What kind of industry is there? Industrial production is

All sectors of the national economy are divided into two large areas: production and non-production. The existence of organizations belonging to the second group (culture, education, consumer services, management) is impossible without successful development enterprises first.

Industrial sectors: definition

This part of the national economy includes enterprises that carry out activities aimed at creating material goods. Also, organizations in this group carry out their sorting, movement, etc. The exact definition of the production sector is as follows: “A set of enterprises that manufacture a material product and provide material services.”

General classification

It plays a very significant role in the development of the national economy. It is the enterprises related to it that create national income and conditions for the development of intangible production. There are the following main branches of the production sector:

• industry,
• Agriculture,
• construction,
• transport,
• trade and catering,
• logistics.

Industry

This industry includes enterprises engaged in the extraction and processing of raw materials, equipment manufacturing, energy production, consumer goods, as well as other similar organizations that are a major part of such an area as the manufacturing sector. Sectors of the economy related to industry are divided into:

All industrial enterprises are classified into two large groups:

• Extractive - mines, quarries, mines, wells.
• Processing - plants, factories, workshops.

Agriculture

This is also a very important area of ​​the state’s economy, falling under the definition of “production sector”. Branches of the economy in this area are primarily responsible for the production and partial processing of food products. They are divided into two groups: livestock farming and crop farming. The structure of the first includes enterprises engaged in:

• Cattle breeding. Raising large and small livestock makes it possible to provide the population with such important food products as meat and milk.
• Pig farming. Enterprises of this group supply lard and meat to the market.
• Fur farming. The skins of small animals are mainly used to make wearable items. A very large percentage of these products are exported.
• Poultry farming. This group supplies the market with dietary meat, eggs and feathers.

Crop production includes such sub-sectors as:

• Growing grains. This is the most important sub-sector of agriculture, the most developed in our country. Agricultural enterprises of this group of production sphere are engaged in the cultivation of wheat, rye, barley, oats, millet, etc. The degree of provision of the population with such important products as bread, flour, and cereals depends on how effectively this industry will be developed.
• Vegetable growing. This type of activity in our country is carried out mainly by small and medium-sized organizations, as well as farms.
• Fruit growing and viticulture. Developed mainly in the southern regions of the country. Agricultural enterprises of this group supply fruits and wines to the market.

Sub-sectors such as potato growing, flax growing, melon growing, etc. also belong to plant growing.

Transport

Organizations in this area of ​​the national economy are responsible for the transportation of raw materials, semi-finished products and finished products. It includes the following industrial sectors:

The economy of a modern state is divided into industries. It includes manufacturing sectors and non-production activities. The concepts of “production” and “non-production” spheres are the largest structural characteristics of the economy.

1. Non-production sphere(or service sector) includes activities that do not create a material (material) product. As a rule, the following non-production sectors are distinguished:

• Department of Housing and Utilities;
• non-production types of consumer services for the population;
• healthcare, Physical Culture and social security;
• public education;
• finance, credit, insurance, pensions;
• Culture and art;
• science and scientific service;
• control;
• public associations.

2. Manufacturing sector(“real sector” - in modern terminology) is a set of industries and activities, the result of which is a material product (goods). The branches of material production usually include industry, agriculture, transport, and communications.

The division into industries is determined by the social division of labor.

There are three forms of social division of labor: general, private, individual.

1. The general division of labor is expressed in the division of social production into large spheres of material production (industry, agriculture, transport, communications...).

2. The private division of labor manifests itself in the formation of various independent branches within industry, agriculture and other branches of material production. For example, in industry there are:

• electric power industry;
• fuel industry;
• ferrous metallurgy;
• non-ferrous metallurgy;
• chemical and petrochemical industry;
• mechanical engineering and metalworking;
• forestry, wood processing and pulp and paper industries;
• construction materials industry;
• light industry;
• food industry...

In turn, each of them consists of highly specialized industries, for example, non-ferrous metallurgy includes copper, lead-zinc, tin and other industries.

3. Single division of labor takes place in an enterprise, institution, organization between people different professions and specialties.

The most important branch of material production is industry, which consists of many industries and industries that are interconnected.

Based on the nature of the impact on the subject, industries are divided into two groups:

1. Extractive industries provide natural resources of mineral and plant origin, and manufacturing industries provide processing of raw materials obtained in the mining industry, as well as in agriculture. Thus, the mining industry includes mining enterprises - the extraction of non-ferrous and ferrous metal ores and non-metallic raw materials for metallurgy, mining chemical raw materials, oil, gas, coal, peat, shale, salt, non-metallic building materials, as well as hydroelectric power stations, forest exploitation enterprises, on fishing and seafood production.
2. The manufacturing industry includes enterprises producing ferrous and non-ferrous metals, rolled metal, chemical and petrochemical products, machinery and equipment, wood products and the pulp and paper industry, cement and other building materials, light and Food Industry, as well as thermal power plants and enterprises for the repair of industrial products.

When analyzing the sectoral structure of industry, it is advisable to consider not only its individual sectors, but also groups of industries that represent inter-industry complexes. An industrial complex is understood as a set of certain groups of industries, which are characterized by the production of similar (related) products or the performance of work (services).

Currently, industries are united into the following complexes: fuel and energy, metallurgical, mechanical engineering, chemical and forestry, agro-industrial, social, construction complex and military-industrial.

1. The fuel and energy complex (FEC) includes the coal, gas, oil, peat and shale industries, energy, and industries for the production of energy and other types of equipment. All these sectors are united by a common goal - to meet the needs of the national economy for fuel, heat, and electricity.
2. The metallurgical complex (MC) is an integrated system of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, metallurgical, mining engineering and repair facilities.
3. The mechanical engineering complex is a combination of branches of mechanical engineering, metalworking and repair production. The leading branches of the complex are general mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and radio electronics, transport engineering, as well as computer production.
4. The chemical-forest complex is an integrated system of the chemical, petrochemical, forestry, woodworking, pulp and paper and wood chemical industries, mechanical engineering and other industries.
5. The agro-industrial complex (AIC) is characterized by the fact that it includes sectors of the economy that are heterogeneous in their technology and production orientation: the agricultural system, processing industries, feed and microbiological industries, agricultural engineering, mechanical engineering for the light and food industries. About 80 industries directly or indirectly participate in the activities of the agro-industrial complex. The agrarian-industrial complex can be considered as a set of technologically and economically related units of the national economy, the end result of which is the most complete satisfaction of the population's needs for food and non-food products produced from agricultural raw materials.
6. The construction complex includes a system of construction industries, the building materials industry, mechanical engineering, and a repair base.
7. The social complex unites more than 20 sub-sectors of light industry, which can be combined into three main groups: textile; sewing; leather, fur, footwear - producing consumer goods.
8. The military-industrial complex (MIC) is represented by industries and activities aimed at meeting the needs of the Armed Forces.

