MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RF

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

GOU VPO FAR EASTERN STATE UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY AND APPLIED ECOLOGY

A.A. Kapustina methods of teaching chemistry course of lectures

Vladivostok

Far Eastern University Publishing House

Methodological manual prepared by the department

inorganic and organoelement chemistry, Far Eastern State University.

Published by decision of the educational and methodological council of FENU.

Kapustina A.A.

K 20 Methodological manual for seminar classes on the course “Structure of Matter” / A.A. Kapustina. – Vladivostok: Dalnevost Publishing House. University, 2007. – 41 p.

The material on the main sections of the course is contained in a condensed form, samples of solved problems, test questions and assignments are provided. Intended for 3rd year students of the Faculty of Chemistry in their preparation for seminar classes on the course “Structure of Matter”.

© Kapustina A.A., 2007

©Publishing house

Far Eastern University, 2007

Lecture No. 1

Literature:

1. Zaitsev O.S., Methods of teaching chemistry, M. 1999.

2. Magazine “Chemistry at school”.

3. Chernobelskaya G.M. Fundamentals of methods of teaching chemistry, M. 1987.

4. Polosin V.S.. School experiment in inorganic chemistry, M., 1970.

Subject of methods of teaching chemistry and its tasks

The subject of the methodology of teaching chemistry is the social process of teaching the basics of modern chemistry at school (technical school, university).

The learning process consists of three interconnected aspects:

1) educational subject;

2) teaching;

3) exercises.

Academic subject volume and level are provided scientific knowledge that must be learned by students. Thus, we will get acquainted with the content of school programs, the requirements for knowledge, skills and abilities of students at different stages of education. Let's find out which topics are the foundation of chemical knowledge, determine chemical literacy, and which ones play the role of didactic material.

Teaching - this is the activity of the teacher through which he teaches students, that is:

Communicates scientific knowledge;

Instills practical skills and abilities;

Forms a scientific worldview;

Prepares for practical activities.

We will look at: a) the basic principles of learning; b) teaching methods, their classification, features; c) a lesson as the main form of teaching at school, methods of construction, classification of lessons, requirements for them; d) methods of questioning and monitoring knowledge; e) teaching methods at the university.

Teaching is a student activity consisting of:

Perception;

Understanding;

Assimilation;

Consolidation and application in practice educational material.

Thus, subject methods of teaching chemistry is research of the following problems:

a) goals and objectives of training (why teach?);

b) academic subject (what to teach?);

c) teaching (how to teach?);

d) learning (how do students learn?).

The methodology of teaching chemistry is closely related and comes from the science of chemistry itself, and is based on the achievements of pedagogy and psychology.

IN task teaching methods include:

a) didactic rationale for the selection of scientific knowledge that contributes to the formation of students’ knowledge of the fundamentals of science.

b) the choice of forms and methods of training for the successful acquisition of knowledge, development of skills and abilities.

Let's start with the principles of learning.

Modern didactics
school chemistry

Course curriculum

LECTURE No. 5
Chemistry teaching methods

Classification of chemistry teaching methods

The word “method” is of Greek origin and translated into Russian means “the path of research, theory, teaching.” In the learning process, the method acts as an orderly way of interrelated activities between teachers and students to achieve certain educational goals.

The concept of “teaching method” is also widespread in didactics. The teaching method is component or a particular aspect of a teaching method.

Didactics and methodologists failed to create a single universal classification of teaching methods.

The teaching method presupposes, first of all, the teacher’s goal and his activities with the help of the means available to him. As a result, the student’s goal and his activity arise, which is carried out by the means available to him. Under the influence of this activity, the process of assimilation by the student of the studied content occurs, the intended goal, or learning result, is achieved. This result serves as a criterion for the suitability of the method for the purpose. So anyone teaching method is a system of purposeful actions of the teacher that organize cognitive and practical activities student, ensuring that he masters the content of education and thereby achieves learning goals.

The content of education to be mastered is heterogeneous. It includes components (knowledge about the world, experience of reproductive activity, experience of creative activity, experience of an emotional-value attitude towards the world), each of which has its own specifics. Numerous studies by psychologists and school experience indicate that Each type of content has a specific way of assimilating it.. Let's look at each of them.

It is known that mastering the first component of educational content – knowledge about the world, including about the world of substances, materials and chemical processes, requires, first of all, active perception, which initially proceeds as sensory perception: visual, tactile, auditory, gustatory, tactile. Perceiving not only real reality, but also symbols and signs that express it in the form of chemical concepts, laws, theories, formulas, equations of chemical reactions, etc., the student correlates them with real objects, recodes them into a language that corresponds to his experience. In other words, the student acquires chemical knowledge through various types of perception, awareness acquired information about the world and memorization her.

The second component of educational content is experience in implementing activities. To ensure this type of assimilation, the teacher organizes the reproductive activities of students according to a model, rule, algorithm (exercises, solving problems, drawing up equations of chemical reactions, performing laboratory work, etc.).

The listed methods of activity, however, cannot ensure the development of the third component of the content of school chemical education - creative experience. To master this experience, the student must independently solve problems that are new to him.

The last component of educational content is experience of emotional and value attitude towards the world - involves the formation of normative attitudes, value judgments, attitudes towards substances, materials and reactions, towards activities for their knowledge and safe use, etc.

