Foreign words enter the Russian language along with many concepts, ideas, theories and concepts. Inventing your own terms to express borrowed concepts is often too difficult, and inappropriate, therefore, in most cases, along with a new concept, a word or phrase expressing it comes into the language. For example: a floppy disk (from the English diskette) is a small-format magnetic disk, usually flexible, a storage medium for processing on a computer.

The number of such words is gradually increasing in the context of the expansion of political, economic, scientific, technical and cultural ties. Over time, many of the borrowed words are polished, adapted to the norms of the Russian language, become changeable in accordance with these norms, which greatly facilitates their use. For example: audit (from the English audit) is a form of financial control over the activities of organizations, enterprises, firms, carried out at the request of the client. In addition, we say audit, keeping in mind another meaning of the word: an audit. Auditor (from lat. auditor - listener, investigator) - a person who checks the financial and economic activities of the company on the basis of a contract. This noun, like the word audit, is declined.

The process of "Russification" of borrowed words is the subordination of borrowed unchangeable nouns and adjectives to the norms of inflection of the Russian language: kepi - cap, Papua - Papuan, Papuan, lobby - lobbying - lobbyist - lobbyist, pique - diving, beige - beige, etc.

However, there are many examples when borrowed words remain “foreigners” in the system of the borrowing language (jury, highway, scoreboard, attache, kangaroo, etc.). Often there are difficulties in determining the grammatical gender of these words, in their pronunciation and stress. It should be remembered:
1) indeclinable words of foreign origin, denoting inanimate objects, belong to the middle gender: publicity (advertising, fame, popularity); summary (a brief conclusion from what has been said, a summary of the essence of speech).
Although the word coffee refers to the masculine gender, in colloquial speech it is also possible to use the average;
2) if the word is included in a more general, generic concept, then it correlates with this concept in grammatical gender. Thus, the indeclinable nouns included in the concept of "language" are masculine: Bengali, Pashto, Hindi, etc.; the word Esperanto is used both in the masculine and in the neuter gender; the word sirocco is masculine (under the influence of the word wind); the words beriberi (disease), kohlrabi (cabbage), salami (sausage) are feminine; the word riding breeches is not only neuter, but also plural (trousers);
3) indeclinable foreign words denoting animated objects (animals, birds, etc.) are masculine: gray kangaroo, little chimpanzee, funny pony, pink cockatoo. But: hummingbird, kiwi-kiwi feminine (under the influence of the word bird); ivasi (fish, herring), tsetse (fly) feminine; if it is clear from the context that we are talking about a female, then the names of animals are feminine: a kangaroo carried a kangaroo in a bag; a chimpanzee was nursing a cub;
4) indeclinable nouns of foreign origin, denoting people, are masculine or feminine in accordance with the gender of the designated person: rich rentier, old lady; the same applies to proper names: the great Verdi, poor Mimi; two-generic are the words vis-a-vis (my vis-a-vis - my vis-a-vis), protégé, incognito;
5) the gender of indeclinable nouns denoting geographical names (cities, rivers, lakes, etc.) is determined by the grammatical gender of a common noun denoting a generic concept (i.e., by the gender of words city, river, lake, etc. ): sunny Batumi, wide Mississippi, full-flowing Ontario, picturesque Capri (island), hard-to-reach Jungfrau (mountain);
6) according to the same principle, the grammatical gender of indeclinable names of press organs is determined: The Times (newspaper) published ...; "Figaro letterer" (magazine) published ...; "Time" (magazine) printed ...;
7) the pronunciation of foreign words has a number of features: in borrowed words, in place of the letter o in an unstressed position, [o] is pronounced, i.e. without reduction: b[o]a, [o]tel, kaka[o], for the sake of [o ]; double pronunciation is allowed: p[o]et - p[a]et, s[o]no - s[a]no, etc.; before the vowel, denoted by the letter e, in many foreign words, consonants are pronounced firmly: at [e] lie, code [e] ks, kaf [e], Shop [e] n.

Simultaneously with borrowing in Russian, another word (Russian in origin) with the same meaning can function, for example: aloe - agave, lumbago - backache, rendezvous - date.

Borrowed words that characterize the specific national characteristics of the life of different peoples and are used in describing non-Russian reality are called exoticisms. So, when depicting the life and way of life of the peoples of the Caucasus, the following words are used: aul, saklya, arba, jigit; the Italian flavor is conveyed by the words gondola, tarantella, tavern, spaghetti, pizza, etc.

Many borrowings, unable to stand the test of time, quickly disappeared from the modern dictionary, but are found in the literature: victoria (victory), plezir (pleasure), voyage (journey), politeness (politeness), etabelirovat (arrange).