Industry is the most important sector of the national economy, which has a decisive impact on the level of development of the productive forces of society. The sectoral structure of industry is the composition and share ratio of the various industries and types of production included in it, as well as the dynamics of changes in these shares.

An industrial sector is an objectively isolated part of the industry, uniting enterprises that produce homogeneous, specific products that have the same type of technology and a limited range of consumers.

The following consolidated industries are distinguished:

Electric power industry;

Fuel industry;

Ferrous metallurgy;

Non-ferrous metallurgy;

Chemical and petrochemical industry;

Mechanical engineering and metalworking;

Forestry, wood processing and pulp and paper industries;

Construction materials industry;

Glass and porcelain-faience industry;

Light industry;

Food industry;

Microbiological industry;

Flour-grinding and feed industry;

Medical industry;

Printing industry;

and other industrial productions

Electric power is the most important branch of energy, including the production, transmission and distribution of electricity. The advantages of electric power over other types of energy: the relative ease of transmission over long distances, distribution between consumers, as well as conversion into other types of energy (mechanical, thermal, chemical, light and others). A distinctive feature of electrical energy is the practical simultaneity of its generation and consumption, since electric current spreads through networks at a speed close to the speed of light. The Federal Law “On Electric Power Industry” gives the following definition of electric power industry: “Electric power industry is a branch of the economy Russian Federation, which includes a complex of economic relations that arise in the production process (including production in the mode of combined generation of electrical and thermal energy), transmission of electrical energy, operational dispatch control in the electrical power industry, sales and consumption of electrical energy using production and other property facilities (including including those included in the Unified Energy System of Russia), owned by right of ownership or on another basis provided for by federal laws to subjects of the electric power industry or other persons. Electric power is the basis for the functioning of the economy and life support."

Definition of electric power industry in GOST 19431-84:

Electric power industry is a branch of energy that ensures the electrification of the country based on the rational expansion of the production and use of electrical energy.

The fuel industry is the basis for the development of the Russian economy, an instrument for conducting domestic and foreign policy. The fuel industry is connected with the entire industry of the country. More than 20% is spent on its development Money, accounts for 30% of fixed assets and 30% of the value of industrial products in Russia.

The fuel and energy complex (FEC) is a complex system that includes a set of production facilities, processes, and material devices for the extraction of fuel and energy resources (FER), their transformation, transportation, distribution and consumption of both primary fuel and energy resources and converted types of energy carriers. It includes:

Gas industry;

Coal industry;

Oil industry.

Ferrous metallurgy serves as the basis for the development of mechanical engineering (one third of the cast metal from a blast furnace goes into mechanical engineering) and construction (1/4 of the metal goes into construction). Main feedstock For the production of ferrous metals are iron ore, manganese, coking coals and ores of alloying metals.

The ferrous metallurgy industry includes the following main sub-sectors:

Extraction and beneficiation of ferrous metal ores (iron, chromium and manganese ore);

Extraction and processing of nonmetallic raw materials for ferrous metallurgy (fluxing limestone, refractory clay, etc.);

Production of ferrous metals (cast iron, carbon steel, rolled products, metal powders of ferrous metals);

Production of steel and cast iron pipes;

Coke and chemical industry (production of coke, coke oven gas, etc.);

Secondary processing of ferrous metals (cutting scrap and waste of ferrous metals).

Non-ferrous metallurgy is a branch of metallurgy that includes the extraction, enrichment of non-ferrous metal ores and smelting of non-ferrous metals and their alloys. Based on their physical properties and purpose, non-ferrous metals can be divided into heavy (copper, lead, zinc, tin, nickel) and light (aluminum, titanium, magnesium). Based on this division, a distinction is made between the metallurgy of light metals and the metallurgy of heavy metals.

Chemical industry is a branch of industry that includes the production of products from hydrocarbon, mineral and other raw materials through their chemical processing. The gross output of the chemical industry in the world is about 2 trillion US dollars.

The concept of petrochemicals combines several interrelated meanings:

A branch of chemistry that studies the chemistry of the transformation of hydrocarbons, oil, and natural gas into useful products and raw materials;

Section of chemical technology (the second name is petrochemical synthesis), describing technological processes used in industry in the processing of oil and natural gas - rectification, cracking, reforming, alkylation, isomerization, coking, pyrolysis, dehydrogenation (including, in this list, mention should be made also oxidative), hydrogenation, hydration, ammonolysis, oxidation, nitration, etc.;

A branch of the chemical industry, including production, the common feature of which is the deep chemical processing of hydrocarbon raw materials (oil fractions, natural and associated gas).

Mechanical engineering is a branch of heavy industry that produces all kinds of machines, tools, instruments, as well as consumer goods and defense products. Mechanical engineering is divided into three groups - labor-intensive, metal-intensive and knowledge-intensive. In turn, these groups are divided into the following industry subgroups: heavy engineering, general engineering, medium engineering, precision engineering, production of metal products and blanks, repair of machinery and equipment.

Metalworking is a technological process, a process of working with metals, during which their shape and size are changed, parts are given the desired shape using one or more metal processing methods to create individual parts, assemblies or large structures (metal structures). The term covers a wide range of different activities from building large ships and bridges to making the smallest pieces of jewelry. The term therefore includes a wide range of skills, processes and tools. The reliability and technology of any production, of any metal structure depends on the quality of the metalworking performed, so this task must be entrusted to professionals with sufficient experience and the necessary equipment designed specifically for these types of metalworking. Metalworking began to develop with the discovery of various ores, the processing of docile and malleable metals for the production of tools and jewelry.

Forestry industry is a set of industries that harvest and process wood. Timber harvesting in countries and areas with limited forest reserves is usually carried out by forestry enterprises - forestry enterprises, forest districts, etc. In countries and areas with large reserves of natural forests, timber harvesting, including rafting, is in the nature of an extractive industry and represents an independent industry - the logging industry. In Russia, issues related to the timber industry this moment is handled by the Federal Forestry Agency (Rosleskhoz). There is no specialized ministry in Russia. The main legislative act for the forestry industry is the Forest Code. The timber industry accounts for less than 5% of the country's GDP, despite the fact that Russia contains 25% of all world timber reserves.