Specific ways of nurturing relationships may vary. Thus, you can amaze students with the surprise of new knowledge, the effectiveness of a chemical experiment; attract by the possibility of demonstrating one’s own strengths, independent achievement of unique results, the significance of the objects being studied, the paradoxical nature of thoughts and phenomena. In all these specific ways, one thing is evident common feature– they influence the emotions of students, form an emotionally charged attitude towards the subject of study, and cause feelings. Without taking into account the emotional factor of the student, it is possible to teach knowledge and skills, but it is impossible to arouse interest and a constant positive attitude towards chemistry.

The classification of methods, which is based on the specific content of educational material and the nature of educational and cognitive activity, includes several methods: explanatory-illustrative method, reproductive method, problem presentation method, partial search or heuristic method, research method.

Explanatory and illustrative method

The teacher organizes the transfer of ready-made information and its perception by students using various means:

A) spoken word(explanation, conversation, story, lecture);

b) printed word(textbook, additional manuals, reading books, reference books, electronic sources of information, Internet resources);

V) visual aids(use of multimedia, demonstration of experiments, tables, graphs, diagrams, slide shows, educational films, television, video and filmstrips, natural objects in the classroom and during excursions);

G) practical demonstration of methods of activity(demonstration of samples of drawing up formulas, installation of the device, method problem solving, drawing up a plan, summary, annotations, examples of exercises, design of work, etc.).

Explanation. Explanation should be understood as a verbal interpretation of principles, patterns, essential properties of the object being studied, individual concepts, phenomena, processes. It is used in solving chemical problems, revealing the causes and mechanisms of chemical reactions, technological processes. Application of this method requires:

– precise and clear formulation of the essence of the problem, task, question;

– argumentation, evidence of consistent disclosure of cause-and-effect relationships;

– use of techniques of comparison, analogy, generalization;

– attracting bright, convincing examples from practice;

– impeccable logic of presentation.

Conversation. Conversation is a dialogic teaching method in which the teacher, by posing a carefully thought-out system of questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their understanding of what has already been learned.

Used to transfer new knowledge informative conversation. If a conversation precedes the study of new material, it is called introductory or introductory The purpose of such a conversation is to update students’ existing knowledge, to evoke positive motivation, a state of readiness to learn new things. Fixing conversation is used after studying new material in order to check the degree of its assimilation, systematization, and consolidation. During the conversation, questions can be addressed to one student ( individual conversation) or students of the whole class ( frontal conversation).

The success of the conversation largely depends on the nature of the questions: they should be short, clear, meaningful, formulated in such a way as to awaken the student’s thoughts. You should not ask double, suggestive questions or questions that force you to guess the answer. You should also not formulate alternative questions that require unambiguous answers like “yes” or “no”.

The advantages of the conversation include the fact that it:

– activates the work of all students;

– allows you to use their experience, knowledge, observations;

– develops attention, speech, memory, thinking;

– is a means of diagnosing the level of training.

Story. The story method involves a narrative presentation of educational material of a descriptive nature. There are a number of requirements for its use.

The story should:

– have a clear goal setting;

– include a sufficient number of vivid, imaginative, convincing examples, reliable facts;

– be sure to be emotionally charged;

– reflect elements of the teacher’s personal assessment and attitude to the presented facts, events, and actions;

– accompanied by writing on the board the corresponding formulas, reaction equations, as well as a demonstration (using multimedia, etc.) of various diagrams, tables, portraits of chemist scientists;

– illustrated with a corresponding chemical experiment or its virtual analogue, if required by safety regulations or if the school does not have the capacity to conduct it.

Lecture. A lecture is a monologue way of presenting voluminous material, necessary in cases where it is necessary to enrich the content of the textbook with new, additional information. It is used, as a rule, in high school and takes up the entire or almost the entire lesson. The advantage of a lecture is the ability to ensure completeness, integrity, and systematic perception of educational material by schoolchildren using intra- and interdisciplinary connections.

A school lecture on chemistry, just like a story, should be accompanied by a supporting summary and appropriate visual aids, a demonstration experiment, etc.

Lecture (from lat. lectio reading) is characterized by rigor of presentation and involves note-taking. The same requirements apply to it as to the method of explanation, but a number of additional ones are added:

– the lecture has a structure, it consists of an introduction, main part, conclusion;

The effectiveness of the lecture is significantly increased by using elements of discussion, rhetorical and problematic questions, comparing different points of view, expressing one’s own attitude to the problem under discussion or the position of the author.

The explanatory and illustrative method is one of the most economical ways to convey the generalized and systematized experience of mankind.

In recent years, a powerful information reservoir has been added to the sources of information - the Internet, a global telecommunications network covering all countries of the world. Many teachers consider the didactic properties of the Internet not only as a global information system, but also as a channel for transmitting information through multimedia technologies. Multimedia technologies (MMT) are information technologies that provide work with animated computer graphics, text, speech and high-quality sound, still or video images. We can say that multimedia is a synthesis of three elements: digital information (texts, graphics, animation), analog visual information (video, photographs, paintings, etc.) and analog information (speech, music, other sounds). The use of MMT promotes better perception, awareness and memorization of material, while, according to psychologists, the right hemisphere of the brain, responsible for associative thinking, intuition, and the birth of new ideas, is activated.

Reproductive method

For students to acquire skills and abilities, the teacher uses a system of assignments organizes activities of schoolchildren to apply the acquired knowledge. Students perform tasks according to the model shown by the teacher: solve problems, create formulas of substances and equations of reactions, perform laboratory work according to instructions, work with a textbook and other sources of information, reproduce chemical experiments. The number of exercises necessary to develop the skill depends on the complexity of the task and the student’s abilities. It has been established, for example, that mastering new chemical concepts or formulas of substances requires that they be repeated about 20 times over a certain period of time. Reproduction and repetition of the method of activity according to the teacher’s assignments is the main thing sign of the method, called reproductive.

