representatives of the most noble families: the Yusupovs, the Kurakins, the Bestuzhevs-Ryumins, the Golenishchevs-Kutuzovs. Rokotov, like other artists of the second half of the 18th century, is still intently attentive to the social position of the model: he accurately paints the uniform, regalia, orders, and so on. However, already at an early, St. Petersburg stage, an attitude towards the model was manifested in his work, characterized by an interest in the personal qualities of a person, in his individual world.

All this time, Rokotov serves at the Academy of Arts, but this takes the artist a lot of time and interferes with his work. Having received the title of academician, Rokotov quit his service and between 1765 and 1767 he moved to Moscow, where, apparently, he remains until the end of his life. In his hometown, the artist mainly works on private orders. Rokotov thus became one of the first "free artists" in Russia, independent of the state service. At this time, the artist avoided pompous official portraits. He was attracted by other pictorial tasks: the creation of chamber, intimate canvases, which would reflect the master's ideas about the sublime spiritual structure of his characters. He creates the type of portrait that corresponded to the ideas of the noble intelligentsia about honor, dignity, culture, "spiritual elegance." The portrait painter was undoubtedly influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment with its problems of the moral character of the privileged class and the "true dignity of the nobleman."

The creative take-off of the painter found its expression in a whole string of beautiful female images. Each of them is wonderful in its own way. Women's faces come out of the darkness and appear like a kind of vision in a light haze of color, they are filled with sublime poetry and aesthetic delight. Uknyagini E. N. Orlova - big sad-thoughtful eyes. Her image is full of luminous purity and enduring beauty of youth. N. Surovtseva is charmingly feminine, with a simple Russian face and a kind look from her radiant eyes. "Portrait of Countess E. V. Santi" is attractive for its color scheme, a spectacular combination of greenish, pink and yellow tones. But the eyes of the Countess are cold and aloof, there is no warmth in them.

People on Rokotov's canvases seem to be fraught with something secret, significant. Behind calmness and restraint, one can assume an internal movement, albeit not yet fully conscious. This is the portrait of Alexandra Struyskaya. The mysterious half-smile of the heroine, her open eyes, a light picturesque haze and a dark background from which the vague outlines of the figure protrude create one of the most penetrating images in Russian portrait art.

Little is known about the last decades of the artist's life. In the 1790s, the demand for commissioned portraits by Rokotov dropped significantly. In his later years, the master took up teaching activities. In old age, the artist, obviously, no longer worked. He lived out his life alone in Moscow without a break. He did not have his own family, the closest relatives and heirs were nephews. Fedor Stepanovich Rokotov died on December 12 (according to the old style), 1808, and was buried in the Novospassky Monastery. His grave was lost, only a record remained in the monastery cemetery book.

Rokotov's work constituted a whole stage in the history of Russian portraiture. The master sought to find the ideal of beauty, not trying to glorify it or bring it closer to some abstract standard. Throughout his life, Rokotov painted exclusively portraits of representatives of the nobility: from the emperor to the provincial landowner. In this era, it was the nobility that was the bearer of culture, enlightenment and education. However, the artist put forward such personality traits that had universal human value to the fore. He created sublimely ideal images and swept away everything private and unnecessary. In addition, nowhere did he give his images full clarity of portrait characteristics. Poetically generalizing the features of models, he lifted a person, made him better and cleaner. That is why the “mysterious” and inspired faces on the canvases of F. S. Rokotov are so attractive.

Dmitry Levitsky (1735-1822)

The future painter was born in Ukraine in the family of a priest. In 1752-1755 in Kiev he met A. P. Antropov, who painted St. Andrew's Cathedral. This meeting decided his life and destiny. In 1758 Levitsky went to Petersburg. Here he settled with his teacher and under his supervision mastered the art of painting, then studied with the masters of the Chancellery from the building. In 1769, he parted ways with his teachers and began an independent creative path. Having tried himself in various types of painting, the artist established himself in choosing a portrait as the main and only genre of his work.

Levitsky finally settled in St. Petersburg. The most fruitful period of his life began. For many years he connected himself with the Academy of Arts, which at that time was the center of the artistic life of Russia. In 1771, the artist headed the portrait class and led it for almost seventeen years. At the same time, he began to receive court orders, orders from the Academy and private individuals from the noble elite of St. Petersburg.

Among the surviving works of Levitsky of the 1770s, various versions of ceremonial portraits predominate. The main task of such a portrait was to glorify a person of high social status. The person depicted appeared before the audience in the most representative form - in uniform, with orders, insignia and royal encouragement. The situation and attributes should have eloquently testified to the significance of the person and her deeds, to the achieved level of prestige. An example is the portrait of the architect A.F. Kokorinov, the rector of the Academy of Arts and one of the authors of its building on Vasilyevsky Island. Kokorinov is captured in his office - the usual setting for depicting high-ranking statesmen. The architect gestures at the plan of the building of the Academy of Arts, his favorite brainchild, lying in front of him. The architect is wearing a sumptuous suit with a masterfully drawn out texture - a camisole embroidered with gold and a caftan trimmed with fur. The viewer is presented with an aristocrat whose merits were in his work for the benefit of the development of arts in Russia. However, a deep psychological penetration into the inner world of a person has not yet been achieved.

The seventies of the eighteenth century were for Levitsky the decade of the highest rise of creative forces. The artistic method of the portraitist developed in line with enlightenment classicism: in the foreground in understanding a person, his correspondence to the model of an ideal citizen, his moral qualities came to the fore. Levitsky also created soulful images that reveal the inner “I” of a person whose personal qualities aroused the sympathy of the master. This trend has prevailed in chamber portraits, as it is customary to call small chest or waist images with a neutral background, without any furnishings. The master creates a gallery of portraits of people spiritually close to him - the writer A. V. Khrapovitsky, French philosopher-educator Denis Diderot, M. A. Dyakova.