All wood processing and processing industries, taken together, form the forest processing industry, which includes the following types of industry:

Woodworking industry, which unites groups of enterprises producing mechanical and partially chemical-mechanical processing and processing of wood;

Pulp and paper production is a technological process aimed at producing cellulose, paper, cardboard and other related products of final or intermediate processing; hydrolysis industry and forest chemical industry, the production of which is based on the chemical processing of wood and some non-wood forest products.

Construction materials - materials for the construction of buildings and structures. Along with the “old” traditional materials such as wood and brick, with the beginning of the industrial revolution new building materials such as concrete, steel, glass and plastic appeared. Currently, prestressed reinforced concrete and metal-plastic materials are widely used. There are:

Natural stone materials;

Wood building materials and products;

Non-firing artificial stone materials and products based on hydration binders;

Artificial firing materials;

Metals and metal products;

Glass and glass products;

Decoration Materials;

Polymer materials;

Thermal insulation materials and products made from them;

Waterproofing and roofing materials based on bitumen and polymers;

Portland cement;

Hydration (inorganic) binders;

Coagulation (organic) binders.

Light industry is a set of specialized industries that produce mainly consumer goods from various types of raw materials. Light industry occupies one of the important places in the production of the gross national product and plays a significant role in the country's economy. Light industry carries out both primary processing of raw materials and production of finished products. Light industry enterprises also produce products for industrial, technical and special purposes, used in furniture, aviation, automobile, chemical, electrical, food and other industries, agriculture, law enforcement agencies, transport and healthcare. One of the features of light industry is the rapid return on investment. Technological features industries make it possible to quickly change the range of products at a minimum of costs, which ensures high mobility of production.

Sub-sectors of light industry:

Textile;

Sewing;

Haberdashery;

Tanning;

Fur;

Shoe;

The porcelain and earthenware industry is a branch of light industry specializing in the production of fine ceramics: household and artistic porcelain, earthenware, semi-porcelain and majolica.

The food industry is a set of production of food products in finished form or in the form of semi-finished products, as well as tobacco products, soaps and detergents. In the agro-industrial complex, the food industry is closely linked with agriculture as a supplier of raw materials and trade. Some branches of the food industry gravitate towards raw material areas, others - towards consumption areas.

Manufacturing industry is a set of industries for processing industrial and agricultural raw materials obtained by the extractive industry in nature (mining, agriculture). This industry includes ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises, woodworking enterprises, oil, gas and chemical products refining, metalworking and mechanical engineering, food, textile and pulp and paper production, clothing and footwear industries, and production of building materials.

Geography of the manufacturing industry

The leaders of the manufacturing industry in the world are economically developed countries, which focus on the knowledge-intensive production of more expensive and innovative products. The leadership, despite the weakening share in world production in recent years, is held by the US manufacturing industry, followed by Japan and the EU countries led by Germany. Ultra-fast growth rates are demonstrated industrial countries Asia, in particular the industry of China and South Korea. Manufacturing industries in Russia, after a significant decline in the 90s of the 20th century, are now demonstrating stable growth in many industries.

Types of manufacturing industries

This type of production involves the physical and/or chemical processing of substances and materials in order to transform them into new products. The exception is waste recycling. Products from manufacturing industries can be ready for consumption or semi-finished for further processing. Thus, the product of purification of non-ferrous metals is subsequently used for the production of primary products (for example, aluminum or copper wire), which, in turn, will be used for the production of equipment or machine components.

Structure of manufacturing industries in Russia and the main types of products produced by volume:

• Food products, including the production of tobacco and beverages (meat, vegetable and animal oils, bread and bakery products, confectionery, granulated sugar).
• Production of petroleum products (gasoline, motor gasoline, diesel fuel, fuel oil).
• Metallurgy, including finished products (steel, finished rolled ferrous metals).
• Chemical production (mineral fertilizers, synthetic resins and plastics, paints and varnishes).
• Production of rubber and plastic products (tires for various Vehicle, pipes and pipeline fittings made of thermoplastics).
• Processing and production of finished wood products (lumber, plywood, chipboard, fiberboard).
• Mechanical engineering (production of machine tools for various purposes, industrial equipment).
• Pulp and paper production (paper, cardboard).
• Textile and clothing production (fabrics, shoes).

Importance of Manufacturing Industry

The manufacturing industry accounts for the vast majority of the world's output. About 40% of the value of all industrial products in the world comes from mechanical engineering. Chemical and food processing industries are significantly inferior. The share of these industries in total industrial output is approximately 15%. The woodworking and pulp and paper industries produce about 9-10% of all world products, and 5-7% are accounted for by metallurgy and electric power.

In Russia, shares of output volume between manufacturing industries are distributed approximately as follows:

• Mechanical engineering - 22%.
• Oil refining industry - 21%.
• Ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy - 16%.
• Food industry - 16%.
• Chemical - 10%.
• Production of building materials - 5%.

Metallurgy in the manufacturing industry of Russia

Manufacturing industries of the metallurgical complex cover almost all stages of the technological process (except for the extraction of raw materials) to obtain final products in the form of metals and alloys. This is a mutually influencing combination of processes:

• Preparation of raw materials (agglomeration, enrichment, production of concentrates).
• Metallurgical processing – production of steel, cast iron, and various rolled products.
• Production of alloys.

The specificity of metallurgical production is the scale and complexity of the technological cycle. The production of many types of products involves 15-18 stages.

Ferrous metallurgy as part of manufacturing

In terms of the volume of ferrous metals produced annually, Russia is significantly ahead of many countries in the world. Each of the eight largest enterprises in the country produces over 3 million tons of products every year. Ferrous metallurgy serves as the foundation for the development of the largest manufacturing industry - mechanical engineering. The technological process for the production of ferrous metals as a type of manufacturing covers all stages, from the preparation of raw materials and auxiliary materials to the production of rolled products and further processing. The metallurgical manufacturing industry, which is characterized by production combinations, in Russia covers a large number of enterprises, eight of which are particularly large:

• Magnitogorsk, Chelyabinsk, Nizhny Tagil, Orsko-Khalilovsky metallurgical plants (Ural).
• Cherepovets plant.
• Novolipetsk (Central Black Earth region).
• Kuznetsk and West Siberian plants.

These enterprises process more than 90% of iron ore and 40% of secondary raw materials.

Mechanical engineering

Machine-building manufacturing industries are the largest consumers of products produced by ferrous metallurgy. The territorial proximity of these industries gives metallurgical enterprises the opportunity to specialize in accordance with the needs of mechanical engineering and use their waste as recyclable materials.

Machine-building enterprises producing difficult-to-transport products are located in consumption areas. Products produced by the industry include: agricultural machines, mining equipment, turbines, machines and mechanisms for other industries. Features of the location of heavy engineering enterprises play a big role in the supply of finished products.