In recent decades, the abuse of tracing papers from foreign words has become a frequent occurrence, although there are Russian equivalents for designating the corresponding concepts. For example, we read in the newspapers: the summit participants came to a consensus... There is a large selection of ready-to-wear clothes in boutiques... We hear on the radio: primaries have passed in the USA, the rating of the main candidate for the post of contender has decreased.

At the same time, the development of a market economy in Russia has naturally supplemented our speech with such borrowed words as broker (intermediary), dealer (a person or company operating on the market using the manufacturer's trademark), tender (official offer to fulfill an obligation), tranche (financial part, series), transfer (financial transfer), offer (official offer to make a deal) and many others.

It should be noted such a phenomenon in the life of a foreign word as a shift in the hierarchy of meanings inherent in the source of borrowing. So, our dictionaries of foreign words give the following meanings of the English word sponsor: 1. Guarantor. 2. The person who finances the event, organization. In modern Russian, the first meaning has not taken root. The word "sponsor" means "a structure, a person who finances someone." A similar shift has taken place in the use of the word business. In the Russian interpretation, business is a commercial activity, non-state trade, while the dictionary gives the following meanings as the main ones: business, permanent occupation, specialty, obligation, duty.

One more group of words should be distinguished. Their semantic transformations illustrate a certain change in socio-economic and - as a consequence of this - linguistic guidelines. Consider, for example, the words control, control. They have long entered the Russian language, being borrowed from French, and denote accordingly: check, check. Since the 1990s, the word control has come to mean, first of all, not verification, but management, keeping under influence. A pattern is found in English, where control means primarily control. In the new usage, the meaning of check is shifted to the number of minor ones.

The words have undergone similar changes: analyst (now not so much the one who analyzes, but rather the observer, commentator); administration (now not only and not so much the governing body of the enterprise as a public authority); director or general director (not only the head of the enterprise, but also often its co-owner). A similar transformation can be found in the meanings of the words liberalization, model, policy.

The main thing in the use of borrowings is the exact knowledge of the meaning or meanings) of a foreign word and the appropriateness of its use.

One of the sections of vocabulary is etymology, which studies the origin of a word against the background of changes in the entire vocabulary of the language. Originally Russian and are considered just from the standpoint of etymology. These are the two layers into which the entire vocabulary of the Russian language can be divided, in terms of origin. This section of the vocabulary gives an answer to the question of how the word came about, what it means, where and when it was borrowed, and what changes it has undergone.

Vocabulary of the Russian language

All words that exist in a language are called vocabulary. With their help, we name various objects, phenomena, actions, signs, numbers, etc.

The vocabulary is explained by the entry into the system, which led to the presence of their common origin and development. Russian vocabulary is rooted in the past of the Slavic tribes and has developed along with the people over the centuries. This is the so-called primordial vocabulary, which has existed for a long time.

There is also a second layer in the vocabulary: these are words that came to us from other languages ​​as a result of the emergence of historical ties.

Thus, if we consider the vocabulary from the position of origin, then we can distinguish the words originally Russian and borrowed. both groups are represented in the language in large numbers.

Origin of Russian words

The vocabulary of the Russian language has more than 150,000 words. Let's see what words are called native Russian.

Originally Russian vocabulary has several tiers:

Borrowing process

In our language, native Russian and borrowed words coexist. This is due to the historical development of the country.

Since ancient times, as a people, Russians have entered into cultural, economic, political, military, and trade relations with other countries and states. This quite naturally led to the fact that the words of those peoples with whom we collaborated appeared in our language. Otherwise it was impossible to understand each other.

Over time, these language borrowings became Russified, entered the group, and we no longer perceive them as foreign. Everyone knows such words as "sugar", "banya", "activist", "artel", "school" and many others.

Originally Russian and borrowed words, examples of which are given above, have long and firmly entered our everyday life and help build our speech.

Foreign words in Russian

Getting into our language, foreign words are forced to change. The nature of their changes affects different aspects: phonetics, morphology, semantics. Borrowing is subject to our laws and regulations. Such words undergo changes in endings, in suffixes, the gender changes. For example, the word "parliament" is masculine in our country, but in German, where it came from, it is neuter.

The very meaning of the word may change. So, the word "painter" in our country means a worker, and in German it is a "painter".

The semantics are changing. For example, the borrowed words "canned", "conservative" and "conservatory" came to us from different languages ​​and have nothing in common. But in their native language, French, Latin and Italian, respectively, they came from Latin and have the meaning of "preserve."

Thus, it is important to know from which languages ​​words are borrowed. This will help to correctly determine their lexical meaning.

In addition, sometimes it is difficult to recognize native Russian and borrowed words in the mass of vocabulary that we use every day. For this purpose, there are dictionaries that explain the meaning and origin of each word.

Classification of loanwords

Two groups of borrowed words are distinguished by a certain type:

• those who came from the Slavic language;
• taken from non-Slavic languages.