Chemical experiment is one of the most important in teaching chemistry. It is divided into demonstration (teacher) experiment, laboratory and practical work (student experiment) and will be discussed below.

Algorithmization plays a major role in the implementation of reproductive methods. The student is given an algorithm, i.e. rules and order of actions, as a result of which he obtains a certain result, while mastering the actions themselves and their order. An algorithmic prescription can be related to the content of an educational subject (how to determine the composition of a chemical compound using a chemical experiment), to the content of educational activities (how to take notes various sources chemical knowledge) or to the content of the method of mental activity (how to compare different chemical objects). The use by students of an algorithm known to them on the instructions of the teacher characterizes reception reproductive method.

If students are tasked with finding and creating an algorithm for an activity themselves, this may require creative activity. In this case it is used research method.

Problem-based learning in chemistry

Problem-based learning is a type of developmental education that combines:

Systematic independent search activity of students with their assimilation of ready-made scientific conclusions (at the same time, the system of methods is built taking into account goal setting and the principle problematic);

The process of interaction between teaching and learning is focused on the formation of students’ cognitive independence, stability of learning motives and mental (including creative) abilities in the course of their assimilation of scientific concepts and methods of activity.

The goal of problem-based learning is to assimilate not only the results of scientific knowledge, a system of knowledge, but also the path itself, the process of obtaining these results, the formation of the student’s cognitive independence and the development of his creativity.

The developers of the international test PISA-2003 identify six skills necessary for solving cognitive problems. The student must have the skills:

a) analytical reasoning;

b) reasoning by analogy;

c) combinatorial reasoning;

d) distinguish between facts and opinions;

e) distinguish and correlate causes and effects;

e) state your decision logically.

The fundamental concept of problem-based learning is problematic situation. This is a situation in which the subject needs to solve some difficult problems for himself, but he lacks data and must look for it himself.

Conditions for a problem situation to arise

A problematic situation arises when students realize insufficiency of previous knowledge to explain a new fact.

For example, when studying the hydrolysis of salts, the basis for creating a problematic situation can be the study of the solution environment of various types of salts using indicators.

Problematic situations arise when students encounter the need to use previously acquired knowledge in new practical conditions. For example, the qualitative reaction known to students for the presence of a double bond in molecules of alkenes and dienes also turns out to be effective for determining the triple bond in alkynes.

A problematic situation easily arises when there is a contradiction between a theoretically possible way to solve a problem and the practical impracticability of the chosen method. For example, the generalized idea formed among students about the qualitative determination of halide ions using silver nitrate is not observed when this reagent acts on fluoride ions (why?), so the search for a solution to the problem leads to soluble calcium salts as a reagent on fluoride ions.

A problematic situation arises when there is the contradiction between the practically achieved result of completing an educational task and the students’ lack of knowledge for its theoretical justification. For example, the rule known to students from mathematics “the sum does not change if the places of the terms are changed” is not observed in some cases in chemistry. Thus, the production of aluminum hydroxide according to the ionic equation

Al 3+ + 3OH – = Al(OH) 3

depends on which reagent is added to the excess of another reagent. If a few drops of alkali are added to a solution of aluminum salt, a precipitate forms and persists. If a few drops of an aluminum salt solution are added to an excess of alkali, the precipitate that initially forms immediately dissolves. Why? Solving the problem that has arisen will allow us to move on to considering amphotericity.

D.Z. Knebelman names the following features of problem problems , questions.

The task should be of interest to you unusualness, surprise, non-standard. Information is especially attractive to students if it contains inconsistency, at least apparent. The problem task should cause astonishment, create an emotional background. For example, solving a problem that explains the dual position of hydrogen in the periodic table (why does this only element in the periodic table have two cells in two groups of elements that are sharply opposite in properties - alkali metals and halogens?).

Problem tasks must contain feasible cognitive or technical difficulty. It would seem that a solution is visible, but an annoying difficulty “gets in the way,” which inevitably causes a surge in mental activity. For example, the production of ball-and-stick or scale models of molecules of substances, reflecting the true position of their atoms in space.

The problem task provides elements of research, search various ways of performing it, their comparison. For example, the study of various factors that accelerate or slow down the corrosion of metals.

Logic for solving an educational problem:

1) analysis of the problem situation;

2) awareness of the essence of the difficulty - vision of the problem;

3) verbal formulation of the problem;

4) localization (limitation) of the unknown;

5) identification of possible conditions for a successful solution;

6) drawing up a plan to solve the problem (the plan necessarily includes a selection of solution options);

7) putting forward an assumption and substantiating a hypothesis (arises as a result of “mentally running ahead”);

8) proof of the hypothesis (carried out by deriving consequences from the hypothesis that are verified);

9) verification of the solution to the problem (comparison of the goal, the requirements of the task and the result obtained, compliance of theoretical conclusions with practice);

10) repetition and analysis of the solution process.

In problem-based learning, the teacher’s explanation and students’ performance of tasks and assignments that require reproductive activity are not excluded. But the principle of search activity dominates.

Method of problem presentation

The essence of the method is that the teacher, in the process of learning new material, shows an example of scientific research. He creates a problem situation, analyzes it and then carries out all the steps to solve the problem.