Oil refining industry

Part of the country's oil industry. Since oil, unlike other types of fuel, requires mandatory primary processing for its further use, the oil refining industry is quite large in scale. The resulting main products after oil processing are: kerosene, gasoline, diesel fuel and fuel oil. Refining takes place at refineries (oil refineries), the totality of which makes up the oil refining industry. In Russia there are 32 large and 80 small refineries with a total production capacity of about 300 million tons. In terms of processing scale, Russia ranks third in the world. Transportation of 95% of all crude oil from production sites to refineries in Russia is provided by main oil pipelines.

Bottom line

The manufacturing industry reflects the degree of industrial development of a country. It is a leading sector of global industry, accounting for the majority of the value of all products. Manufacturing production is closely interconnected with other industries. In many countries around the world, this industry has always experienced advanced growth rates, and the share of total production often reaches 90%.

Section 1. History of industrial development.

Section 2. Classification industry.

Section 3. Industries industry.

- Subsection 1. Electric power industry.

- Subsection 2. Fuel industry.

- Subsection 4. Colored metallurgy.

- Subsection 5. Chemical and petrochemical industry.

- Subsection 6. Mechanical engineering and metalworking.

- Subsection 7. Forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries.

- Subsection 8. Construction materials industry.

- Subsection 9. Light industry.

- Subsection 10. Glass and porcelain industry

- Subsection 11. Food industry.

Industry- this is a set of enterprises engaged in the production of tools and the extraction of raw materials. The production of energy and further processing of products obtained in industry or produced in agriculture - the production of consumer goods.

Industry- this is the most important industry national economy, which has a decisive impact on the level of development of the productive forces of society.

History of industrial development

Industry arose within the framework of subsistence peasant farming. During the era of the primitive communal system, the main industry production activity among most peoples (farming and cattle breeding), when products intended for own consumption were made from raw materials extracted in the same economy. The development and direction of the domestic industry was determined by local conditions and depended on the availability of raw materials:

processing of hides;

leather dressing;

felt production;

various types of processing of tree bark and wood;

weaving various items trade (ropes, vessels, baskets, nets);

spinning;

weaving;

pottery production.

For the medieval economic regime, it is traditional to combine peasant household crafts with patriarchal (natural) agriculture, which is an integral part of the pre-capitalist mode of production, including the feudal one. Wherein item of trade left the boundaries of the peasant farm only in the form of rent in kind to the landowner, and domestic industry was gradually replaced by small-scale manual production of industrial trade items, however, without being completely replaced by the latter. Thus, craft played an important economic role in the states of the feudal era.

Electrical power generation

Generating electricity is process converting various types of energy into electrical energy at industrial facilities called power plants. Currently, there are the following types of generation:

Thermal power engineering. In this case, the thermal energy of combustion of organic fuels is converted into electrical energy. Thermal power engineering includes thermal power plants (TPPs), which come in two main types:

Condensing power plants (KES, the old abbreviation GRES is also used);

District heating (thermal power plants, combined heat and power plants). Cogeneration is the combined production of electrical and thermal energy at the same station;

IES and EC have similar technological processes. In both cases, there is a boiler in which fuel is burned and, due to the heat generated, steam under pressure is heated. Next, the heated steam is supplied to a steam turbine, where its thermal energy is converted into rotational energy. The turbine shaft rotates the rotor of the electric generator - thus, the rotational energy is converted into electrical energy, which is supplied to the network. The fundamental difference CHP from CES is that part of the steam heated in the boiler is used for heat supply needs;

Nuclear energy. This includes nuclear power plants (NPPs). In practice, nuclear power is often considered a subtype of thermal power, since, in general, the principle of generating electricity at nuclear power plants is the same as at thermal power plants. Only in this case, thermal energy is released not during the combustion of fuel, but during the fission of atomic nuclei in a nuclear reactor. Further, the scheme for generating electricity is no fundamentally different from a thermal power plant: steam is heated in a reactor, enters a steam turbine, etc. Due to some design features of nuclear power plants, it is unprofitable to use them in combined generation, although separate experiments have been carried out in this direction;

Hydropower. This includes hydroelectric power stations. In hydropower, the kinetic energy of water flow is converted into electrical energy. To do this, with the help of dams on rivers, a difference in water surface levels is artificially created. Under the influence of gravity, water flows from the upper pool through special channels in which water turbines are located, the blades of which are spun by the water flow. The turbine rotates the rotor of the electric generator. A special variety hydroelectric power station are pumped storage power plants (PSPP). They cannot be considered generating facilities in their pure form, since they consume almost as much electricity as they produce, but such stations are very effective in unloading the network during peak hours.

Recently, studies have shown that the power of sea currents is many orders of magnitude greater than the power of all rivers in the world. In this regard, the creation of experimental offshore hydroelectric power plants is underway.

Alternative energy. This includes methods of generating electricity that have a number of advantages compared to “traditional” ones, but for various reasons have not received sufficient distribution. The main types of alternative energy are:

Wind energy - use kinetic energy wind to generate electricity;

Solar energy - obtaining electrical energy from the energy of solar rays;

Also, in both cases, storage capacity is required for nighttime (for solar energy) and calm (for wind energy) periods;

Geothermal energy is the use of the Earth's natural heat to generate electrical energy. In fact, geothermal stations are ordinary thermal power plants, in which the heat source for heating the steam is not a boiler or nuclear reactor, but underground sources of natural heat. The disadvantage of such stations is the geographical limitation of their use: geothermal stations are cost-effective to build only in regions of tectonic activity, that is, where natural heat sources are most accessible;

Hydrogen energy - the use of hydrogen as an energy fuel has great prospects: hydrogen has a very high combustion efficiency, its resource is practically unlimited, the combustion of hydrogen is absolutely environmentally friendly (the product of combustion in an oxygen atmosphere is distilled water). However, hydrogen energy is currently not able to fully satisfy the needs of mankind due to the high cost of producing pure hydrogen and technical problems transporting it in large quantities. In fact, hydrogen is just a carrier of energy, and does not in any way solve the problem of extracting this energy.

Tidal energy uses the energy of sea tides. The spread of this type of electric power generation is hampered by the need for the coincidence of too many factors when designing a power plant: not just a sea coast is needed, but a coast where the tides are strong enough and constant. For example, the Black Sea coast is not suitable for the construction of tidal power plants, since water level differences in the Black Sea at high and low tide are minimal.