In the first group, Old Slavonicisms make up a large mass - words that have been in church books since the 9th century. And now such words as “cross”, “universe”, “power”, “virtue”, etc. are widespread. Many Old Slavonicisms have Russian analogues (“lanites” - “cheeks”, “mouths” - “lips”, etc. ) Phonetic (“gates” - “gates”), morphological (“grace”, “benefactor”), semantic (“gold” - “gold”) Old Slavonicisms are distinguished.

The second group consists of borrowings from other languages, including:

• Latin (in the field of science, politics of public life - "school", "republic", "corporation");
• Greek (household - "bed", "dish", terms - "synonym", "vocabulary");
• Western European (military - “headquarters”, “junker”, from the field of art - “easel”, “landscape”, nautical terms - “boat”, “shipyard”, “schooner”, musical terms - “aria”, “libretto”);
• Turkic (in culture and trade "pearl", "caravan", "iron");
• Scandinavian (household - "anchor", "whip") words.

Dictionary of foreign words

Lexicology is a very exact science. Everything is clearly structured here. All words are divided into groups, depending on the feature underlying them.

Native Russian and borrowed words are divided into two groups based on etymology, that is, origin.

There are various dictionaries that suit specific purposes. So, you can call a dictionary of foreign words, which contains foreign examples that have come to us over the course of many centuries. Many of these words are now perceived by us as Russian. The dictionary explains the meaning and indicates where the word came from.

Dictionaries of foreign words in our country have a whole history. The first was created at the beginning of the eighteenth century, it was handwritten. At the same time, a three-volume dictionary was published, the author of which was N.M. Yanovsky. In the twentieth century, a number of foreign dictionaries appeared.

Among the most famous are the “School Dictionary of Foreign Words”, edited by The dictionary entry provides information about the origin of the word, gives an interpretation of its meaning, examples of use, set expressions with it.

Language is the most universal means of communication that reacts mobilely to changes in the needs of society. Every day one or more new words appear, which are the result of simplification or merging of existing ones, but the largest number of verbal novelties come from abroad. So, foreign words in Russian: why do they arise and what are they?

Original Russian vocabulary

The Russian language has been formed over many centuries, as a result of which three stages of the genesis of original Russian words have been identified.

Indo-European vocabulary originated in the Neolithic era and was based on the basic concepts of kinship (mother, daughter), household items (hammer), food (meat, fish), the name of animals (ox, deer) and elements (fire, water).

The main words were absorbed by the Russian language and are considered part of it.

Proto-Slavic vocabulary, which had a high relevance at the border of the 6th-7th centuries, made a great influence on Russian speech. and spread to the territory of Eastern and Central Europe, as well as the Balkans.

In this group, words related to the plant world (tree, grass, root), names of crops and plants (wheat, carrots, beets), tools and raw materials (hoe, cloth, stone, iron), birds (goose, nightingale) , as well as food products (cheese, milk, kvass).

Modern words of primordially Russian vocabulary arose in the period from the 8th to the 17th centuries. and belonged to the East Slavic language branch. The mass fraction of them expressed an action (run, lie down, multiply, lay), the names of abstract concepts arose (freedom, result, experience, fate, thought), words appeared that corresponded to household items (wallpaper, carpet, book) and the names of national dishes ( pigeons, cabbage soup).

Some words have taken root so firmly in Russian speech that they will not need to be replaced soon, while others were brazenly replaced by more consonant synonyms from neighboring countries. So "humanity" turned into "humanity", "appearance" was transformed into "image", and "competition" was called "duel".

The problem of borrowing foreign words

Since ancient times, the Russian people have had trade, cultural and political relations with speakers of other languages, so it was almost impossible to avoid mixing vocabulary.

New words were introduced into Russian speech both from neighboring states and from distant republics.

In fact, words of foreign origin are present in our speech so often and for a long time that we are already used to them and absolutely do not perceive them as something alien.

Here are some examples of well-established foreign words:

• China: tea.
• Mongolia: hero, label, darkness.
• Japan: karate, karaoke, tsunami.
• Holland: orange, jacket, hatch, yacht, sprats.
• Poland: donut, market, fair.
• Czech Republic: tights, pistol, robot.

Official statistics say that only 10% of words in Russian are borrowed. But if you listen closely to the colloquial speech of the younger generation, we can conclude that the clogging of the Russian language with foreign words has a more global scale.

We go to a fast food restaurant for lunch and order a hamburger and a milkshake. Having found free Wi-Fi, we will not miss the opportunity to visit Facebook to put a couple of likes under the photo of the best friend.

Borrowing foreign words: the main reasons

Why are we so attracted to vocabulary from neighboring countries?

Greece

Now consider the geography of borrowing.