A generally recognized success of the painter was a series of portraits of Smolyanka women - pupils of the Educational Society for Noble Maidens at the Smolny Monastery (later - the Smolny Institute). The portraitist was posed by pupils who distinguished themselves by special success in the sciences and arts. Work on the series was completed in 1776, which coincided with the first graduation of students. Paired images of F. S. Rzhevskaya and A. M. Davydova, E. N. Khrushcheva and E. N. Khovanskaya, gracefully dancing S. Borscheva, E. I. Nelidova and A.P. Levshina showed a new kind of genre for Russian art - “portrait in role”. The canvases unfold a picturesque narrative about the heroines who live both in theatrical form and in their own closed world of maturing youth.

In the 1780s, Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky was a famous and popular artist. He is not deprived of prestigious orders for ceremonial portraits. One of these representative portraits, which became a milestone in the master's creative path, was "Catherine II - Legislator". The work is unusual for the artist: in it the portrait image-idea is revealed through an allegorical composition. The work was accompanied by a resounding success, and the author repeated his creation several times.

In the 1790s, Levitsky painted a huge number of commissioned portraits. These are the famous commanders of Catherine's wars P. A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, A. V. Suvorov, N. V. Repnin; prominent diplomats and advisers to Catherine II G. A. Potemkin, A. A. Bezborodko. Portraits of this series represent a new type of educational representative portrait developed by Levitsky. Abandoning baroque pomp and classic paraphernalia, the artist examines his model soberly and businesslike. He is not looking for new compositional solutions, spectacular poses, gestures. Simplicity and self-esteem - these are the "elegances of the soul" that he emphasizes.

The glory of Levitsky fades in the second half of the 1810s, after the end of the war with Napoleon. His name disappears from the pages of magazines and reports of the academic council, he does not receive official orders. On April 7, 1822, the life of Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky was interrupted.

The humanists of the Renaissance set before humanity the task of subjugating all the forces of nature and transforming the norms of social life. The 17th century focused the attention of minds on the first task. The 18th century directed all the best intellectual forces to the solution of social problems. Thus, the 17th century became a period of scientific mastery of nature, and the 18th century became a century of social reorganization.

The 17th century marked the birth of the bourgeois system. The first blows are dealt to feudalism: the revolutions in the Netherlands (1566-1609) and England (1640-1688), the establishment of an absolutist state in France, which ensured the growth of the bourgeoisie. The rise of the economy in the advanced countries of Europe, the flourishing of manufactory and trade created the ground for the progress of the exact and natural sciences. The great discoveries of Galileo, Kepler, Newton, Leibniz, Descartes in mathematics, astronomy, physics, philosophy contributed to the establishment of materialistic ideas (Bacon, Hobbes, Locke, Spinoza), the expansion and deepening of ideas about nature and the universe. Based on these achievements, the thinkers of the 17th century came to a holistic systemic view of the world.

A similar process occurs in art: a more holistic and deeper perception of reality is affirmed. In the 17th century, in connection with the desire for a broader reflection of reality in art, a variety of creative methods, ideological and artistic movements, and genre forms were observed. Artistic searches are embodied in the mainstream of three directions: realism, baroque and classicism.

Renaissance realism continues its development, the democratic traditions of the humanists of the Renaissance are revealed in the work of significant writers, artists, sculptors. These are the Spanish playwright Lope de Vega, the Italian artist Caravaggio, the great Dutch painter Rembrandt, the Spanish humanist Velazquez and others. According to the French writer Charles Sorel, the realists set themselves the task of "showing a picture of human life," considering its various aspects.

Baroque art *228 strove to reveal life in motion, in the struggle of changeable elemental forces. It influenced the reader, the viewer with dramatic tension, expression of forms. Baroque art was built on contrasts, asymmetries, it gravitated towards grandiosity, congestion with decorative motifs; in painting, it strove to violate the direct linear perspective, it preferred lines - a spot, a mass, light and shade contrasts. The main types of Baroque art were park and palace ensembles, cult architecture, decorative painting and sculpture, ceremonial portrait, and still life. The heroes of baroque works of art were depicted in a state of ecstasy, performing a feat, triumph, or in scenes of torment, suffering. In extreme manifestations, baroque art came to mysticism, irrationalism.

*228: (Baroque (Italian barosso) - whimsical, strange.)

The baroque style was most clearly embodied in architecture and sculpture, although the features of this style found expression in the work of Caravaggio, Rubens; Baroque influenced the work of writers Corneille, Racine, Milton, German poets and others. Baroque developed in various countries: in Italy, where this style was especially vividly embodied in architecture (baroque Rome), in Spain, Portugal, Flanders, and later in Germany, Eastern Europe, Job's Light. In the 18th century, baroque received a brilliant development in Russia and Ukraine.

Classicism *229 was generated by the Renaissance, its homeland was Italy. It arose along with the revived ancient theater and was originally a direct opposition to medieval drama. Seeing an example of artistic perfection in ancient drama, theorists of classicism formulated the laws of the theater on its basis. Already in 1526, the Italian playwright Trissino wrote the tragedy Sophonisba, modeled on the works of Sophocles and Euripides, taking the plot from the story of Titus Livius, reflecting the events of Roman history.

*229: (Classicism (lat. classicus - exemplary); the most important feature of this method is the appeal to the samples and forms of antiquity as an ideal aesthetic standard)

But classicism was developed not in Italy, but in France. It was there that the canons of classicism were developed in the book by I. Boileau "Poetic Art". Classicism in 17th-century France became the official artistic method, recognized by the government. The policy of the absolutist state during the period of transition to a nationwide system, the principle of statehood and civil discipline demanded the strictest form discipline from art.