Students follow the logic of the solution, control the plausibility of the proposed hypotheses, the correctness of the conclusions, and the persuasiveness of the evidence. The immediate result of a problem presentation is the assimilation of the method and logic of solving a given problem or a given type of problem, but without the ability to apply them independently. Therefore, for problem presentation, the teacher can select problems that are more complex than those that are within the power of students to solve independently. For example, solving the problem of the dual position of hydrogen in the periodic table, identifying the philosophical foundations of the generality of the periodic law of D.I. Mendeleev and the theory of structure of A.M. Butlerov, evidence of the relativity of truth on the typology of chemical bonds, the theory of acids and bases.

Partial search or heuristic method

The method in which the teacher organizes the participation of schoolchildren in performing individual stages of problem solving is called partial search.

Heuristic conversation is an interconnected series of questions, most or less of which are small problems, which together lead to a solution to the problem posed by the teacher.

In order to gradually bring students closer to solving problems independently, they must first be taught how to carry out individual steps of this solution, individual stages of research, which are determined by the teacher.

For example, when studying cycloalkanes, the teacher creates a problematic situation: how can we explain that a substance of the composition C 5 H 10, which should be unsaturated and, therefore, decolorize a solution of bromine water, in practice does not decolorize it? Students suggest that, apparently, this substance is a saturated hydrocarbon. But saturated hydrocarbons must have 2 more hydrogen atoms in their molecule. Therefore, this hydrocarbon must have a structure different from alkanes. Students are asked to output structural formula unusual hydrocarbon.

Let us formulate problematic questions that create appropriate situations when studying D.I. Mendeleev’s periodic law in high school and initiate heuristic conversations.

1) All scientists who searched for a natural classification of elements started from the same premises. Why did the periodic law “obey” only D.I. Mendeleev?

2) In 1906 Nobel Committee considered two candidates for the Nobel Prize: Henri Moissan (“For what merit?” – the teacher asks an additional question) and D.I. Mendeleev. Who was awarded the Nobel Prize? Why?

3) In 1882, the Royal Society of London awarded D.I. Mendeleev the Devi Medal “for the discovery of periodic relations of atomic weights,” and in 1887 it awarded the same medal to D. Newlands “for the discovery of the periodic law.” How can we explain this illogicality?

4) Philosophers call Mendeleev’s discovery a “scientific feat.” A feat is a mortal risk in the name of a great goal. How and what did Mendeleev risk?

Chemical experiment
as a method of teaching the subject

Demonstration experiment sometimes called teacher's, because it is conducted by a teacher in a classroom (office or chemistry laboratory). However, this is not entirely accurate, because the demonstration experiment can also be carried out by a laboratory assistant or 1-3 students under the guidance of a teacher.

For such an experiment, special equipment is used that is not used in student experiments: a demonstration stand with test tubes, an overhead projector (Petri dishes are most commonly used as reactors in this case), a graphic projector (glass cuvettes are most commonly used as reactors in this case), a virtual experiment, which is demonstrated using a multimedia installation, computer, TV and VCR.

Sometimes the school lacks these technical means, and the teacher tries to make up for their lack with his own ingenuity. For example, in the absence of an overhead projector and the ability to demonstrate the interaction of sodium with water in Petri dishes, teachers often demonstrate this reaction effectively and simply. A crystallizer is placed on the demonstration table, into which water is poured, phenolphthalein is added and a small piece of sodium is dropped. The process is demonstrated through a large mirror that the teacher holds in front of him.

Teacher ingenuity will also be required to demonstrate models of technological processes that cannot be replicated in a school setting or demonstrated using multimedia. The teacher can demonstrate the “fluidized bed” model using a simple setup: a pile of semolina is poured onto a frame covered with gauze and placed on the ring of a laboratory stand, and an air flow from a volleyball chamber or a balloon is supplied from below.

Laboratory and practical work or student experiment play a vital role in teaching chemistry.

The difference between laboratory work and practical work lies primarily in their didactic purposes: laboratory work is carried out as an experimental fragment of a lesson when studying new material, and practical work is carried out at the end of studying the topic as a means of monitoring the formation of practical skills. The laboratory experiment got its name from Lat. laborare, which means “to work.” “Chemistry,” emphasized M.V. Lomonosov, “is in no way possible to learn without seeing the practice itself and without taking up chemical operations.” Laboratory work is a teaching method in which students, under the guidance of a teacher and according to a predetermined plan, perform experiments, certain practical tasks, using instruments and instruments, during which they acquire knowledge and experience of the activity.

Conducting laboratory work leads to the formation of skills and abilities that can be combined into three groups: laboratory skills and abilities, general organizational and labor skills, and the ability to record experiments performed.

Laboratory skills include: ability to carry out simple chemical experiments in a safe manner safety precautions, observe substances and chemical reactions.

Organizational and labor skills include: maintaining cleanliness and order on the desktop, compliance with safety regulations, economical use of funds, time and effort, and the ability to work in a team.

The skills to record experience include: sketching a device, recording observations, reaction equations and conclusions regarding the course and results of a laboratory experiment.

Among Russian chemistry teachers, the most common form of recording laboratory and practical work.

For example, when studying theory electrolytic dissociation laboratory work is being carried out to study the properties of strong and weak electrolytes using the example of the dissociation of hydrochloric and acetic acids. Acetic acid has a strong, unpleasant odor, so it is rational to conduct the experiment using the drop method. If special containers are not available, wells cut from tablet plates can be used as reactors. According to the teacher's instructions, students place one drop of solutions of concentrated hydrochloric acid and table vinegar in each of two wells, respectively. The presence of odor from both holes is recorded. Then three or four drops of water are added to each. The presence of odor in a dilute acetic acid solution and its absence in a hydrochloric acid solution are recorded (table).

