History of primitive times. The meaning of the phrase “neighboring community”, signs. Was it possible to “keep” a disintegrating community

With all the huge variety of concrete historical forms and variants of the neighboring community, it also went through certain stages, generally coinciding with the stages of social evolution. K. Marx distinguished 3 main forms (steps, stages) of the decomposition of the original unity of the community and the separation of the family-individual economy: Asian, ancient, German. The listed stages of the community were characterized by the dualism of collective and private principles, first of all, the dualism of collective and individual agriculture, but the ratio of these principles in them was different.

The Asian stage of the community was essentially a transformed natural community that dominated the primitive stage historical development. It was also based on common ownership of land. The allotment of an individual family represented an integral part of the community. This kind of community organization was based on a large share of collective labor, the combination of crafts and agriculture within the community, and the weakness or absence of division of labor between different communities.

The ancient stage, which represented the next stage of decomposition of the original unity of the community and the isolation of family-individual farming and private property, presupposed an organization in which membership in the community continued to be a prerequisite for the appropriation of land, but each member of the community had already become the private owner of the cultivated plot. Community property used for general needs is here separated from private property as state property. The guarantee of the preservation of the ancient community was the equality of its free citizens, who independently ensured their existence.

The German community represented a further step in the isolation of the families that made up the Community, in strengthening the family-individual peasant farm as the main production cell. In the German community, collective property is only an addition to the property of individual householders. If in the ancient community the existence of an individual as a private owner was determined by his membership in the community (polis, state), then in the German form, on the contrary, the presence of the community itself was determined by the needs of the family-individual economy.

Each stage of the neighborhood community is represented by a variety of modifications. The development and specific forms of community organizations were influenced by the natural-geographical and historical environment in which the community organizations were located, the nature economic activity, as well as ethnic components. Features generated by the need for large collective works(irrigation, etc.), for example, the community of eastern despots differed. The dominance of common ownership of land here was realized through the property of the supreme community in the person of the state, the despot; individual communities acted only as hereditary owners of cultivated land.

A peculiar form of the early neighborly community was the caste community. Its specificity stemmed from special type social division of labor, closed within the framework of the rural community, moving not on the commodity, but on natural exchange products and mutual activities. The professional differences generated by this form of social division of labor are socially consolidated in caste differences. Thus, the inherent patriarchy and conservatism of the community sharply intensified, strengthening the autarkism of the community, and creating serious obstacles to the development of urban crafts and commodity exchange.

The nomadic community actually does not go beyond the initial stage of the decomposition of primitive collectivism and the transformation of the neighboring community. The nature of production (the need for collective grazing and protection of herds, seasonal redistribution of pastures, tribal mutual assistance in case of loss of livestock and other natural disasters) here is such that it determines the functioning of each individual or family (large or small) only as a member of the collective (usually organized in a military way). A nomadic area occupied by a separate economic unit - component common land ownership of the tribe

The communal organizations of the Germanic tribes approached the initial stage of the formation of the neighboring community at the time of their conquest of the Western Roman Empire (this stage of the evolution of the community is often designated by the term “agricultural” and is considered as one of the types of community). The East Slavic rope belonged to the same stage, according to many researchers, on the eve of its formation Kievan Rus and on initial stage its existence (sometimes the rope is identified either with big family, or with a rural community such as the German mark).

The last stage of the neighboring community occurs during the period of domination feudal relations. With the triumph of large-scale agriculture, the community transformed from a free community into an organization of direct producers dependent on the ruling class and its state, used for the purpose of their exploitation. However, its orders and institutions continued to operate within the feudal domain as a necessary addition to the peasants' parcel economy, ensuring its normal functioning. Even the feudal lord's own household was forced to obey the rules of the village community. With the help of the community as a community of small producers, virgin soil was raised, forests were cleared, roads were laid, irrigation and land reclamation structures were erected, bridges, mills, military fortifications, castles, religious buildings, etc. were built.

The community played a positive role in the transition to three-field farming and the regulation of this farming system . The existence of the community as an organization of direct producers - peasants - was enshrined in common (sometimes written) law. Despite the progressive development of private property relations and property inequality, neighborhood community retained its democratic nature. She played a big role in protecting its members from the onslaught of feudal lords. The community survived throughout the Middle Ages in a difficult continuous struggle with the landowning nobility.