The flowering of classicism was largely determined by the materialistic and rationalistic philosophy of Descartes. Reason became the only source of truth; thought, not emotion, became the dominant element of art.

The main canons of classicism boiled down to the following:

• the principle of truthful reflection of reality;
• rules of three unities: place, time and action;
• characterization of the character according to any one trait that prevails in this character; creation of a type that reflects the general, universal, eternal;
• hierarchy of genres: high - tragedy, epic, ode; low - comedy, satire, fable. The sublime and the base, the tragic and the comic, the heroic and the mundane were strictly distinguished;
• a sharply contrasting image of characters - villains and heroes;
• didactic principle: the doctrine of the educational role of art, the purpose of which is to expose and punish vice and reward virtue.

The main artistic methods occupied a different place in European art schools. In Italy of the 17th century, the Baroque method was dominant; Rome became one of its main centers. Baroque masters strove for grandiose sizes, complex forms, monumental elation. There is a synthesis of the plastic arts, in which sculpture and painting are subordinate to architecture.

The origins of baroque architecture are laid in the late work of Renaissance figures - Vignola, Palladio and especially Michelangelo. The expressiveness and picturesqueness of the Baroque found expression in the work of such architects as Barromini (1599-1667), Bernini (1598-1680), whose largest architectural work was the completion of the construction of the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome and the decoration of the square in front of him. The altar group in the church of Santa Maria della Victoria - "The Ecstasy of St. Teresa" is distinguished by fine craftsmanship, fidelity to vital details. An example of Bernini's Baroque sculpture is the magnificent ceremonial portrait of the French "Sun King" Louis XIV.

The most striking exponent of new ideas in painting of this period was Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, 1573-1610). Proximity to the masters of the High Renaissance is manifested in the painting "Young Man with a Lute". Boldly interprets Caravaggio religious images. His painting is distinguished by sharp contrasts of chiaroscuro, plastic modeling of figures depicted in complex angles, monumentality ("Confession of the Apostle Matthew", "Conversion of Saul" and others). Tragic power is distinguished by "The Entombment", the truth and depth of experiences - "Assumption of Mary". The impact of Caravaggio on the development of realism in European art was significant. Following his traditions was called caravaggism.

At the turn of the 16th-17th centuries, an academic trend in painting took shape in Italy, which was embodied in the Bologna Academy (its founders were the brothers Lodovico, Agostino and Annibale Carracci). Turning to the traditions of the Renaissance, the supporters of this trend asserted the inviolability of the norms and ideals of the beauty of the Renaissance, which eventually became clichés.

Guido Reni (1575-1642) and Guercino (Francesco Barbieri, 1591-1666) became the successors of the Carracci case.

In the 17th century, the formation of the national art school of Flanders takes place, in which baroque forms are intertwined with realistic ones. In Flemish painting, such features as a thirst for knowledge of the world, nationality, cheerfulness, solemn festivity found expression.

The largest artist, the head of the Flemish school of painting was Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640), in whose work powerful realism is combined with a peculiar national form of baroque. His works are characterized by a sense of dynamics, the variability of life. Rubens creates altar compositions, the plots of which are based on episodes of martyrdom, on the image of suffering, HO AT the same time, the moral victory of dying heroes. Such is the composition "Exaltation of the Cross", where a raised cross with a mighty figure of the crucified Christ, illuminated by a narrow sheaf of light, dominates a group of grieving relatives and gloating executioners.

Rubens turned to mythological and allegorical themes, which made it possible to embody heroic feelings. Like the masters of the Renaissance, Rubens sang of man, the harmonious unity of his spirit and body. He created works: "Bacchanalia", "The Abduction of the Daughters of Leucippus", "Perseus and Andromeda", full of expression and tension "Boar Hunt" and "Lion Hunt", portraits, self-portraits, etc. Rubens' work was of particular importance for the formation of Flemish painting (Van Dyck, 1599-1641 and Jacob Jordans, 1593-1678 and others).

In the 17th century, still life was established in Flanders painting as an independent genre. Frans Snyders (1579-1657) was a major master of the monumental decorative still life of "gifts of nature" and "hunting scenes". In his still lifes, filling the entire pictorial space, objects obscure each other, hang from the tables and fall to the floor. Decorativeness is achieved by a peculiar color: bright contrasting colors stand out against a neutral background. The balance of color masses, clear horizontal lines of tables and benches organize compositions ("Still life with a swan" and others).

The art of Holland in the 17th century reflected the trends of the era especially vividly. The leading place in painting was occupied by the everyday genre, portrait, landscape, still life. The founder of the Dutch realistic portrait was Frans Hals (1580-1666). His contemporary was the great painter Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1666) - one of the pinnacles of world painting. Rembrandt was attracted not by certain aspects of everyday life, but by the strong spiritual movements of a person, dramatic collisions that have a universal character. He created group portraits (a portrait of doctors "The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tuln", a portrait of a company of riflemen "Night Watch" and others), where the characters are connected by a single plot and at the same time the individual features of each are conveyed. Rembrandt turns to biblical themes: he writes Abraham's Sacrifice, David's Farewell to Jonathan, The Holy Family, and others, in which the depth of human feelings captivates. In simple everyday scenes, the artist reveals the complexity of the spiritual life of his characters.

Rembrandt's talent found its brilliant expression in portraits ("Portrait of Saskia", "Self-portrait with Saskia on her knees", "Portrait of Hendrickje Stoffels" and others). The artist's color palette serves to reveal the artist's thoughts, feelings, views of the world, the most unique "Rembrandt" of the means of painting - chiaroscuro, which allows you to create radiance in the darkness. This property manifested itself with particular force in the artist's self-portraits.