Table

To develop experimental skills, the teacher must perform the following methodological techniques:

– formulate the goals and objectives of laboratory work;

– explain the order of operations, show the most complex techniques, sketch action diagrams;

– warn about possible errors and their consequences;

– observe and control the performance of work;

- summarize the results of the work.

It is necessary to pay attention to improving the ways of instructing students before performing laboratory work. In addition to oral explanations and demonstrations of working methods, written instructions, diagrams, demonstrations of film fragments, and algorithmic instructions are used for this purpose.

Research method in teaching chemistry

This method is most clearly implemented in students’ project activities. A project is a creative (research) final work. The introduction of project activities into school practice has the goal of developing the intellectual abilities of students through mastering the algorithm scientific research and developing experience in carrying out a research project.

Achieving this goal is carried out as a result of solving the following didactic tasks:

– to form motives for abstract and research activities;

– teach the algorithm of scientific research;

– to develop experience in carrying out a research project;

– ensure the participation of schoolchildren in various forms of presenting research works;

– organize pedagogical support research activities and inventive level of student developments.

Such activities are personally oriented in nature, and the motives for students to carry out research projects are: cognitive interest, orientation towards a future profession and higher polytechnic education, satisfaction from the work process, the desire to assert themselves as an individual, prestige, the desire to receive an award, the opportunity to enter a university, etc.

The topics of research work in chemistry can be different, in particular:

1) chemical analysis of objects environment: analysis of acidity of soils, food, natural waters; determination of water hardness from different sources, etc. (for example, “Determination of fat in oilseeds”, “Determination of the quality of soap by its alkalinity”, “Analysis of food quality”);

2) studying the influence of various factors on the chemical composition of some biological fluids (skin excrement, saliva, etc.);

3) study of the influence of chemicals on biological objects: germination, growth, development of plants, behavior of lower animals (euglena, ciliates, hydra, etc.).

4) study of the influence of various conditions on the occurrence of chemical reactions (especially enzymatic catalysis).

Literature

Babansky Yu.K.. How to optimize the learning process. M., 1987; Didactics of secondary school. Ed. M.N. Skatkina. M., 1982; Dewey D. Psychology and pedagogy of thinking. M., 1999;
Kalmykova Z.I. Psychological principles of developmental education. M., 1979; Clarin M.V.. Innovations in global pedagogy: learning through inquiry, play and discussion. Riga, 1998; Lerner I.Ya. Didactic foundations of teaching methods. M., 1981; Makhmutov M.I.. Organization of problem-based learning at school. M., 1977; Basics of didactics. Ed. B.P. Esipova, M., 1967; Window B. Fundamentals of problem-based learning. M., 1968; Pedagogy: Textbook for students of pedagogical institutes. Ed. Yu.K. Babansky. M., 1988; Rean A.A., Bordovskaya N.V.,
Rozum S.N.. Psychology and pedagogy. St. Petersburg, 2002; Improving the content of education at school. Ed. I.D. Zvereva, M.P. Kashina. M., 1985; Kharlamov I.F.. Pedagogy. M., 2003; Shelpakova N.A. and etc. Chemical experiment at school and at home. Tyumen: TSU, 2000.

Modern approaches to teaching chemistry at school

Chemistry teacher Zhmaka L.V.

In education today we are witnessing the modernization of education. In accordance with this, the main results of the activities of a comprehensive school are not knowledge itself, but a set of social key competencies in the main areas of life. School graduates must enter the “big life” with a certain set of social competencies: political, intellectual, civil law, information. Teaching science contributes to the formation of information concepts and the development of critical thinking in students. An important point in understanding knowledge, students should begin to accept personal meaning, which leads to self-knowledge. Chemistry as a science in the context of global problems of humanity is extremely relevant. The younger generation should develop scientific picture world and knowledge of chemistry becomes fundamental. The development of a chemical picture of the world is important for the formation of a scientific worldview, a culture of environmental thinking and behavior.

The main pedagogical goals of knowledge are:

improving the quality of knowledge

ensuring a differentiated approach in the educational process

providing conditions for children's adaptation in the modern information society.

Any form of interactivity involves active interaction all students. The teacher and the student are passionate about the same process: understand the lesson, extract knowledge from it for themselves, develop the skills of an active life position, critically understand the situation, find the truth, accept the right decision. The teacher, in essence, is the organizer of learning and its leader. His task is to approach the learning process in such a way that the student becomes interested and feels a desire to learn. The process of cognition consists in the acquisition of knowledge by the student himself. During the lesson, an attitude is created in which students positively prepare themselves to perceive new knowledge. To start learning new material, the teacher “launches” interesting fact, which will arouse students’ interest in perceiving the material. Problems enliven the student and force him to remember instructive facts. These techniques include simulation methods that can be played out in the classroom. These are: role-playing games, discussions, debates, brainstorming, problem discussion, round table, search for truth, free microphone, situation analysis, decision tree, please speak, trial, etc.

In education today we are witnessing the modernization of education. In accordance with this, the main results of the activities of a comprehensive school are not knowledge itself, but a set of social key competencies in the main areas of life. School graduates must enter the “big life” with a certain set of social competencies: political, intellectual, civil law, information. Teaching science contributes to the formation of information concepts and the development of critical thinking in students. An important point in comprehending knowledge should be the acceptance of personal meaning among students, which leads to self-knowledge.