The most generous country that has lent part of the vocabulary to the Russian language is Greece. She gave us the names of almost all known sciences (geometry, astrology, geography, biology). In addition, many words related to the field of education (alphabet, spelling, Olympiad, department, phonetics, library) have Greek origin.

Some foreign words in Russian have abstract meanings (victory, triumph, chaos, charisma), others characterize quite tangible objects (theater, cucumber, ship).

Thanks to the ancient Greek vocabulary, we learned how sympathy is expressed, felt the taste of style and were able to capture bright events in photographs.
It is interesting that the meaning of some words passed into the Russian language without change, while others acquired new meanings (economics - home economics, tragedy - a goat song).

Italy

What do you think, are there many words in Russian speech that come from the Apennine Peninsula? Surely, apart from the famous greeting “chao”, nothing will immediately come to mind. It turns out that Italian foreign words in Russian are present in sufficient quantities.

For example, an identity document was first called a passport in Italy, and only then this word was borrowed by many languages, including Russian.

Everyone knows the tricks of the Sicilian clans, so the origin of the word "mafia" is beyond doubt. Likewise, "carnival" has taken root in many languages ​​thanks to a colorful costume show in Venice. But the Italian roots of “vermicelli” surprised: in the Apennines, vermicelli is translated as “worms”.

Recently, it has become fashionable to use the definition for the press as "paparazzi". But in direct translation, these are not journalists at all, as you might think, but "annoying mosquitoes."

France

But France gave Russian speech a lot of “delicious” words: grillage, jelly, croissant, canape, creme brulee, scrambled eggs, mashed potatoes, stew, soup, soufflé, eclair, cutlet and sauce. Of course, along with the names, recipes were borrowed from French chefs, many of which were to the taste of Russian gourmets.

A few more extensive branches of borrowing are literature, cinema and the entertainment industry: artist, ballet, billiards, magazine, couplet, play, purse, repertoire, restaurant and plot.

The French also became the inventors of seductive details of women's clothing (underpants and peignoir), taught the world the rules of behavior in society (etiquette) and the art of beauty (make-up, cream, perfumery).

Germany

German vocabulary is so different from Russian that it is difficult to imagine what kind of words could take root in it. It turns out there are quite a few of them.

For example, we often use the German word "route", which means a pre-chosen path. Or "scale" - the ratio of sizes on the map and on the ground. And the "font" in Russian is the designation of the characters of the letter.

The names of some professions also took root: a hairdresser, an accountant, a locksmith.

The food industry also did not do without borrowings: sandwich, dumplings, waffles and muesli, it turns out, also have German roots.

Also, the Russian language has absorbed several fashionable accessories into its vocabulary: for women - “shoes” and “bra”, for men - “tie”, for children - “backpack”. By the way, a smart child is often called a "wunderkind" - this is also a German concept.

Foreign words in Russian feel quite comfortable, they even settled in our house in the form of a chair, a bathroom and a tile.

England

The largest number of borrowed words come from Foggy Albion. Since English is an international language, and many people know it at a fairly decent level, it is not surprising that many words migrated into Russian speech and began to be perceived as native.

Foreign words in Russian are almost ubiquitous, but the most popular areas of their use are:

• business (PR, office, manager, copywriter, broker, holding);
• sports (goalkeeper, boxing, football, penalties, time-out, foul);
• computer technologies (blog, offline, login, spam, traffic, hacker, hosting, gadget);
• entertainment industry (talk show, casting, soundtrack, hit).

Very often, English words are used as youth slang, which is most influenced by fashion (baby, boyfriend, loser, teenager, respect, make-up, freak).

Some words have become so popular in the world that they have acquired a nominal meaning (jeans, show, weekend).

Everyone knows that cultural contacts with neighbors are vital for the normal development of any nation. Mutual enrichment of vocabulary, borrowing words, terms and even names are inevitable. As a rule, they are useful for the language: the use of the missing word allows you to avoid descriptive phrases, the language becomes simpler and more dynamic. For example, a long phrase "trade in a certain place once a year" in Russian is successfully replaced by the word that came from the German language fair. In modern Russia, unfortunately, one often has to deal with the illegal and unjustified use of foreign words in everyday speech. all sorts of shops, consulting, marketing and leasing literally litter the Russian language, by no means decorating it. However, it should be recognized that sweeping prohibitions can harm its normal development. In the article brought to your attention, we will talk about the successful use of foreign words and terms.

Let's start with terms that are close and familiar to any teacher of the Russian language and literature. Word poetry has become so firmly established in our language that we no longer think about its meaning. However, in Greek it means "creation". Word poem translates as "creation", but rhyme – "proportionality", "consistency", the word rhythm is the same root to it. Stanza translated from Greek "turn", but epithet – "figurative definition".