One of the options for a neighboring community was the Russian medieval community. The relative abundance of land did not require the introduction of so many easements that limited the individual land use of peasant families. The small size of the settlements also contributed to this. For the same reasons, the almenda (very extensive in territory) was used collectively to a much lesser extent. But in the field of self-government, the volost community had much greater rights. The distribution of lands and regulation of their use, layout, election of village authorities (headmen, and subsequently volost elders), collection of funds for secular expenses, organization of mutual assistance, resolution of civil and minor criminal cases were the competence of peasant communities. The volost, along with the feudal estate and patrimony, was a territorial administrative unit, part of the state organism. Elected volost authorities simultaneously acted as representatives of the state administration at its lower levels.

It is very difficult to date it due to the uneven development of primitive societies in different regions of the Earth. In the most developed regions, this stage began in the 8th-3rd millennium BC. e., and ended (in Egypt and Mesopotamia) in the 4th millennium BC. e. with the emergence of the first states.

The tribal system was gradually replaced by new form organization of society - a neighboring, or rural, territorial community, combining individual and communal land ownership. The neighboring community consisted of separate families, each of which had the right to a share of communal property and cultivated its own part of the arable land. Forests, rivers, lakes and pastures remained communal property. All together, the community members raised virgin soil, cleared the forest, and paved the road. Most scientists believe that the rural territorial community is a universal form of organization and is attested among all peoples who moved from the primitive system to civilization.

An important achievement era of the neighboring community was the discovery of metals. In the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e. stone tools began to be replaced by copper, then by bronze, and from the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. - beginning of the 1st millennium BC e. - iron. People gradually switched to the widespread use of metals, which significantly increased labor productivity and made it possible to more efficiently develop new lands.

During the era of the neighborhood community, significant changes took place in all spheres of social life. Primitive tribes continued to improve agriculture and cattle breeding, pottery, weaving and other types of production.

The development of agriculture and cattle breeding, the emergence of crafts, and the construction of large settlements indicate that man began to actively transform nature and create an artificial environment for his habitat.

Development complex species production - metallurgy, blacksmithing and pottery, weaving, etc. - required special knowledge and skills: blacksmiths, potters, weavers and other craftsmen began to appear in society. The exchange of goods developed between craftsmen and their fellow tribesmen, as well as between different tribes.

The development of metallurgy, blacksmithing, arable farming, and specialized cattle breeding led to an increase in the role of male labor. Instead of the previous equality of men and women, the power of men was established. In many societies, his power over women has acquired a harsh and even cruel character.

The growth of labor productivity led to the development of individual forms of activity: now one person (or one family) could do what several people (or an entire family) had previously done. The main economic unit became the individual family.

As a result of the growth in labor productivity, surplus products began to form, which gradually became the property of people. So in primitive societies a most important factor appeared that contributed to the stratification of the community, and subsequently to the formation of the state.

In the life of all tribes of the era of the neighboring community great place was occupied by war - another source of enrichment. Boys were raised primarily as warriors and taught to use weapons with early childhood. Ancestral villages were fortified with walls and ditches. Weapons have become more diverse.

The management of society in the era of the neighborhood community also changed. The tribes formally maintained meetings, but they changed their character and turned into a meeting of male warriors: women were not allowed into the meetings. The leaders and elders, relying on the support of the noble and wealthy part of the tribe, began to actually dictate their will to the entire society. Primitive democracy and equality of people were replaced by the power of the tribal nobility. Force could be used against those fellow tribesmen who tried to oppose the establishment of the power of the leaders.

The organization of social life also became more complex; people appeared - officials who controlled other people.Material from the site

In the era of the neighboring community, social and property stratification of the primitive community occurs. Rich and prosperous families appear, among relatives and fellow tribesmen, nobility stands out from among the leaders, elders, priests and the most experienced and authoritative warriors, who began to use the labor of impoverished members of the community. More warlike and populous tribes exacted tribute from their weak neighbors, threatening them with war and cruel reprisals. During military campaigns, captives were captured and became slaves, constituting the most powerless layer of society.

Tribal alliances

Individual tribes, fearing attacks from outside, united into powerful tribal unions led by an authoritative leader. Such tribal unions later served as a prototype of the future statehood. Often, warlike alliances of tribes organized military campaigns, crushed other tribes, captured rich booty, making robbery their constant trade. In the 7th-6th millennium BC. e. The first proto-cities appeared in the Middle East - Chatal Guyuk, Jericho, Jarmo. These were well-fortified, walled settlements of farmers.

First form public organization people in the era primitive system was this association blood relatives, who lived in the same territory and were all involved in running a common household. It was characterized by the cohesion and unity of all its representatives. People worked for the common good, and property was also collective. But in parallel with the process of division of labor and the separation of agriculture from cattle breeding, there appeared the reason for the division tribal community for families. Collective property began to be redistributed between families in parts. This led to the emergence of which accelerated the decomposition of the clan and the formation of a neighboring community, in which family ties stopped being the main ones.