The competency-based approach is one of the new directions for the development of educational content in Ukraine and developed countries of the world. The very acquisition of vital competencies gives a person the opportunity to navigate in modern society and forms the individual’s ability to quickly respond to the demands of the time.

The introduction of a competency-based approach is an important condition for improving the quality of education. This is especially true for theoretical knowledge, which must cease to be dead baggage and become a practical means of explaining phenomena and solving practical situations and problems.

The main value becomes not the assimilation of a sum of information, but the development by students of skills that would allow them to determine their goals, make decisions and act in typical and non-standard situations.

The competency-based approach to education is associated with student-oriented and active approaches to education, as it concerns the student’s personality. The system of competencies in education consists of: key, i.e. subject-specific competencies - the student acquires them in the process of studying a particular subject

Therefore, competence should be understood as a given requirement, the norm of educational preparation of students, and competence - as his actually formed personal qualities and minimal experience.

School subject“chemistry” includes knowledge about chemical phenomena, information of a philosophical and social nature, modern chemical technologies, environmental problems and human health. Chemistry, experimental science. Students become familiar with substances and their properties, solve experimental and computational problems. Studying the subject allows you to orient children towards personal self-realization, where the student can express his life position and value guidelines. But this should be facilitated by a variety of methods and forms of training. It is important to create a situation of success in the lesson, conduct discussions, debates, solve a problem or find a way out of a situation. If you skillfully create conditions when presenting knowledge, then the material can turn from boring into even an event. In the learning process, the main thing is not to convey all the information at once, but to help them comprehend it and give students the opportunity to take part in predicting this information themselves. The search for knowledge engages children with empathy and a desire to learn. Problem situations are the impetus for a situation of success. These classes always have a collaborative and intellectual atmosphere. The desire to learn encourages the student to use additional literature, reference books and the Internet.

A competent specialist, a competent person is a very profitable prospect. A formula for competence is proposed. What are its main components? Firstly, knowledge, but not just information, but information that changes quickly, is dynamic, of various types, which you need to be able to find, weed out unnecessary information, and translate it into the experience of your own activities. Secondly, the ability to use this knowledge in a specific situation; understanding how this knowledge can be obtained. Thirdly, an adequate assessment of oneself, the world, one’s place in the world, specific knowledge, whether it is necessary or unnecessary for one’s activities, as well as the method of obtaining or using it. This formula can logically be expressed in this way:

Competence = mobility of knowledge + flexibility of method + criticality of thinking

To avoid adverse impacts on the environment, to avoid making environmental mistakes and to create situations dangerous to health and life, modern people must have basic environmental knowledge and a new ecological type of thinking.

Ways to develop competencies

What should a teacher be guided by to carry them out? First of all, regardless of the technology that the teacher uses, he must remember the following rules:

It is not the subject that shapes the personality, but the teacher through his activities related to the study of the subject.

Help students master the most productive methods of educational and cognitive activity, teach them to learn.

It is necessary to use the question “why?” more often to teach how to think causally: understanding cause-and-effect relationships is a prerequisite for developmental learning.

Remember that it is not the one who retells it that knows, but the one who uses it in practice.

To teach students to think and act independently.

Develop creative thinking. Solve cognitive problems in several ways, practice creative tasks more often.

It is necessary to show students the prospects for their learning more often.

During the learning process, be sure to take into account individual characteristics each student, combine students with the same level of knowledge into differentiated subgroups.

Study and take into account the life experiences of students, their interests, and developmental characteristics.

The teacher himself must be informed about the latest scientific developments in his subject.

Teach in such a way that the student understands that knowledge is a vital necessity for him.

Explain to students that every person will find his place in life if he learns everything that is necessary to realize his life plans.

Competency-based approach to teaching chemistry

The educational process is carried out through lessons, electives, and individual classes.

Finding the answer yourself is a small victory for the child in learning complex world nature, giving confidence in one’s capabilities, creating positive emotions, eliminating unconscious resistance to the learning process.

The independent discovery of the slightest grain of knowledge by a student gives him great pleasure, allows him to feel his capabilities, and elevates him in his own eyes. The student asserts himself as an individual. The student keeps this positive range of emotions in his memory and strives to experience it again and again. This is how interest arises not just in the subject, but what is more valuable - in the process of cognition itself - cognitive interest, motivation for knowledge.

“No interest - no success!”

"The Riddle of King Solomon." Unravel the secret letter of King Solomon (Qualitative reactions to iron compounds. Grade 10);

“The mystery of the yacht “Call of the Sea”.” Corrosion of metals - 10, 11 classes. Unravel the mystery of the death of a millionaire's expensive yacht;

The work of a detective agency in the topic: “Hydrochloric acid” - grade 10, in the topic “Classification is not organic matter" - 8th grade;

Solve the chemical mistake of A. Conan Doyle when describing the Hound of the Baskervilles from the work of the same name. "Phosphorus" - 10th grade.

Problematic issue, problematic situation

"Glucose" - 10th grade. Why does bread acquire a sweet taste if chewed for a long time?

Why does ironed laundry stay dirty longer?

“Amphotericity of amino acids” - 9th grade. “You are familiar with the animal chameleon from biology. Is there something similar in chemistry?

"Alcohols" - 9th grade. How to make rubber galoshes from alcohol?;

“Aldehydes, acids” - 9th grade “It’s all about the ants.” What do aldehydes, carboxylic acids and ants have in common?