Wave energy, upon careful consideration, may turn out to be the most promising. The waves represent the concentrated energy of the same solar radiation and wind. The wave power in different places can exceed 100 kW per linear meter of wave front. There is almost always excitement, even in calm conditions (“dead swell”). In the Black Sea, the average wave power is approximately 15 kW/m. Northern seas of the Russian Federation - up to 100 kW/m. Harnessing waves can provide energy to marine and coastal communities. Waves can propel ships. The power of a ship's average pitching is several times greater than its power. power plant. But so far wave power plants have not gone beyond single prototypes.

The transmission of electrical energy from power plants to consumers is carried out via electrical networks. Electra grid economy is a natural monopoly sector of the electric power industry: the acquirer can choose from whom to buy electricity.

Power lines are metal conductors that carry electric current. Currently, alternating current is used almost everywhere. Electricity supply in the vast majority of cases is three-phase, so a power line usually consists of three phases, each of which may include several wires. Structurally, power lines are divided into overhead and cable.

Overhead lines are suspended above the ground at a safe height on special structures called supports. As a rule, the wire on an overhead line does not have surface insulation; insulation is present at the points of attachment to the supports.

The main advantage of overhead power lines is their relative cheapness compared to cable lines. Maintainability is also much better: no excavation is required. work to replace the wire, the visual state of the line is not hampered in any way. However, overhead power lines have a number of disadvantages:

wide right-of-way: it is prohibited to erect any structures or plant trees in the vicinity of power lines; when the line passes through a forest, trees along the entire width of the right-of-way are cut down;

aesthetic unattractiveness; This is one of the reasons for the almost universal transition to cable power transmission in the city.

Typically, liquid transformer oil or oiled paper acts as an insulator. The conductive core of the cable is usually protected by steel armor.

Fuel industry

The fuel and energy complex (FEC) is a complex system that includes a set of production facilities, processes, and material devices for the extraction of fuel and energy resources (FER), their transformation, transportation, distribution and consumption of both primary fuel and energy resources and converted types of energy carriers. It includes:

oil industry;

coal industry;

gas industry;

electric power industry.

The fuel industry is the basis for the development of the Russian economy, an instrument for conducting domestic and foreign policy. The fuel industry is connected with the entire industry of the country. More than 20% of funds are spent on its development, accounting for 30% of fixed assets and 30% cost industrial products of the Russian Federation.

Implementation of state politicians in the field of the fuel industry is carried out by the Ministry of Energy of Russia and its subordinates companies, including the Russian Energy Agency.

Fuel industry. Main suppliers energy resources are located in Asia (Gulf countries, as well as China).

Not all countries have their own energy suppliers; in terms of economic potential, they are sufficiently provided only USA, Russia, China, UK, Australia. A fairly large group of countries partially covers their needs with their own fuel, for example, Germany, Ukraine, Poland, India, etc. But there are many among industrialized countries that have practically no energy resources of their own. These are Japan, Sweden, the Republic of Korea, not to mention the small industrialized countries of the world.

The leading energy sector is the oil industry. For a long time in the second half of the 20th century. economy Europe, USA and Japan developed due to cheap black gold, the production of which in developing countries was controlled by oil transnational corporations. But after its formation in 1960 Firms exporting countries black gold(OPEC), which took the production and sale black gold into their own hands, the era of “cheap black gold” was over, the oil monopolists had to share profits. In addition, mining conditions have become more difficult. Oil companies operate in less developed areas, and much of the black gold is mined offshore, often at great depths. Political instability and conflict, especially in the Middle East, also add challenges to the oil business.

Industry is

Wood processing industry is a branch of the forest industry. Using various timber products, the woodworking industry carries out mechanical and chemical-mechanical processing and processing of wood.

Pulp and paper production - technological process , aimed at producing cellulose, paper, cardboard and other related products of final or intermediate processing.

Paper was first mentioned in Chinese chronicles in 12 BC. e. The raw materials for its production were bamboo stems and mulberry tree bast. In 105, Lun generalized and improved existing methods for producing paper.

In Europe, paper appeared in XI-XII centuries. It replaced papyrus and parchment (which was too expensive). At first, crushed hemp and linen rags were used to make paper.

Back in 1719, Reaumur suggested that wood could serve as a raw material for paper production. However, the need to use wood arose only at the beginning of the 19th century, when the paper-making machine was invented, which sharply increased productivity, as a result of which paper mills began to experience a shortage of raw materials.

In 1853, Mellier (France) patented a method for producing cellulose from straw by cooking with a 3% sodium hydroxide solution in hermetically sealed boilers at a temperature of about 150° (soda cooking). Almost simultaneously, Watt (England) and Barges (USA) took out patents for the production of cellulose using a similar method from wood. The first soda pulp production plant was built in 1860 in the United States of America.

In 1866, B. Tilghman (USA) invented the sulfite method for producing cellulose.

In 1879, K.F. Dahl (Sweden), having modified soda cooking, invented the sulfate method for the production of cellulose, which to this day is the main method for its production.

Since production requires wood and a lot of water, pulp and paper mills are usually located on the banks of large rivers, then it is possible to use the rivers to float wood, which serves as the main raw material for production.

Production special type paper

The following semi-finished fibrous products are used to produce paper and cardboard (data as of 2000):

waste paper - 43%

sulfate cellulose - 36%

wood pulp - 12%

sulfite cellulose - 3%

semicellulose - 3%

cellulose from non-wood plant materials – 3%

To produce high-grade paper, on which money and important documents are printed, shredded textile scraps are also used.

In addition, to impart special properties, sizing agents, mineral fillers and special dyes are added to the paper.

Industry is

building materials industry

Construction materials - materials for the construction of buildings and structures. Along with the “old” traditional materials such as wood and brick, with the beginning of the industrial revolution, new building materials such as concrete, steel, glass and plastic. Currently, prestressed reinforced concrete and metal plastics are widely used.

There are:

Natural stone materials;

Wood building materials and trade items;

Artificial firing materials;

metals and metal trade items;

Glass and glass trade items;

Decoration Materials;

Polymer materials;

Thermal insulation materials and trade items made from them;

Waterproofing and roofing materials based on bitumen and polymers;

Portland cement;

Hydration (inorganic) binders;

In the process of construction, operation and repair of buildings and structures, construction trade items and the structures from which they are erected are subject to various physical, mechanical, physical and technological influences. A civil engineer is required to competently select the right material, an item of trade that has sufficient resistance, reliability and durability for specific conditions.

Construction materials and trade items used in the construction, reconstruction and repair of various buildings and structures are divided into

natural

artificial

which in turn are divided into two main categories:

They are used in the construction of various building elements (walls, ceilings, coverings, floors).

waterproofing, thermal insulation, acoustic, etc.