The famous Danae, the image of a woman transformed and beautiful in her love impulse, is distinguished by the depth and beauty of the image. The highest achievement of Rembrandt's work is the painting "The Return of the Prodigal Son", written on the plot of the gospel parable. The image of a tattered prodigal son with a shaved head, who returned to his abandoned father, expresses the tragic path of learning about life, a sense of shame and remorse. The image of the father embodies the highest human happiness, fatherly love and forgiveness - the testament that the great master left to people.

In the 17th century, the principles of the Dutch realistic landscape (Ruisdael, 1628/29-1682) took shape, and still life became widespread. Prominent still life painters were Pieter Claesz (circa 1597-1661) and Willem Heda (1594-1680/82). They wrote numerous "breakfasts", striking, it would seem, with a chaotic heap of objects (hams, pies, glasses, etc.). But the composition of these works is strictly thought out, grayish-golden, olive tonal range.

combines items. The still life masters include Beyeren, Kalf and others.

The end of the XVI-XVII centuries - the heyday of Spanish culture. The art of Spain was affected by the influence of the medieval heritage (Gothic style), Moorish culture (due to the centuries-old domination of the Arabs in Spain), and the influence of the Catholic Church. All the art of Spain is permeated with religious ideas, but it is turned to real life,

The heyday of Spanish painting is associated with the name of Domenico Theotocopuli, nicknamed El Grsko (1541-1614). The work of the artist, who was formed under the influence of the Italian Renaissance (Titian, Tintoretto), Byzantine painting (icons and mosaics), is distinguished by the depth of philosophical thinking, humanistic orientation and at the same time tragedy, which reflected the crisis of humanistic ideals, a sense of loneliness, confusion and anxiety. The dramatic expressive art of El Greco is difficult to attribute to any direction. The figures in his paintings are elongated, bizarrely deformed in the name of special expressiveness. Yes, and the entire space of the picture is deformed.

The most significant works of El Greco: "The Burial of Count Orgaz", "The Apostles Peter and Paul", "The Martyrdom of St. Mauritius", "Portrait of a Knight with a Hand on His Chest" and others. In his portraits, El Greco embodies various types of Spaniards, reveals the features of their spiritual appearance.

Prominent representatives of the realistic school were Jusepe Ribera (1591-1652), Francisco Zurbaran (1598 - about 1664). Spanish painting reached its peak in the work of Velázquez.

Diego Rodriguez de Silva Velázquez (1599-1660) is one of the greatest realists. The strength of his work lies in the depth of psychological analysis, in the coloristic mastery of his artistic manner. Velasquez, being the court painter of Philip IV, created many portraits of the king, members of his family, close associates and jesters. Despite the limits that bound him, Velasquez spoke the truth about people with his brush. It is significant that Pope Innocent X, seeing his portrait, exclaimed: "Too truthful!"

Velázquez wrote on mythological scenes ("Bacchus", "Venus with a Mirror"), on battle scenes ("Surrender of Breda"). The first among the artists of Western Europe, he sang the beauty of everyday work ("Spinners"). Velazquez's discoveries in the field of light and color, the features of his realism had a significant impact on the painting of the 18th - 19th centuries.

The son of the Renaissance was the Spanish playwright Lope de Vega (1562 - 1635). The framework of classicism was too tight for him, he considered it necessary to "mix the tragic with the funny," "a mixture of the sublime and the ridiculous." The theater of Lope de Vega has a life-affirming character, its characters are energetic, optimistic people, the conflict is built on the themes of honor and heroism. His comedies are "the mirror of life". The central work of Lope de Vega is the heroic drama "The Sheep Spring". The theme of the play is the uprising in the town of Fuente Ovehuna (translated as "Sheep Spring"). In the center are images of simple peasants Laurencia and Frandoso, their love overcomes all obstacles.

Classicism dominated France in the 17th century. Three bright talents brought fame to this method: Corneille, Racine and Molière.

Pierre Corneille (1606-1684) created the tragedy "Sid", dedicated to the hero of the Spanish folk epic Rodrigo Diaz, nicknamed Sid. Turning to the theme of the love of Rodrigo and Jimena, Corneille focuses the stage action on the conflict of duty and feeling, which was characteristic of the problems of classicism.

Jean Racine (1639-1699) opened a new direction in the French theater with his tragedy Andromache. If Corneille was the singer of human strength, then Racine was weakness. He reveals the picture of the moral discord of the personality in the tragedy "Phaedra". The conflict between passion and duty reaches its limit, leading to a moral crisis of the individual.

Molière (Jean Baptiste Pokley, 1622-1673) - the creator of the national French comedy. He saw the purpose of his work in "correcting people by amusing them", "revealing the vices of the century in funny images". Molière did not object to the classicist rules, but his comedies gravitated towards realism. Moliere created more than thirty plays. 11apbolse significant of them - "Tartuffe", "Don Juan", "Misanthrope", "Miserly", "Piersman in the nobility", "Skapin's Rogues" and others. In them, the playwright exposed universal human vices, made them recognizable in any environment and at all times.

The founder of classicism in French painting was Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665). His works are distinguished by deep ideas, thoughts and feelings. He believed that art should remind a person "of the contemplation of the forehead flew and wisdom, with the help of which he will be able to remain firm and unshakable before the blows of fate." Within the framework of subjects from ancient mythology and the Bible, Poussin revealed the themes of the modern era. In his works, he strove for majestic calm, noble restraint, balance. His ideal is a hero who maintains imperturbable peace of mind in life's trials, capable of accomplishing a feat. Poussin was inspired by the art of antiquity and the Renaissance, which was reflected in the works - "Sleeping Venus", "Death of Germanicus", "Tancred and Erminia", "Arcadian Shepherds" and others. One of the characteristic features of his talent is the ability to reveal the inner world of a person in movement, in gesture, in rhythms.