Oxygen-containing organic compounds. Thinking is a mystery. The laboratory assistant prepared the reagents and left the office. Here trihydric alcohol, coming off the shelf, walked up to the table and took away his reagent. Seeing this, Glucose was indignant: “What are you doing, why are you taking someone else’s, this is my recognizer!” “Let me, let me intervene in your dispute,” said Formaldehyde, “This is my substance.” What is the essence of the dispute?

Conflicting facts

“Dual position of hydrogen in PSHE” - 8th grade. Why does hydrogen rank in the D.I. table? Mendeleev two places: among typical metals and among typical non-metals?

When studying the topic “Electrolytic dissociation”. Distilled water does not conduct electricity, but regular tap water does.

Why did D.I. Mendeleev compile PSHE for chemists, but physicists rightfully use it in their research?

Skills for safe behavior with substances

We live in an era of scientific and technological progress. Technological progress should be aimed at improving human life. However, the environment, including the household environment, has changed dramatically. Substances of artificial origin have appeared in the air, water, and food. Most of them are toxic, that is, poisonous.

Within the framework of social competencies, the requirements for appropriate functional literacy are also determined - the formation of chemically safe behavior in the surrounding world. A person receives his first knowledge about chemicals and their handling at school. How should we treat them to maintain the health and cleanliness of the world around us? Chemistry lessons provide answers to these questions. Practical work develops skills in working with chemicals.

There are a lot of lessons in the chemistry course in which we study the properties of different substances and always name and show substances that are used at home and precautions for working with them. We teach children to read labels and know examples of the safe use of chemicals in everyday life.

Interactive activities provide not only an increase in knowledge, skills, methods of activity and communication, but also the discovery of new opportunities for students.

"Key Question Method"

Heuristic conversation- this is a certain series of questions that direct students’ thoughts and answers in the right direction. In essence, children discover certain facts and phenomena.

I love this method as it promotes creative, creative thinking and logical thinking, students develop productive approaches to mastering information, the fear of making the wrong assumption disappears (since an error does not entail a negative assessment) and a trusting relationship with the teacher is established.

Interactive learning increases the motivation and involvement of participants in solving the problems under discussion, which gives an emotional impetus to the subsequent search activity of the participants. In interactive learning, everyone is successful, everyone contributes to the overall result of the work, the learning process becomes more meaningful and exciting.

Presenting educational material using the method of heuristic conversation, the teacher from time to time addresses the class with questions that encourage students to engage in the search process.

We use the following words: “maybe”, “suppose”, “let’s say”, “possibly”, “what if...”

1. It is no coincidence that hydrogen occupies such an honorable place in the Periodic Table. It has unique physical and chemical properties, which gives it the right to be called element No. 1. Why did it get this right?

2. Why is water a liquid? How are beautiful patterns formed on glass?

3. About 100 years ago N.G. Chernyshevsky said about aluminum that this metal is destined for a great future, that aluminum is the metal of socialism. He turned out to be a visionary: in the 20th century, this element became the basis of many structural materials. The changes in the cost of aluminum are striking. How can we explain the wide range of aluminum uses?

Aluminum is the most common metal on Earth (it accounts for more than 8% of the earth’s crust), and it began to be used in technology relatively recently (at the Paris Exhibition of 1855, aluminum was demonstrated as the rarest metal, which cost 10 times more than gold). In the 19th century aluminum was worth its weight in gold. Thus, at the international congress of chemists, Mendeleev was given a valuable gift as a sign of his scientific merits - a large aluminum mug. Think about why aluminum was so highly valued? Why has the price of aluminum fallen so much over time?

The new metal turned out to be very beautiful and similar to silver, but much lighter. It is these properties of aluminum that determine its high cost: late XIX-beginning of the 20th century aluminum was valued higher than gold. For a long time it remained a museum rarity.

Problem situation- this is a difficulty or contradiction that arose in the process of performing a certain educational task, the solution of which requires not only existing knowledge, but also new ones. The situation can be addressed throughout the lesson or part of it.

When presenting a problematic material, the teacher guides the students’ cognitive process, poses questions that focus students’ attention on the inconsistency of the phenomenon being studied and makes them think. Before the teacher gives an answer to the question posed, students can already give a mental answer and compare it with the course of judgment and the teacher’s conclusion.

2. When studying the composition of air. Think about how to experimentally prove the composition of air. How to start this?

3. For example, the teacher demonstrates allotropic modifications of sulfur or oxygen and offers to explain why they are possible

4. Constructing a hypothesis based on a known theory and then testing it. For example, will acetic acid, as an organic acid, exhibit the general properties of acids? Students make a guess, the teacher performs an experiment, and then a theoretical explanation is given.

5. The most successfully found problem situation should be considered one in which the problem is formulated by the students themselves. For example, when studying chemical bonding, students can independently pose a problem - why metal atoms enter into a chemical reaction with non-metals

6. Why did the light on the device light up when testing a solution of a substance for electrical conductivity?

Methods of pedagogical activity

In teaching activities, a variety of teaching methods are used, guided by pedagogical expediency. The choice of methods is carried out on the basis of the objectives of the lesson, the content of the material being studied and the development goals of students in the learning process. To implement the basic principles of the competency-based approach and the rational combination of individual and collective education, the most effective methods of organizing training are selected.

Self-conducted by students chemical experiments, research activities.

Logical methods (organization of logical operations):

Inductive (classify chemical reactions).

Deductive (having a general formula, create an algorithm for solving specific chemical problems of the same type).

Analytical (for example, when studying reactions).

Problem-search methods (problem competencies are formed).