Main types of building materials and trade items

stone natural building materials and trade items made from them

inorganic and organic binding materials

forest materials and trade items made from them

metal trade items.

Depending on the purpose, conditions of construction and operation of buildings and structures, appropriate building materials are selected that have certain qualities and protective properties from exposure to various external environments. Taking these features into account, any building material must have certain construction and technical properties. For example, the material for the external walls of buildings must have the lowest thermal conductivity with sufficient strength to protect the room from the external cold; the material of the structure for irrigation and drainage purposes is waterproof and resistant to alternating wetting and drying; The material for road surfaces (asphalt, concrete) must have sufficient strength and low selectability to withstand the loads from transport.

When classifying materials and trade items, it is necessary to remember that they must have good properties and qualities.

Property is a characteristic of a material that manifests itself during its processing, application or operation.

Quality is a set of properties of a material that determine its ability to satisfy certain requirements in accordance with its purpose.

The properties of building materials and trade items are classified into four main groups:

physical,

mechanical,

chemical,

technological, etc.

Physical properties of building materials.

True density ρ is the mass of a unit volume of material in an absolutely dense state. ρ =m/Va, where Va is the volume in a dense state. [ρ] = g/cm; kg/m; t/m. For example, granite, glass and other silicates are almost completely dense materials. Determination of true density: a pre-dried sample is crushed into powder, the volume is determined in a pycnometer (it is equal to the volume of the displaced liquid).

Average density ρm=m/Ve is the mass of a unit volume in its natural state. The average density depends on temperature and humidity: ρm=ρв/(1+W), where W is relative humidity, and ρв is the wet density.

Bulk density (for bulk materials) is the mass per unit volume of loosely poured granular or fibrous materials.

Open porosity - pores communicate with the environment and with each other, and are filled with water under normal saturation conditions (immersion in a bath of water). Open pores increase the permeability and water absorption of the material and reduce frost resistance.

Closed porosity Pz=P-Po. Increasing closed porosity increases the durability of the material and reduces sound absorption.

Porous material contains both open and closed pores

Hydrophysical properties of building materials.

Water absorption by mass Wm (%) is determined in relation to the mass of dry material Wm = (mw-mc)/mc*100. Wo=Wм*γ, γ is the volumetric mass of dry material, expressed in relation to the density of water (dimensionless value). Water absorption is used to evaluate the structure of the material using the saturation coefficient: kн = Wo/P. It can vary from 0 (all pores in the material are closed) to 1 (all pores are open). A decrease in kn indicates an increase in frost resistance.

Water permeability is the property of a material to allow water to pass under pressure. The filtration coefficient kf (m/h is the speed dimension) characterizes water permeability: kf = Vw*a/, where kf = Vw is the amount of water, mі, passing through a wall with area S = 1 m², thickness a = 1 m during time t = 1 hour with a difference in hydrostatic pressure at the wall boundaries p1 - p2 = 1 m of water. Art.

The water resistance of the material is characterized by grade W2; W4; W8; W10; W12, denoting one-sided hydrostatic pressure in kgf/cm², at which a concrete cylinder sample does not allow water to pass through under standard test conditions. The lower the kf, the higher the waterproof grade.

Water resistance is characterized by the softening coefficient kp = Rв/Rс, where Rв is the strength of the material saturated with water, and Rс is the strength of the dry material. kp varies from 0 (wetting clays) to 1 (metals). If kp is less than 0.8, then such material is not used in building structures located in water.

Hygroscopicity is the property of a capillary-porous material to absorb water vapor from the air. absorption of moisture from the air is called sorption, it is caused by polymolecular adsorption of water vapor on the inner surface of the pores and capillary condensation. With an increase in water vapor pressure (that is, an increase in the relative humidity of the air at a constant temperature), the sorption moisture content of the material increases.

Capillary suction is characterized by the height of water rising in the material, the amount of absorbed water and the intensity of suction. A decrease in these indicators reflects an improvement in the structure of the material and an increase in its frost resistance.

Humidity deformations. Porous materials change their volume and size when humidity changes. Shrinkage is a reduction in the size of a material as it dries. Swelling occurs when the material is saturated with water.

Thermophysical properties of building materials.

Thermal conductivity is the property of a material to transfer heat from one surface to another. Nekrasov’s formula connects thermal conductivity λ [W/(m*C)] with the volumetric mass of the material, expressed in relation to water: λ=1.16√(0.0196 + 0.22γ2)-0.16. As temperature increases, the thermal conductivity of most materials increases. R is thermal resistance, R = 1/λ.

Heat capacity c [kcal/(kg*C)] is the amount of heat that must be supplied to 1 kg of material in order to increase its temperature by 1C. For stone materials, the heat capacity varies from 0.75 to 0.92 kJ/(kg*C). As humidity increases, the heat capacity of materials increases.

Fire resistance is the ability of a material to withstand prolonged exposure to high temperatures (from 1580 °C and above) without softening or deforming. Refractory materials are used for the internal lining of industrial furnaces. Refractory materials soften at temperatures above 1350 °C.

Fire resistance is the property of a material to resist the action of fire during a fire for a certain time. It depends on the combustibility of the material, that is, on its ability to ignite and burn. Fireproof materials - concrete, brick, etc. But at temperatures above 600 °C, some fireproof materials crack (granite) or become severely deformed (metals). Hardly combustible materials smolder when exposed to fire or high temperature, but after the fire stops, their combustion and smoldering stops (asphalt concrete, wood impregnated with fire retardants, fiberboard, some foam plastics). Combustible materials burn open flame, they must be protected from fire by constructive and other measures, and treated with fire retardants.

Linear thermal expansion. With a seasonal change in the ambient temperature and material by 50 °C, the relative temperature deformation reaches 0.5-1 mm/m. To avoid cracking, long-term structures are cut with expansion joints.

Frost resistance of building materials.

Frost resistance is the ability of a material saturated with water to withstand alternate freezing and thawing. Frost resistance is quantitatively assessed by the brand. The grade is taken to be the greatest number of cycles of alternating freezing to −20 °C and thawing at a temperature of 12-20 °C, which the material samples can withstand without reducing the compressive strength by more than 15%; After testing, the samples should not have visible damage - cracks.

Mechanical properties of building materials

Elasticity is the spontaneous restoration of the original shape and size after the cessation of the external force.

Plasticity is the property of changing shape and size under the influence of external forces without collapsing, and after the cessation of external forces, the body cannot spontaneously restore its shape and size.

Permanent deformation is plastic deformation.

Relative deformation is the ratio of absolute deformation to the initial linear size (ε=Δl/l).