In the 1750s and 60s, Poussin turned to the landscape, which is the scene of the action of legendary heroes ("Landscape with Polyphemus" and others). The call for self-knowledge and spiritual perfection is contained in Poussin's "Self-portrait".

The classical landscape was developed in the work of Lorrain (Claude Gellet, 1600-1682). These landscapes are dreamy and elegiac. Lorrain enriches landscapes with fresh observations, he subtly feels the light and air environment, the slightest changes in nature. The best landscapes include "Noon", "Evening", "Morning", "Night". The artist achieved a sense of the breadth of space, movement in depth. His paintings are distinguished by a soft pictorial manner and harmonious coloring. For the first time in French painting, Lorrain depicted the harbors of France and genre scenes from the life of fishermen. The master's ink drawings are romantic and emotional. Lorrain's landscapes had a significant impact on the development of the landscape genre in European painting. The tendencies of classicism developed in the painting of Callot (1592-1635), Latour (1593-1652), Louis Lenain (1593-1648),

In the second half of the 17th century, painting and sculpture in France acquired a decorative character and were subordinated to architecture. In 1671 the Academy of Architecture was founded. A new type of regular centralized city is being formed. The order system of antiquity is applied; in the construction of volumes and compositions of buildings, a strict regularity, order and symmetry are affirmed. Ceremonial park ensembles are being created, palaces of a new type, for example, the palace of Vaux le Vicomte.

The most complete embodiment of these tendencies was achieved in the grandiose ensemble of Versailles (1668-1689), which was the main residence of the king and glorified the boundless power of French absolutism. According to A. Benois, Versailles is "a poem of humanity in love with the nature, ruling over this very nature" (architects Louis Levo, Andre Lenotrou, Jules Hardouin-Monsart).

The plan of Versailles is distinguished by clarity, symmetry and harmony. The extended palace dominates the surrounding area and organizes it. Dominant straight lines, smooth planes and geometric shapes of the parterre, ponds, trimmed trees, and flower beds united the park ensemble. In Versailles, the desire of man to subordinate nature to reason and will is everywhere manifested.

Statues, sculptural groups, reliefs, fountain compositions played an important role in the design of the palace and park ensemble. The desire for splendor was combined with a sense of proportion, the beginning of order. Cities were rebuilt, especially Paris. It was decorated with St. Louis Square (now Vendôme), Place des Victories, which became the center of the city's street network, and Place des Vosges. The so-called Les Invalides with a cathedral is being erected (in imitation of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome).

The style of the era is vividly represented in the east facade of the Louvre (Archbishop Claude Perrault), built in addition to the main parts of the building, erected in the 16th century (architects Lescaut and Lemercier). Decorated with a colonnade of the Corinthian order, it stretches for 173 meters and is designed for perception from a distance. A work of mature French classicism, the Louvre served as a model for many of the residences of the rulers of Europe. Decorative forms prevailed in sculpture, in which classicism was combined with elements of baroque pathos ("Bathing Nymphs", equestrian monuments of Louis XIV - by Francois Girardon; portraits, allegorical figures of rivers, tombstones - by Antoine Coisevox).

The work of the sculptor, architect, painter Pierre Puget (1620-1694), who worked in Toulon and Marseilles ("Atlantes", "Dear Croton" and others) was distinguished by an original talent.

The 18th century was called the Age of Enlightenment, imbued with the spirit of struggle against all the offspring of feudalism, culminating in the French bourgeois revolution of 1789-1794. Over the course of a century, a gigantic breakdown of all social and state foundations, concepts and criteria of the old society was carried out.

XVIII century - the age of Reason; the exact and natural sciences, geography, archeology, history, and materialistic philosophy, connected with technology, are developing. An important event was the publication of the "Encyclopedic, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts" (1751-1780), organized by D. Diderot, participants J.-L. D "Alamber, Voltaire, Ch.-L. Montesquieu and other scientists who received the name of "encyclopedists." An outstanding philosophical work was the "System of Nature" by P. Holbach (1723-1789). D. Diderot (1713-1784) introduced into the materialistic teaching elements of dialectics.

But in the age of reason, the freshness and sincerity of feeling, capable of reviving the primordial virtues of the "natural man", were not suppressed. Rousseau said: "Man is great only in his feelings." These views found expression in an in-depth psychological analysis, embodied in the gallery of portraiture, in historical landscapes (Hisborough, Watteau, Berne, Robert), in the "lyric novel", "poems in prose" (Rousseau, Prevost, Marivaux, Fielding, Stern, Richardson), in music (Handel, Bach, Gluck, Haydn, Mozart, Italian opera composers). Both "little people" and a civilized intellectual man, born of enlightenment culture, became the heroes of works of art.

The art of the 18th century went through two stages. The first lasted until 1740-1760 and was characterized by the modification of late baroque forms into the decorative rococo style. During this period, there was a combination of witty and mocking skepticism and sophistication: a refined analysis of feelings and moods was made, at the same time, there was an attraction to the "philosophy of pleasure", to the fabulous images of the East.

The second stage (the second half of the 18th century) is connected with the deepening of ideological and artistic contradictions. The Royal Academy in France made an attempt to revive the ceremonial style of academic art of the late 17th century, which was supposed to strengthen the authority of "enlightened absolutism." Representatives of advanced thought turned to the ancient heritage; classicism reasserted itself, opposing the decorative baroque with a sense of proportion, nobility of thoughts and deeds. New in the classicism of the XVIII century was an anti-feudal orientation, in France - a revolutionary character, brought to life by the ideas of the struggle against absolutism.