A neighborhood community (also called rural, territorial or peasant) is a settlement of people who are not connected by blood ties, but who occupy a certain limited territory that they cultivate collectively. Each family belonging to the community has the right to a part of the community property.

People no longer worked together. Each family had its own plot of land, arable land, tools, and livestock. However, communal property still existed on the land (forest, pastures, rivers, lakes, etc.).

The neighboring community has turned into an organization included in society as a subordinate element, performing only part of the social functions: accumulation of production experience, regulation of land ownership, organization of self-government, preservation of traditions, worship, etc. People cease to be tribal beings for whom belonging to a community had an all-encompassing meaning; they become free.

Depending on the characteristics of the combination of private and collective principles, the Asian, ancient and German neighboring communities are distinguished.

The emergence of a neighboring territorial community and the beginning of the decomposition of primitive society. The strong sedentism of agricultural communities creates a certain limited access to rare resources (certain types of stone, plants, animals). This objectively leads to the need for exchange between communities. The regular surplus product made it possible to use part of it to exchange raw materials necessary for the community, but hard to obtain. But if there is the same economic and cultural type, the products are also similar, so it is not profitable to exchange a product that is already available for rare raw materials. This is only possible if there is a need to replenish the missing stock. In this regard, it arises prestigious economy. It appears on the basis of gift exchange relationships. the main objective prestigious economy - the creation of important social connections of various natures (inter-tribal, inter-tribal, marriage, friendly, etc.). To do this, a community in need of raw materials creates some new product that its neighbors do not have (a new variety of barley, wheat, a new breed of domestic animals, an unusual product, etc.). In this case, an exchange is possible rare things. The result is a prestigious product-item that few people possess, which sharply distinguishes the community from others. After this, they strive to be friends with the manufacturer of the product or its owner, that is, to create or maintain existing connections, since they may be useful in emergency situations. At the same time, a prestigious product can circulate in a limited (agreed) circle of communities.

Further improvement of agricultural skills and raising animals, and the subsequent emergence of more productive tools make it possible to create a significant surplus product. It continues to be community property. But for the needs of the community it is effectively used, mainly by the elders, formally, with general consent. This situation becomes an incentive for individual savings. This was easiest to accomplish in specialized hunting and gathering communities. The best hunters and gatherers were encouraged to leave some of the surplus produce with them. This gives birth to the labor nature of distribution. So the best workers got the opportunity to become richer than others.

In agricultural communities, the labor nature of distribution was possible when the communal field was divided into individual plots and the emergence of the household as an economic unit.

In communities where a prestigious economy is developing, men begin to monopolize this sphere of work, since it provides an opportunity to begin making individual savings through participation in prestigious exchange. In these societies, patrilocal settlements are even beginning to appear. Even in maternal families, male brothers played a large role.

Since the tribes were united a large number of childbirth, then when entering into marriage there was always a choice. Women were valued as an important labor force, so her departure to another clan led to the weakening of her clan. In this regard, for the loss work force compensation required: work in the public field or in other areas of labor. The development of a prestigious economy creates a form of marriage dowry. A tradition of premarital agreements between relatives appears (uterine agreement, lullaby or cradle agreement).

The desire for prestige could be satisfied through enrichment. Therefore, at the stage of transition from matrilocality and matrilineality to patrilocality and patrilineality, land plots are distributed between families, which turn into an economic unit - a household. This, in turn, shapes the neighboring community, as relationships within the clan change. Labor efforts within the household become the main ones. Even if the representatives of a given household do not belong to the main clan and therefore cannot lay claim to high status in a tribe, having accumulated significant wealth, through gift-exchange relationships they can create a significant group of friends and influence decision-making. A person's property status in the community began to determine his social status.

In the conditions of a producing economy, it was possible to “plan” reserves for the agricultural cycle. Each individual family could provide for itself based on the yield and cultivated area. The need to exchange ready-made identical products within the collective disappeared, and the produced product began to become not the property of the collective, but remained with the manufacturer. This is how it arose separate property. This is the main one hallmark neighboring community.

The literature often states that the formation of a neighborhood community creates private property. The most general difference between separate and private property lies in the fact that with the help of the former, a regular surplus product continues to be created, used for consumption and accumulation; it is used sporadically in exchange; second (private) form of ownership creates surplus product used purposefully for exchange and accumulation of wealth through it. We can say that the prerequisites for the formation of private property appeared in the sphere of prestigious economics. Separate property is private ownership within a community property. Since an important feature of private property is the right to complete disposal of a land plot up to its sale, then private property to the ground in pure form was absent even at the stage ancient civilizations. The main manager of the land remained the neighboring community, which was supposed to guarantee a stable existence for its members.