Ancient Greece is associated with such terms as epic ("collection of stories"), myth (word, speech),drama ("action"), lyrics(from the word musical), elegy ("the mournful tune of the flute"), Oh yeah ("song"),epithalamus("wedding poem or song"),epic ("word", "story", "song"), tragedy ("goat song"), comedy ("bear holidays"). The name of the latter genre is associated with the holidays in honor of the Greek goddess Artemis, which were celebrated in March. This month, the bears came out of hibernation, which gave the name to these performances. well and scene- of course, "tent" where the actors performed. Concerning parodies, that is - "singing inside out".

Whereas the Greeks took upon themselves the "duty" of naming poetic and theatrical terms, the Romans took up prose in earnest. Latin connoisseurs will tell us that this short word can be translated into Russian with the phrase "purposeful speech." The Romans generally liked precise and short definitions. No wonder it was from the Latin language that the word came to us lapidary, i.e. "carved in stone" (short, concise). Word text means "connection", "compound", but illustration – "explanation"(to the text). Legend- this "what needs to be read",memorandum – "things to remember", but opus– "work", "work". Word plot translated from Latin means "story", "tale", but it came to Russian from German with the meaning "plot". Manuscript- this handwritten document, well and editor- this a person who has to "put everything in order". Madrigal- also a Latin word, it comes from the root "mother" and means song in native, "mother" language. To finish with literary terms, let's say that the Scandinavian word runes originally meant "all knowledge", Then - "secret" and only later began to be used in the meaning letters, letters.

But let's get back to the Romans, who, as you know, developed a unique set of laws for that time (Roman law) and enriched the world culture with many legal terms. For example, justice ("fairness", "lawfulness"), alibi ("in the other place"), verdict ("truth spoken"), advocate(from Latin "call"), notary – ("scribe"),protocol("first leaf"), visa ("viewed") etc. Words version ("turn") And intrigue ("confuse") is also of Latin origin. The Romans coined the word blunder – "fall", "mistake", "wrong step". Most medical terms are of Greek and Latin origin. As an example of borrowings from the Greek language, one can cite such words as anatomy ("dissection"), agony ("wrestling"), hormone ("set in motion"), diagnosis ("definition"), diet ("lifestyle", "mode"), paroxysm ("irritation"). The following terms are Latin in origin: hospital ("hospitable"), immunity ("liberation from something"),disabled person ("powerless", "weak"), invasion ("attack"),muscle ("mouse"), obstruction ("blockage"), obliteration ("destruction"), pulse ("push").

At present, Latin is the language of science and serves as a source for the formation of new words and terms that never existed. For example, allergy – "another action"(the term was coined by the Austrian pediatrician K. Pirke). Christianity, as you know, came to us from Byzantium, whose inhabitants, although they called themselves Romans (Romans), spoke mainly Greek. Along with the new religion, many new words came to our country, some of which were sometimes represented by tracing paper - a literal translation of Greek terms. For example, the word enthusiasm ("divine inspiration") was translated into Old Church Slavonic as "rage"(!). This interpretation was not accepted by the language. More often, new terms were adopted without change. The original meaning of many of them has long been forgotten, and few people know that angel- this "herald", apostle – "messenger",clergy – "lot", icon case – "box", liturgy – "duty", deacon – "servant", bishop– "seeing from above", but sexton– "watchman". Word hero also Greek and means "Saint"- no more, no less! But the word that has become abusive filthy came to us from the Latin language and means only "rural"(a citizen). The fact is that pagan cults were especially tenacious in rural areas, as a result, this word became synonymous with pagan. Foreign in origin are also the words that are called representatives of the other world. Word daemon "deity", "spirit". It is known that Mikhail Vrubel did not want the demon depicted in his paintings to be confused with the devil or the devil: “Demon means“ soul ”and personifies the eternal struggle of the restless human spirit, seeking reconciliation of the passions that overwhelm him, knowledge of life and not finding an answer to his doubts either on earth or in heaven, This is how he explained his position. What do the words devil and devil mean? Heck- this is not a name, but an epithet ( "horned"). Devil same - "deceiver", "slanderer"(Greek). Other names for the devil are of Hebrew origin: Satan – "opposite", "adversary", Belial- from the phrase "useless". Name Mephistopheles invented by Goethe, but it is composed of two Hebrew words - "liar" and "destroyer". And here is the name Woland, which M.A. Bulgakov used in his famous novel The Master and Margarita, is of Germanic origin: in medieval German dialects it meant "deceiver", "rogue". In Goethe's Faust, Mephistopheles is once mentioned under this name.

Word fairy is of Latin origin and means "fate". The Welsh believed that fairies were descended from pagan priestesses, while the Scots and Irish believed that they were from angels seduced by the devil. However, despite the centuries-old domination of Christianity, Europeans still treat fairies and elves with sympathy, calling them "good people" and "peaceful neighbors."