At the same time, realism continued to develop in the 18th century. Using the materialistic teachings of Aristotle on art, the enlighteners began to lay the theoretical foundations of critical realism, which was established in art already in the 19th century.

In the last third of the 18th century, a new artistic direction, sentimentalism, which was born in England, was widely spread. The name was given to it by Lawrence Stern with his novel Sentimental Journey, but its true founder was the English writer Richardson, then the principles of sentimentalism were embodied in the works of Schiller, Goethe, Rousseau, Diderot, in painting - in the canvases of Chardin and Greuze. A place of honor in their works was occupied by nature, the contemplation of its beauty. In contrast to the sublime and majestic (classicism), sentimentalism brought touching things to art; feeling was elevated to a cult, and sensitivity to a moral principle.

The formation of a pre-romantic direction is associated with sentimentalism.

The product of his time - the era of the bourgeois revolution in England - was the work of Daniel Defoe (1660-1731), who in the novel "Robinson Crusoe" affirmed the idea of ​​a strong-willed active personality.

J. Swift's (1667-745) novel "Gulliver's Travels" was a mocking and sad reflection on the fate of the human race.

The English school of painting in the 18th century put forward a galaxy of talented masters and occupies one of the first places in Europe. This is a realist William Hogarth (1697-1764) - a cycle of paintings "Career of a Moth", "Fashionable Marriage", "Shrimp Seller", "Self-Portrait" and others. Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792) held a special place among portrait painters.

The greatest English painter was Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788), a master of portrait and landscape. His coloring, built on a combination of cold bluish-silvery, olive-gray, pearl tones, conquers with nobility and harmony ("Blue Boy", "Portrait of the Duchess de Beaufort"). In rural landscapes, the artist conveyed various states of nature, anticipating the art of the 19th century ("Waterfall"). He also turns to genre scenes ("Faggot Gatherers").

Gainsborough is followed by a galaxy of English portrait painters: J. Romney (1754-1802), T. Lawrence (1769-1830), G. Reberi (1756-1832) and others.

English architecture of the XVIII century continues to stand on the positions of rationalism and classicism: G. Wood (1705-1754), W. Kent (1684-1748), J. Gibbs (1682-1754).

The enlightenment movement found a vivid expression in the science and art of France.

The works of Lesage, Voltaire, Montesquieu ("The Spirit of Laws"), Rousseau ("Confession", "On the Foundations and Causes of Inequality among People"), Diderot, D'Alembert and other writers and public figures who were propagandists of a new worldview are filled with the Spirit of Enlightenment.

Voltaire (real name François Marie Arouet, 1694-1778) is considered to be the head of the French enlighteners. His literary heritage is diverse in genre: epic, philosophical and heroic-comic poems, odes, satires, epigrams, lyrical poems: ("Henriade", "The Virgin of Orleans", "Brutus", "Death of Caesar" and others). Philosophical stories are of particular importance, and among them - 4 Candide, or Optimism.

In the educational literature of France, one of the main places belongs to P. O. Beaumarchais (1732-1799), the author of the comedies The Barber of Seville, The Marriage of Figaro, and The Crime Mother. It is known that Louis XVI, after listening to "The Marriage of Figaro", exclaimed: "You need to destroy the Bastille to allow this on the stage!"

In the architecture of France of the 18th century, a new direction was established - colorful, elegant, exquisite rococo (fr. rococo from rocaille - shell). The trend towards grandiose ensembles is being lost. A city house, a small mansion, aristocratic salons and boudoirs flooded with light become the backdrop for private life.

A typical example of Rococo is the interior of the Hotel Soubise, architect Germain Boffrand (1667-1754). The oval hall of the hotel is distinguished by its graceful forms and unconstrained elegance. Furniture - elegant carved console tables, cozy soft armchairs, sofas with flexible bizarre outlines of backs and legs.

In the mid-1750s, the attention of architects was attracted by the austerity and calmness of antique order architecture. This direction was headed by the Academy. Classicism was becoming fashionable at court. J.-A. Gabriel (1699-1782) designs Louis XVI Square (now Place de la Concorde) in Paris, redefines the theme of a country palace (the Petit Trianon). Public buildings are constructed by J.-J. Souflo (1713-1780).

Rococo tendencies are spreading in painting (plafonds, panels, tapestries on mythological subjects, gallant themes, pastoral genre, idealized portrait). At the same time, a realistic orientation is being strengthened.

Antoine Watteau (1684-1721) was the creator of the gallant genre, intimate painting, the singer of subtle spiritual movements and feelings. He approved the role of the modern theme in art. His art often took on a romantic tinge. Watteau turned to images from the people ("Grinder", "Basque Peasant", "Savoyar"), at the same time depicted secular ladies and gentlemen, the world of theater ("Love on the Italian Stage", "Love on the French Stage"), holidays nobles ("Gallant festivities", "Society in the park"). Famous paintings by Watteau: "Gilles", "Capricious" and others.

The representative of the mature Rococo style was Francois Boucher (1703-1770), the first artist of Louis XV, a favorite of the aristocracy, the author of decorative panels, scenery, costumes, paintings on mythological themes ("Toilet of Venus"), pastorales, etc.

The realistic direction was represented by Jean Baptiste Chardin (1699-1779). His central theme is a still life, in which he achieved significance and content, reflecting the world of domestic, lived-in things that have become part of the intimate sphere of feelings and thoughts. These are "Attributes of Art", "Copper Tank and others. Charley also turns to the genre ("House of Cards", "Prayer before Dinner"), to the portrait ("Self-Portrait"), revealing everywhere the poetic charm of the ordinary.