Elastic modulus - the ratio of stress to rel. deformations (E=σ/ε).

Brick and concrete main strength characteristic is compressive strength. For metals and steel, the compressive strength is the same as the tensile and bending strength. Since building materials are heterogeneous, the tensile strength is determined as the average result of a series of samples. The test results are influenced by the shape, dimensions of the samples, the state of the supporting surfaces, and the speed of awarding. Depending on their strength, materials are divided into brands and classes. Brands are written in kgf/cm², and classes - in MPa. The class characterizes guaranteed strength. Strength class B is called the temporary compressive strength of standard samples (concrete cubes with an edge size of 150 mm), tested at the age of 28 days of storage at a temperature of 20±2 °C, taking into account the static variability of strength.

Structural quality coefficient: KKK = R/γ (strength per relative density), for the 3rd steel KKK = 51 MPa, for high-strength steel KKK = 127 MPa, heavy concrete KKK = 12.6 MPa, wood KKK = 200 MPa.

Hardness is an indicator characterizing the property of materials to resist penetration into it by another, more dense material. Hardness index: HB=P/F (F is the area of ​​the imprint, P is the force), [HB]=MPa. Mohs scale: talc, gypsum, lime...diamond.

Abrasion is the loss of the initial mass of a sample as it passes a certain path along an abrasive surface. Abrasion: И=(m1-m2)/F, where F is the area of ​​the abraded surface.

Wear is the property of a material to resist both abrasive and impact loads. Wear determined in a drum with or without steel balls.

Rocks that have the necessary construction properties are used as natural stone materials in construction.

According to geological classification rocks are divided into three types:

igneous (primary).

sedimentary (secondary).

metamorphic (modified).

Igneous (primary) rocks formed during the cooling of molten magma rising from the depths of the earth. The structures and properties of igneous rocks largely depend on the cooling conditions of the magma, and therefore these rocks are divided into deep-seated and eruptive.

Deep rocks were formed during the slow cooling of magma deep in the earth's crust at high pressures in the overlying layers of the earth, which contributed to the formation of rocks with a dense granular-crystalline structure, high and medium density, and high compressive strength. These rocks have low water absorption and high frost resistance. These rocks include granite, syenite, diorite, gabbro, etc.

The erupted rocks were formed during the process of magma reaching the earth's surface with relatively rapid and uneven cooling. The most common eruptive rocks are porphyry, diabase, basalt, and volcanic loose rocks.

Sedimentary (secondary) rocks were formed from primary (igneous) rocks under the influence of temperature changes, solar radiation, water, atmospheric gases, etc. In this regard, sedimentary rocks are divided into clastic (loose), chemical and organogenic.

Loose clastic rocks include gravel, crushed stone, and clay.

Chemical sedimentary rocks: limestone, dolomite, gypsum.

Organogenic rocks: limestone-shell rock, diatomite, chalk.

Metamorphic (modified) rocks were formed from igneous and sedimentary rocks under the influence of high temperatures and pressures during the rise and fall of the earth's crust. These include shale, marble, and quartzite.

Natural stone materials and trade items are obtained by processing rocks.

According to the method of production, stone materials are divided into:

torn stone (rubble) - mined by explosive method

rough stone - obtained by splitting without processing

crushed - obtained by crushing (crushed stone, artificial sand)

sorted stone (cobblestone, gravel).

Stone materials are divided by shape

irregularly shaped stones (crushed stone, gravel)

piece items of trade that have the correct shape (slabs, blocks).

Crushed stone is sharp-angled pieces of rock ranging in size from 5 to 70 mm, obtained by mechanical or natural crushing of rubble (fragmented stone) or natural stones. It is used as a coarse aggregate for preparing concrete mixtures and laying foundations.

Gravel is rounded pieces of rock ranging in size from 5 to 120 mm, also used for the preparation of artificial gravel-crushed stone mixtures.

Sand is a mixture of rock grains ranging in size from 0.14 to 5 mm. It is usually formed as a result of weathering of rocks, but can also be obtained artificially - by crushing gravel, crushed stone, and pieces of rock.

Mortars are carefully fine-grained mixtures consisting of an inorganic binder (cement, lime, gypsum, clay), fine aggregate (sand, crushed slag), water and, if necessary, additives (inorganic or organic). When freshly prepared, they can be laid on the base in a thin layer, filling all its unevenness. They do not delaminate, set, harden and gain strength, turning into a stone-like material.

Mortars are used for masonry, finishing, repair and other work. They are classified according to average density: heavy with an average ρ = 1500 kg/m³, light with an average ρ

Solutions prepared with one type of binder are called simple; solutions made from several binders are mixed.

To prepare mortars, it is better to use sand with grains that have a rough surface. protects the solution from cracking during hardening, reduces it price.

Waterproofing mortars (waterproof) - cement mortars with a composition of 1:1 - 1:3.5 (usually fatty), to which sodium aluminate, calcium nitrate, chloride, and bitumen emulsion are added.

For the manufacture of waterproofing solutions, Portland cement and sulfate-resistant Portland cement are used. Sand is used as a fine aggregate in waterproofing solutions.

Masonry mortars are used for laying stone walls and underground structures. They are cement-lime, cement-clay, lime and cement.

Finishing (plaster) mortars are divided according to their purpose into external and internal, according to their location in the plaster into preparatory and finishing.

Acoustic solutions are lightweight solutions with good sound insulation. These solutions are prepared from Portland cement, Portland slag cement, lime, gypsum and other binders using lightweight porous materials (pumice, perlite, expanded clay, slag) as filler.

Glass is a supercooled melt of complex composition from a mixture of silicates and other substances. Molded glass products are subjected to a special heat treatment - firing.

Window glass is produced in sheets up to 3210x6000 mm in size. Glass, in accordance with its optical distortions and standardized defects, is divided into grades M0-M7.

Showcase glass is produced polished and unpolished in the form of flat sheets 2-12 mm thick. It is used for glazing shop windows and openings. In the future, glass sheets can be subjected to further processing: bending, tempering, coating.

Highly reflective sheet glass is ordinary window glass, on the surface of which a thin translucent light-reflecting film made on the basis of titanium oxide is applied. Glass with film reflects up to 40% of the incident light, light transmission is 50-50%. Glass reduces visibility from the outside and reduces the penetration of solar radiation into the room.

Sheet radioprotective glass is ordinary window glass, on the surface of which a thin transparent shielding film is applied. The screening film is applied to the glass during the process of its formation on machines. Light transmission is not lower than 70%.