Word dwarf invented by Paracelsus. In Greek it means "inhabitant of the earth". In Scandinavian mythology, such creatures were called "dark elves" or "zwerg". brownie in Germany is called "kobold". Later this name was given to a metal that had "bad character", - made it difficult to smelt copper. Nickel called elf living by the water, a big fan of jokes. This name was given to a metal similar to silver.

Word the Dragon in Greek means "sharp seeing". Interestingly, in China, this mythological creature was traditionally depicted without eyes. The legend says that one artist of the Tang era (IX century) got carried away and painted the eyes of a dragon: the room was filled with fog, thunder rang out, the dragon came to life and flew away. And the word Hurricane comes from the name of the god of fear of the South American Indians - Huracana. The names of some precious and semi-precious stones also have their own meaning. Sometimes the name indicates the color of the stone. For example, ruby – "Red"(lat.), chrysolite – "golden"(Greek), olevin – "green"(Greek), lapis lazuli– "sky blue"(Greek), etc. But sometimes their name is associated with certain properties that were attributed to these stones in antiquity. So, amethyst translated from Greek as "not drunk": according to legends, this stone is able to "curb passions", therefore Christian priests often use it to decorate vestments, insert it into crosses. For this reason, amethyst has another name - "bishop's stone." And the word agate in Greek means "good", which he had to bring to his owner.

There were cases when the same word came to our country from different languages ​​and at different times, resulting in different meanings. For example, words colossus, machination and machine- single root. Two of them came to us directly from the Greek language. One of them means "something huge", other - "trick". But the third came through Western European languages ​​and is a technical term.

Sometimes words are formed as a result of combining roots belonging to different languages. For example: word abracadabra contains a Greek root with the meaning "deity" and Hebrew with the meaning "word". I.e "word of God"- an expression or phrase that seems meaningless to the uninitiated.

And the word snob interesting because, being Latin in origin, it appeared in England at the end of the 18th century. It came from the Latin expression sine nobilitas ( "no nobility"), which was reduced to s. nob.: so on English ships passengers who did not have the right to dine with the captain began to be called. Later, in English houses, this word was placed on the guest lists opposite persons who should have been announced without a title.

But what about other languages? Did they contribute to the Russian vocabulary? The answer to this question is clearly in the affirmative. There are many examples.

Yes, the Arabic phrase "lord of the sea" became a Russian word admiral.

Fabric name atlas translated from Arabic means "beautiful", "smooth". cabal- this "receipt", "commitment",shackles – "fetters", "fetters" etc. Long been perceived as Russian Turkic words scribble ("black or bad hand") And peanut ("like a watermelon"). About the antiquity of the word iron evidence of its Sanskrit origin ( "metal", "ore"). Weight- this "heavy"(Persian), stage – "platform"(Spanish), coat of arms – "inheritance"(Polish). Words bank(from "put the ship on its side") And yacht(from "drive") are of Dutch origin. Words rush ("top everything"– over all), bluff("deception"), velveteen("velvet") came to Russia from England. The last word is interesting because it is a “false friend of the translator”: readers have probably been surprised more than once that at receptions and balls, kings and court ladies flaunt in velvet suits and dresses. The words came from the German language cabin boy("boy"), tie ("scarf"), vane ("wing"), flask ("bottle"), Workbench ("workshop"). There are a lot of borrowings from Italian and French. For example, trampoline("hit"),career("run"), feint ("pretense", "fiction"), stamp ("seal"), relay race ("stirrup") are Italian. scam ("a business"), gauze ("Kiseya"), balance ("scales"),compliment ("Hey"), negligee ("negligence") are French.

Italian and French have given life to so many musical and theatrical terms. Here are some of them. Italian word conservatory("shelter") recalls the decision of the authorities of Venice to turn 4 convents into music schools (XVIII century). Virtuoso means "valor", word cantata derived from Italian kantare – "sing", capriccio- from the word "goat"(a work with a galloping, “like a goat”, change of themes and moods), opera –"writing", tutti – "performing by the whole team".

Now it's France's turn: arrangement – "tidying up", overture from the word "open", benefit – "profit", "benefit", repertoire– "scroll", decoration – "decoration", pointe shoes(solid toe ballet shoes) - "point", "tip", divertissement– "entertainment", foyer – "hearth". And in modern pop music, the word is very popular plywood which comes from the German "impose"(voice to already recorded music).

Speaking of borrowing from the French language, one cannot ignore the culinary theme. Yes, the word garnish derived from French "to equip", "to equip". Glace- means "frozen", "icy". Cutlet – "rib". Consomme – "bouillon". Langet – "tongue". Marinade– "put in salt water". Roll- from the word "clotting". Word the vinaigrette– exception: being French in origin (from vinaigre – "vinegar"), it appeared in Russia. All over the world this dish is called "Russian salad".