Jean Baptiste Greuze (1725-1805) turned to the image of a sensitive person, inspired by the ideas of Rousseau - "The Village Bride", "Portrait of a Young Man" and others.

A brilliant master of drawing and a subtle colorist was Jean Opore Fragonard (1732-1806). The decorative elegance of execution is combined with his poetic perception of the world ("Swing", "Stealth Kiss", "Portrait of Diderot" and others).

The 18th century in France was marked by the development of sculpture. This is the decoration of rococo interiors, and monumentality, and the desire for realism. Significant is the work of Etienne Maurice Falcone (1716-1791), invited by Peter I to St. Petersburg and famous for the "Bronze Horseman" (1766-1782).

The revolutionary ideas of the 18th century in France are associated with the work of Jean Antoine Houdon (1741-1828), the creator of the civil portrait (Rousseau, Mirabeau, Washington, the masterpiece is the portrait of Voltaire).

The 18th century in Germany found its embodiment in philosophical thought, predominantly idealistic. Its outstanding representatives: Kant (1724-1804), Fichte (1762-1814), the pinnacle of German classical philosophy Hegel (1770-1831).

The German Enlightenment gave the world wonderful examples of artistic prose - "The Suffering of Young Werther", "Wilhelm Meister" by Goethe; philosophical lyrics - Schiller's "To Joy", Goethe's "Gaimede", dramaturgy - the tragedy "Emilia Galotti" by Lessing, "Robbers", "Deceit and Love" by Schiller, poetry "Storm and Onslaught" and others.

But all the best, significant that was in the German Enlightenment of the XVIII century, was embodied in the immortal work "Faust", created by Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749-1832), an epic tragedy on which he worked for more than 60 years. At the heart of the work is a dispute between the scientist Faust, the seeker of truth, and Mephistopheles, symbolizing the spirit of denial and destruction. Faust believes that a person will always be characterized by eternal dissatisfaction with what has been achieved. Mephistopheles claims the opposite: a person will prefer perpetual motion to momentary joys, base pleasures.

As a result, Faust comes to understand that the purpose of life is in the struggle for the best ideals of mankind, for the good of the people. This is the truth that he has been looking for so long, and it is beautiful.

Life years

Gone in vain: clear to me

The final conclusion of earthly wisdom:

Only he is worthy of life and freedom,

Who goes to fight for them every day!

With this thought, Faust dies, he is sure of the immortality of human activity in the name of the "free land", the "free people".

The answer to the question, what is the meaning of life (after all, it ends in death), the author gives in the words of Horus Mysticus (a choir of incomprehensible truths): the goal of happiness is in striving for a goal ("The goal is endless here - in achieving"). Man lives to create, to create.

This was the essence of the great Enlightenment era, filled with faith in the strength and power of Man, his mind, his will.

A new period in the development of culture on the threshold of the New Age. Changing the traditional worldview, changes in the historical and cultural process.

Factors influencing the formation of culture:

1. Foreign intervention.

2. Peasant wars and uprisings.

3. The addition of absolutism, which completed the centralization of the state.

4. Legal enslavement of peasants and townspeople (1649).

5. The formation of an all-Russian market that destroyed the patriarchal way of life.

6. Increasing state regulation of public life.

7. Nikonian reform and the split of the church.

8. Expansion of ties with the countries of Western Europe.

9. Completion of the history of ancient Russian culture, permeated with church worldview. The secularization of culture.

Main achievements:

1. In science - the study and generalization of experience in order to apply it to life.

2. In literature - the formation of a secular direction.

3. In architecture - the convergence of the appearance of religious and civil buildings.

4. In painting - the destruction of iconographic canons and the emergence of realistic tendencies.

1613 - approval of the Romanov dynasty. The first tsar was Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov.

Literacy education in the family. Benefits for home education and training.

1633 - Burtsev's primer, Smotrytsky's grammar

to. XVII century. - K. Istomin's primer, multiplication table

Secondary schools appear, which remain spiritual, medieval in their type:

Lutheran in the German Quarter

· Boyar Rtishchev's private school for young noblemen.

school in the Kremlin Chudov monastery at the expense of the patriarchal court

1665 - school at the Spassky Monastery, headed by Simeon Polotsky

· 1687 - The Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was opened in the Donskoy Monastery by Patriarch Macarius, where the Likhud brothers taught. It was graduated by the mathematician Magnitsky, Lomonosov, Metropolitan Platon.

Development of scientific knowledge. The practical, applied nature of scientific knowledge is preserved:

· in medicine - folk healing, knowledge was inherited, generalized centuries-old experience. The foundations of state medicine are laid, the first pharmacies and hospitals are opened. The "School of Russian Doctors" was opened, the first scientific works.

n. 17th century - "Old drawing" - the map of Russia has not been preserved.

· 1627 - "New drawing".

· Geographical information was contained in "poverstnye books", which were made in the Yamsky order for coachmen.

· "Siberian Order" collected information about Siberia and the Far East. Russian explorers: Erofey Khabarov - the Far East, S. Dezhnev and V. Poyarkov - Siberia.

late 17th century - S. Remezov compiled the "Drawing Book of Siberia".

Historical writings of a new type:

· S. Medvedev "Contemplation of short years"

· "Synopsis" Gisel - a review of Russian history, the only textbook on Russian history remained for a long time.

· time of decline of the ancient form of historical works - annals. The latest works of this genre appear: "Schismatic Chronicle2", "Chronicle of Many Revolts", "Siberian Chronicles".