The emergence of a neighboring community led to a change in relations within it. Under conditions of separate ownership, cooperation is transferred from the sphere of exchange to the sphere of production. The household unit (also known as the consumption unit) becomes the economic cell. The community performs the functions of an economic organism and regulates economic relations between households. The tribe becomes a social organism that regulates relations between communities.

The main forms of relations in the neighboring community:

A) help exchange– mutual assistance in developing the site, during sowing and harvesting work (labor assistance); it is stipulated that the one who received help, according to the principle of gift exchange, must at some point respond with help. Thus, the relationship becomes circular, communal;

b) help loan- help in emergency situations (disaster) by borrowing a product (namely a loan, not a handout), sometimes at interest (or assistance-return relationships). IN in this case the period for the return of assistance was stipulated;

V) service-exchange– is formed in the conditions of separation of crafts from agriculture, when artisans receive agricultural and livestock products in exchange for providing their products.

The stable functioning of these relationships and the entire community is possible if approximate economic equality of households. But private land ownership, when combined with a number of other factors (the number of households; the ratio of male and female, adult and children's composition; different natural abilities; hard work; random factors (crop failure, fire, etc.) create conditions for the formation of economic inequality (poor - rich).

There are some mechanisms in the community that can temporarily smooth out inequality. When existing reserve fund additional plots are provided to those in need. Rich households take on part of the community expenses (festivities) or undertake to periodically share part of the property according to the principle of primitive equality (public distributions, meals). Among the Indian tribes North America this custom was called potlatch The growing up of a new generation creates a need for land. The absence of a reserve fund requires external activity of the community. This is either the seizure of land from neighbors, or the resettlement of part of the community (the young landless generation) to free lands (colonization).

Nevertheless, sooner or later in a community, as a result of property inequality (economic inequality of households), relations of intracommunity dependence and exploitation begin to form. Help exchange relations with economic inequality develop into patronage (patronage), when the stronger court acts as a patron (patron), the weaker one acts as a client (under protection). This form of dependence implies maintaining the client’s economic independence, but otherwise he is forced to support the interests of the patron.

Help loans relations, with economic inequality give rise to bonded (debt). Obviously, while some traditions of primitive equality were preserved, bondage was less common in the original period. Probably, in this case, too, the allotment was retained by the enslaver, but he worked off his debts on the enslaver’s farm.

Since the surplus product can not only be accumulated, but also withdrawn, this gave rise to the era of enslavement and wars of “all against all” (predatory wars), that is, as soon as a person began to produce more than he needed for everyday existence, those who wanted to live appeared , without producing. Intertribal wars were often accompanied by the destruction of settlements, extermination and capture of residents. The prisoners were killed or adopted to replenish the loss in their own clans. Moreover, the cleared territory was not immediately populated, since it was believed that it was still under the protection of enemy spirits for some time.

Thus, the period of decomposition of the primitive communal system and the formation of civilization (classes, estates, state) begins.

The neighboring community was a more complex formation than the clan community in the primitive social organization.

We can say that the neighboring community is a transitional stage between clan society and class society. How did the neighborhood community come about?

Reasons for formation

There were several prerequisites for the emergence of a new social formation:

• Primitive tribes grew over time, and the blood connection between their constituent clans and individual members ceased to be recognized;
• The transition from hunting and gathering to pastoralism and agriculture accelerated the division of land between parts of large tribes;
  
• The improvement of tools, in particular the emergence of metal means of cultivating the land, made it possible for individual cultivation of a plot as opposed to a group one.

Thus, the transition from the tribal system to the neighboring one was an objective consequence of human development.

Was it possible to “hold on” to a disintegrating community?

In many philosophical systems the disunity of humanity is called one of the main social vices. IN different eras“world religions” and cultural trends tried to find a means of uniting large masses of people separated by national, religious, property and other differences. But was it possible to preserve the primitive community?

The clan community turned into a neighbor's community slowly and gradually. Even with the advent of cattle breeding and primitive agriculture, the tribes continued to live and work together: arable lands and pastures were considered common property, which was processed jointly, the harvest was distributed equally among community members.

Inequality between people manifested itself biologically. For example, when migrating to other places, the weakest members of the tribe remained in the old territory or did not survive at all, and during the transition they were joined by newcomers who were not relatives to the rest of the tribe. Some died hunting or in war; someone could work more than average member communities.

Those with increased physical and mental strength, as well as more sophisticated tools, were not required to share the harvest and loot obtained with the help of these advantages. In more late era living space was distributed as follows: hunting lands remained public property, but each clan or family owned cultivated areas separately.