It is interesting that many dog ​​names popular in our country have a foreign origin. The fact is that peasants in Russian villages could not often afford to keep a dog. The landowners, on the other hand, often kept dozens and even hundreds of hunting dogs on their country estates (and even took bribes with "greyhound puppies") and several lap dogs in city houses. Since the Russian nobles knew French (and later English) better than their native language, they gave foreign names to their dogs. Some of them are widely spread among the people. What familiar word could be heard by a peasant who did not know French, nicknamed Cheri ("Cutie")? Of course, Ball! Trezor translated into Russian means "treasure"(French), nickname watchdog derived from the French word "bearded", but Rex- this "Tsar"(lat.). A number of nicknames are derived from foreign names. For example, Bobik and Tobik- these are variants of the Russian adaptation of the English name Bobby,Bug and Julie descended from Julia. And the nicknames Jim and Jack do not even try to hide their foreign origin.

But what about the great and mighty Russian language? Did he contribute to the development of foreign languages? It turns out that the Russian word has entered many languages ​​\u200b\u200bof the world man. Word grandmother in English is used in the meaning "women's headscarf", but pancakes in Britain is called small round sandwiches. Word vulgarity got into the dictionary of the English language because V. Nabokov, who wrote in this language, having despaired of finding its full-fledged analogue, decided to leave it without translation in one of his novels.

Words satellite And comrade known all over the world and kalashnikov for a foreigner - not a surname, but the name of a Russian machine gun. Relatively recently, the now somewhat forgotten terms made a triumphal procession around the world perestroika and glasnost. Words vodka, matryoshka and balalaika are used so often and out of place by foreigners talking about Russia that they cause irritation. But for the word pogrom, which entered the dictionaries of many European languages ​​in 1903, is frankly a shame. Words intelligentsia(author - P. Boborykin) and disinformation are not Russian "by origin", but they were invented precisely in Russia. From the Russian language that became their "native" language, they passed into many foreign languages ​​and became widespread throughout the world.

In conclusion, we will give several examples of the successful formation of new words that were invented by poets and writers and appeared in the Russian language relatively recently. So, the appearance of words acid, refraction, balance we must M.V. Lomonosov.N.M. Karamzin enriched our language with words influence, industry, public, generally useful, touching, entertaining, focused. Radishchev introduced the word into Russian citizen in its modern sense. Ivan Panaev first used the word dude , but Igor Severyanin- word mediocrity . V. Khlebnikov and A. Kruchenykh claim the authorship of the word zaum .

Of course, in a short article it is impossible to adequately and fully describe the meaning of words borrowed from foreign languages. We hope that we managed to interest readers, who themselves will be able to continue their fascinating journey through the vocabulary of the Russian language.

Introduction

1. History of borrowings

3. Mastering foreign words

4. Orthoepic norms of borrowed words

Conclusion

The language in its present state cannot be unified, since it is a combination of separate individual languages. The solution of practical issues should be based on how close these individual languages ​​are currently to each other.

Much of the Russian language was borrowed from the Indo-European culture. It is assumed that the original territory of the eastern Indo-European tribes, including the ancestors of the Slavs, was the north-west of Russia, the Baltic Sea basin. A comparative study of the Indo-European languages ​​proves a special closeness between the Slavic and Baltic languages.

It should be noted that the original Slavs gravitated to the west - to the Germans, from whom they borrowed their material culture, their military life, and political structure. Consider the words related to these areas, borrowed by the Russian language from the Germanic languages. For example: shelom - a helmet; small - milk, hyz - house, hut; as well as glass, buy, livestock, etc.

The number of words borrowed from the Iranian languages ​​is very small. These are words such as God - from the ancient Persian. baga; ax - tappari.

Another example of borrowing: from the Germanic, Celtic and Latin is the word sea - lat. Mare, germ. Mary, Celt. Muir.

Much is borrowed from the Finnish languages: palttina - canvas; varpu - sparrow; arti - army; suntia - church minister; sun'd - judge, court.

2. Foreign vocabulary

Before talking about foreign vocabulary in Russian, let's say a few words about native Russian vocabulary. Once again, we say that these are words that go back to the Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Slavic and Old Russian eras and inherited by the Russian language, as well as created in the Russian language according to the models existing in it.

Actually Russian words arose from the end of the XIV century. These are almost all nouns with suffixes -schik, -chik, -yatin (a), -lk (a), ovk (a), -tests (o), -sh (a), -ness, -ability, -schin ( a), -tel (with the meaning of a tool or fixture). For example: a bricklayer, a hauler, sour stuff, a lighter, a leaflet, a certificate, a doctor's wife, reality, manageability, piecework, a switch; compound nouns: university, salary. Properly Russian are also words that arose in earlier eras, but then changed their meaning. So, the word red in Proto-Slavic and in Old Russian meant “good”, “beautiful”, and in Russian it began to denote a color.