Literature

· Changes in the social composition of readers have led to new demands in literature. New genres: secular stories, legends, collections of scientific content, satirical stories (“The Tale of the Shemyakin Court”, “The Tale of Yersh Yershovich”), drama, poetry (the founder of rhymed poetry was Simeon Polotsky, continued by Karion Istomin and Sylvester Medvedev). "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune".

· Anonymous journalistic genres - "anonymous letters".

Lives of the Saints - "The Life of Habakkuk" - an autobiography

Folklore - fairy tales, everyday, heroic, epics, historical songs about Yermak and Stenka Razin

· Simeon of Polotsk (second half of the 17th century) - publicist, was a monk, a teacher of the royal children, a supporter of an unlimited monarchy. He composed poems and sermons, journalism for the glory of autocracy, painted the ideal image of a wise monarch. Author of the first collections of poetry "Multicolored Vertograd", "Rhymologion".

Reform and schism in the church in 1653-1656. conducted by Patriarch Nikon and Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.

· Ideologists - Avvakum and Nikon.

· Nikon - correction of errors in church books and customs. He introduced baptism with three fingers, the custom - on Palm Sunday, the patriarch enters the Kremlin on a donkey, and the tsar leads the donkey.

· The painting by V. Surikov “Boyar Morozova” is dedicated to the split. She defended the old faith, raised her hand up with two fingers.

Architecture

They say about the architecture of this time: “wooden tales and stone songs”. Departure from the canons, convergence of religious and civil construction. The main feature is "wonderful pattern".

The construction of the New Jerusalem - the brainchild of Nikon

· 1667-1668 - a wooden palace in Kolomenskoye - the pinnacle of wooden architecture, "Russian Bethlehem" for Alexei Mikhailovich. It was called "the eighth wonder of the world." Architects Semyon Petrov and Ivan Mikhailov. Peter I was born in Kolomenskoye.

Izmailovo estate - another royal estate, a new type of economy: mechanization, a glass factory, a labyrinth garden, a menagerie, a theater

· The Rostov Kremlin was built in the 17th century.

Tent churches and cathedrals. The types of compositions are varied: tented - an octagon on a quadrangle; longline - an increase in decreasing quadruples or octals, many-headed - Kizhi.

Archangel Cathedral in Nizhny Novgorod

Church of the Intercession in Medvedkovo - the estate of Prince Pozharsky

Assumption "Wonderful" Church in Uglich

· The Terem Palace in the Kremlin - Bazhen Ogurtsov, Larion Ushakov, Antipa Konstantinov, Shaturin.

Church of Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl

Tent over the Spasskaya Tower in the Kremlin - Bazhen Ogurtsov

New style - Moscow or Naryshkin baroque in the 90s of the XVII century.

Trinity Church in Nikitniki

Church of the Nativity in Putinki in Moscow

Voznesenskaya in Veliky Ustyug

· The Church of the Intercession in Fili, commissioned by Peter I's uncle Lev Naryshkin in his estate.

Distinctive features:

kokoshniks, multi-tiered, symmetry and balance of masses, the main compositional technique: a quadruple at the base, on it - an octagon, above - the second, completes the drum with the head. The effect of moving up vertically. Red and white brick for decoration, decorative and elegant, the windows were framed with columns, above the cornices - the so-called "cock's combs" - stripes of carved decorative elements. The murals inside cover all surfaces, creating the impression of a Garden of Eden.

Civil architecture - the houses of the Duma clerk Averky Kirillov, Golitsyn, Troekurov in Moscow, Korobov in Kaluga.

Monastic complexes: Joseph-Volokolamsky, Spaso-Evfimiev, Novodevichy, New Jerusalem, Trinity-Sergius Lavra.

Painting

In development, there are 2 stages: the first and second half of the century.

In the first half of the century, the struggle of two schools:

· "Godunov's school" - the name comes from the fact that the icons were commissioned by B. Godunov or his relatives. They support the old monumental traditions, strict adherence to the canons. Icon "It is worthy to eat."

· "Stroganov school" - enhancing the aesthetic principle: fine drawing, elaboration of details, ornamentation, color enhancement. Prokopy Chirin, Nikifor Savin, Emelyan Moskovitin.

The second stage is a departure from tradition. The formation of a new aesthetic ideal, the development of the humanistic principles of Western art. The desire for a realistic embodiment of the artistic image. There are treatises on the theory of art.

Representatives: Simon Ushakov (1626-1686) and Joseph Vladimirov - royal painters.

The main condition of painting - compliance with the truth of life. Painting is a mirror reflecting the world. "Trinity" by S. Ushakov, the icon "Our Lady of Vladimir" or "Planting the tree of the Russian State", "The Savior Not Made by Hands" is written using chiaroscuro, taking into account the anatomical structure of the face.

Second half of the 17th century - in painting, interest in the portrait. The rise of realism. The first secular genre appears, the forerunner of the portrait - parsing from distortion. "person" ("Skopin-Shuisky").

Monumental painting is experiencing its last takeoff:

painting c. Trinity in Nikitniki - S. Ushakov and Vladimirov

c. Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl - Gury Nikitin, Sila Savin with a retinue

Armory - control over the activities of artists. Artistic center of the country. Workshop for the production of decorative and applied arts for the royal court:

· "Great outfit" for Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich - a crown, a scepter, orb.

Theatre

1672 - Johann Gottfried Gregory, on behalf of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, assembled a troupe of actors to stage a play in German and Russian on biblical stories. The initiator of the creation of the theater is the boyar A. Matveev. After the death of the king, the theater was closed.

Simeon of Polotsk - founder of Russian dramaturgy.

1673 - "Ballet about Orpheus and Eurydice" - the birth of Russian ballet.

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