Reinforced glass is produced on production lines by continuous rolling with simultaneous rolling of a metal mesh inside a sheet. This glass has a smooth, patterned surface and can be clear or colored.

Heat-absorbing glass has the ability to absorb infrared rays from the solar spectrum. It is intended for glazing window openings in order to reduce the penetration of solar radiation into rooms. This glass transmits visible light rays by no less than 65%, infrared rays by no more than 35%.

Glass pipes are made from ordinary transparent glass by vertical or horizontal drawing. Pipe length 1000-3000 mm, internal diameter 38-200 mm. The pipes can withstand hydraulic pressure up to 2 MPa.

According to the hardening conditions, they are divided:

trade item, hardening during autoclave and heat treatment

items of trade, hardening in an air-humid environment.

Prepared from a homogeneous mixture of mineral binder, silica component, gypsum and water.

During exposure of the product before autoclave treatment, hydrogen is released from it, as a result of which tiny bubbles are formed in a homogeneous plastic-viscous binder medium. During the process of gas release, these bubbles increase in size, creating spheroidal cells throughout the entire mass of the cellular concrete mixture.

During autoclave treatment under a pressure of 0.8-1.2 MPa in a highly humid air-steam environment at 175-200 °C, intensive interaction of the binder with silica components occurs with the formation of calcium silicate and other cementing new formations, due to which the structure of cellular highly porous concrete acquires strength.

Single-row cut panels, wall and large blocks, single-layer and double-layer wall curtain panels, single-layer slabs of interfloor and attic floors are made from cellular concrete.

Sand-lime brick is molded on special presses from a carefully prepared homogeneous mixture of pure quartz sand (92-95%), puffed lime (5-8%) and water (7-8%). After pressing, the brick is steamed in autoclaves in an environment saturated with vapors, at 175 °C and a pressure of 0.8 MPa. They make single bricks with dimensions of 250×120×65 mm and modular (one-and-a-half) bricks with dimensions of 250×120×88 mm; solid and hollow, front and ordinary.

Industry is

Light industry

Light industry occupies one of the important places in the production of gross national product and plays a significant role in the country's economy. Light industry carries out both primary processing of raw materials and production of finished products.

One of the features of light industry is the rapid return on investment. Technological features of the industry make it possible to quickly change the range of products with a minimum expenses, which ensures high production mobility.

Light industry combines several sub-sectors:

Textile.

Cotton.

Woolen.

Silk.

Hemp and jute.

Knitted.

Felting.

Network knitting.

Haberdashery.

Tannery.

In Russia, the first light industry enterprises appeared in the 17th century. Until the 19th century, Russian light industry was represented by cloth, linen and other manufactories, created mainly with the help of the state and fulfilling government orders. The rapid growth of most branches of light industry began in the second half of the 19th century, when landowner factories, based on the labor of serfs, began to be replaced by capitalist factories, based on the labor of hired workers. This developed most intensively in the 1860s.

At the end of the 19th century, light industry determined the industrial development of the Russian Federation, occupying a significant share of total industrial production (32.4% in 1887, 26.1% in 1900). Some industries were practically absent, for example the knitting industry.

Location of enterprises by territory Russian Empire was uneven. Largest quantity There were enterprises in the Moscow, Tver, Vladimir, and St. Petersburg provinces. Light industry enterprises were located in former centers of handicrafts.

In all branches of light industry, manual labor predominated; the standard of living of light industry workers was very low. The main problems of the industry at that time were a weak raw material base and backwardness of mechanical engineering. Russia imported approximately half of the necessary raw materials (dyes, raw silk) and almost all the equipment. Export items included such raw materials as small leather raw materials, silkworm cocoons, morocco, yuft, and furs.

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The economic period of 1900-1903 affected the industry one of the first, but it was not as protracted as in other industries. Already in 1908, production output increased 1.5 times compared to 1900 (this was due to the increase in the purchasing power of peasants, who were freed from redemption payments in 1905).

Pre-revolutionary light industry was characterized by a mass workers' movement. The most famous protests of workers are the strikes of the weavers of the Morozov factory in Orekhovo-Zuevo (1885), and the Ivanovo-Voznesensk weavers (1905). Factory workers played a major role in the economic collapse in Moscow (1905). Ivanovo-Voznesensk weavers created a Council of Commissioners, which actually became one of the first Councils of Workers' Deputies in the Russian Federation. Light industry workers also accepted Active participation in the February and October revolutions and class struggle.

Glass and porcelain industry

The porcelain and faience industry is a branch of light industry specializing in the production of fine ceramics: household and artistic porcelain, earthenware, semi-porcelain and majolica.

The history of the porcelain and earthenware industry in Russia dates back to 1744, when the first manufactory (now the Imperial Porcelain Factory) was opened in St. Petersburg. More than half a century later, in 1798, the first earthenware factory opened near Kiev.

After the October Revolution, all enterprises in the porcelain and earthenware industry were nationalized. industry in the pre-war years, as well as the construction of new factories, made it possible to significantly increase the volume and expand production. Most of enterprises were transferred to the newly created domestic raw material base. The main suppliers of kaolin were the processing factories of the Ukrainian SSR deposits, feldspathic materials - Karelia and Murmansk region, refractory clay - Donetsk region.

During the Great Patriotic War, some enterprises were destroyed or evacuated. After the war, the porcelain and earthenware industry began to revive. During the first post-war five-year plan, the construction of new factories for the production of household and artistic porcelain began. From 1959 to 1975, 19 new factories were launched, and all existing enterprises were reconstructed and equipped with modern equipment. As a result of modernization, productive suppliers industry in 1961-1975 increased 2.4 times, the level of mechanization - from 36% (1965) to 68% (1975). In 1975, the porcelain and earthenware industry of the USSR included 35 porcelain factories, 5 earthenware factories, 3 majolica factories, 2 experimental factories, 1 machine-building factory and 1 ceramic paints factory.

Industry is

Food industry

The food industry is a set of production of food products in finished form or in the form of semi-finished products, as well as tobacco trade items, soap and detergents.

In the agro-industrial complex, the food industry is closely connected with agriculture, as a supplier of raw materials and with trade. Some branches of the food industry gravitate towards raw material areas, others towards consumption areas.

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Soft Drink Industry

Wine industry

Confectionery industry

Canning industry

Pasta industry

Oil and fat industry

Butter and cheese industry

Dairy industry

Flour and cereal industry.

Meat industry

Brewing industry

Fruit and vegetable industry

Poultry industry

Fishing industry

Sugar industry

Salt industry

Alcohol industry

Tobacco industry.

Moscow State University food production

St. Petersburg State University of Low Temperature and Food Technologies.

Industry is

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