The most ancient, Proto-Indo-European layer of the original Russian vocabulary has correspondences in other Indo-European languages. These are some terms of kinship: mother, son, brother; animal names: wolf, goose, deer. Natural phenomena: water, moon, snow, stone. Body parts: nose, tooth, ear, eye; some actions: take, give, be, see; numbers: two, three, etc.

Proto-Slavic vocabulary is represented by a greater number and diversity than Proto-Indo-European. These are words that have correspondences in Slavic languages ​​and are absent in other Indo-European ones: heart, child, spring, rain, grass, snake, saddle, work, kind, ring, yesterday, etc. There are only about 2000 words of these two layers, but they refer to the most commonly used.

The Old Russian layer of vocabulary consists of words common to the Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian languages ​​and absent in other Slavic languages. These are words such as, for example: uncle, spinner, samovar, lark, cheap, pockmarked, vouch, forty, ninety, etc.

The words of other languages ​​used in Russian as regular lexical units are called foreign vocabulary. In Russian, about 10% of words are borrowed from other languages. Borrowing is based on trade, cultural, scientific ties between peoples and, as a result, language contacts. The overwhelming majority of foreign words were borrowed by the Russian language along with the thing, the concept: school is a Greek word, class is Latin, a briefcase is French, a knapsack is German, a pencil is Turkic, a pioneer is English, tea is Chinese, candy is Italian, tundra is Finnish.

As you know, a borrowed word can denote a special kind of object, concept that existed in the Russian language. For example, the word jam from English means “a special kind of jam”, from French, for example, a porter means “a type of service in a hotel”.

The reason for borrowing words from other languages ​​may also be the desire to replace a descriptive expression, a phrase with one word. Let's take an example: the English word sniper instead of the phrase "accurate arrow." Or, for example, motel (English word) - instead of "hotel for car tourists", tour (French word) - instead of a round trip.

Foreign words penetrated into the Russian language into the Russian language at different periods of its history. Some of these words came from the Old Russian language, which, in turn, could get them from Proto-Slavic. Such ancient borrowings from the Germanic languages ​​are, for example, prince, king, beech, carp, onion (as a plant), stable.

The words knut, hook, pud, herring came to the Old Russian language from the Scandinavian languages. From Finnish - saffron cod, herring, salmon, fir, riga, blizzard, tundra. Of the Turkic - Armenian, hood, shoe, sheepskin coat, horse, herd, barn, barn, chest, hero, guard. From Greek - bed, notebook, ship, sail, beets, whale, lantern.

It should be said that the borrowing of a word may not be direct, but through the medium of another language. So, many Greekisms penetrated into the Old Russian language through the Old Slavonic, words of other Eastern languages ​​were borrowed through the Turkic languages. The words beads, dagger are borrowed from Arabic. The tub, turquoise, cripple are borrowed from Persian. At a later time, Greek words penetrated through various Western European languages. Such as anatomy, geometry, philosophy, analysis, democracy, politics, drama, tragedy, architecture. Latin words: inertia, radius, student, dean, dictatorship, republic. Words from Western European languages ​​could be borrowed through Polish. For example, a bottle, a guitar, a lady, a turkey, a carriage, a market, a fruit.

From the era of Peter I, the expansion of the vocabulary of the Russian language began due to borrowing from Western European languages. The terms of maritime affairs were borrowed from the Dutch language. For example, words such as boatswain, harbor, sailor, storm. And also from the English language: emergency, boat. At a later time, sports terms were borrowed from English. Let's give an example: boxing, volleyball, start, finish, champion. Military terms came from German into Russian, for example: parapet, camp, officer, soldier, bayonet. And the terms of mining, such as mine, adit, drift. The terms of art were borrowed from the French language: ballet, parterre, landscape, still life, director. Literary terms: genre, novel, feuilleton, march. Culinary: dessert, cutlet, soup, puree, stew. Clothing names: jacket, muffler, suit, coat. Musical terms entered Russian from the Italian language. For example: aria, baritone, cello, mandolin, serenade and many others.

At the very beginning of the 20s of the 20th century, due to the isolation of the country, borrowings became small. In the 1920s, the influence of vernacular, dialects, and jargons on the literary language was especially noticeable. The strengthening of the norms of the literary language, which began in the 1930s, weeded out many words that were used in various literary genres in the previous period, but some of these words remained in the literary language. In the late 1920s and 1930s, mainly English words were borrowed. Such as jazz, harvester, conveyor, container, speedometer, trolleybus. From vernacular and dialects, such words as wilderness, milkmaid, dark, shortbread, kosovitsa, hassle, new settler, time off, ladle, comb, study have entered into literary use. From jargon - junk. Blat, thug, buzz. Some of these words have lost their non-literary coloring, while others still belong to colloquial or vernacular vocabulary.