Problematic presentation of knowledge. Used when students do not have sufficient knowledge to actively participate in solving a problem. For example, when studying the theory of the structure of organic substances A.M. Butlerov. 9th, 11th grades.

Heuristic method. Search (heuristic conversation). It is carried out on the basis of a problem situation created by the teacher. For example, what does hydrogen turn into when it “takes” electrons from lithium? 8th grade. "Oxidation state".

Research method. Used when students have sufficient knowledge to make scientific conjectures. For example, when studying alkali metals, it is proposed to identify the role of water in the reactions of interaction of alkali metals with solutions of various salts. 9th grade.

Creating a situation of success in learning is a prerequisite for competency-based learning.

Creative tasks. Creating presentations, for example, “Application of sulfuric acid in the national economy” 9th grade, “Chemistry and cosmetics” 11th grade.

Creative tasks. Creation of projects “Our kitchen is a chemical laboratory” “Home first aid kit”

Statement of a problem or creation of a problematic situation. Based on the material they read, students themselves create a problematic question.

What should a teacher be able to do?

See and understand the real life interests of your students;

Show respect for your students, for their judgments and questions, even if they seem at first glance difficult and provocative, as well as for their independent trial and error;

Feel the problematic nature of the situations being studied;

Connect the material being studied to the everyday life and interests of students characteristic of their age;

Consolidate knowledge and skills in educational and extracurricular practice;

Plan a lesson using all the variety of forms and methods of educational work, and, above all, all types of independent work (group and individual), dialogic and design-research methods;

Set goals and evaluate the degree of their achievement together with students;

Use the “Creating a Situation of Success” method perfectly;

Evaluate students’ achievements not only by grades, but also by meaningful characteristics;

Assess the progress of the class as a whole and individual students not only in the subject, but also in the development of certain vital qualities;

See gaps not only in knowledge, but also in readiness for life.

Information system concept

The information space attracts a lot of attention from researchers. Information technologies are penetrating various spheres of life, and education cannot remain on the sidelines. The success of modern man in professional activity often depends on his ability to find and process the necessary information. Modern technologies firmly entered into our lives. The role of integrated knowledge is also important. When teaching teenagers to work with information technologies on the Internet, both traditional methods are used - conversation, story, explanation, independent study, accompanied by a visual display on the computer, supplemented by the use of various visual aids - tables, posters, and various new forms of organization. educational activities of students: project methods, group work, the use of virtual methods, distance learning, etc., which cannot be limited by the classroom system,

The main concept of the article “Teaching Chemistry in Secondary School” is a presentation of one’s own teaching experience, providing assistance to teachers on methods of teaching chemistry at school. Perhaps, with greater or lesser success, it can be applied to teaching other natural sciences(physics, biology, geography) and mathematics. In the overwhelming majority of cases, the effective implementation of professional activities requires both the ability to carry out this activity and the desire to carry it out (motivation).

This article examines the role of interactive techniques in teaching. The author introduces various forms using these techniques in chemistry lessons.

We live in an era of rapid growth of scientific knowledge. From the point of view of system analysis, the educational process in secondary school and scientific knowledge are complex, endless, interacting systems, and the educational process is included as a subsystem in the system of scientific knowledge. Therefore, the rapid growth of scientific knowledge should inevitably lead to natural variability in the educational process in secondary school, and improving the quality and efficiency of the educational process, in turn, will increase the rate of growth of scientific knowledge.

The laws on education of the Russian Federation indicate the need to improve education, improve the quality of educational work, and purposefully develop the creative abilities of students. Also K.D. Ushinsky, the founder of scientific pedagogy in Russia, wrote that teaching is work full of activity and thought. But it is the active activity and mental creative side of learning that is not sufficiently updated in the traditional organization of training. Increasing the effectiveness of the lesson is one of the urgent tasks of improving the quality of the educational process.

Who is he today - a modern teacher: a source of information, a carrier of innovation, a consultant, a moderator, an observer, a resource, a reference book, an adviser - one who teaches others or constantly learns himself? What kind of a modern teacher is he: creative, self-critical, enterprising, stress-resistant, knowledgeable, psychologist?

The times of encyclopedists with an extensive but constant store of knowledge are over. In the century information technologies With constantly growing market conditions, specialists who are able to find, using multimedia, and analyze rapidly changing information are valued. Therefore, the goal of modern education is not memorizing a large amount of factual data, but teaching effective ways to obtain and analyze available information. Considering that learning is a purposeful process of interaction between a teacher and a student, discourse is the active principle in the pedagogical system. The “teacher-student” system has the potential to increase the activity of students, and the effectiveness of the educational process depends on coordination and synchronization in the actions of both parties. One of the conditions for increasing the effectiveness of teaching is the establishment of a favorable psychological climate in the learning process, that is, a change in the teacher’s position in the educational process is necessary. The main task of the teacher is not the transfer of knowledge, but the organization of the activities of students. The teacher should act as a mentor and organizer of a constantly changing learning environment, and not as a mere carrier of information. The role of the student becomes more complicated, since he must turn from a passive consumer of ready-made knowledge into an active researcher, interested not so much in obtaining specific knowledge, but in new technologies and methods of research and obtaining the desired result. These can be interactions "teacher - student", "student - student", "student - educational book", "teacher - student - educational material".

New knowledge is better perceived when students clearly understand the tasks facing them and show interest in the work ahead. Setting goals and objectives always takes into account the students’ need to demonstrate independence, their desire for self-affirmation, and their thirst for learning new things. If there are conditions in the lesson to satisfy such needs, then students get involved in the work with interest.

My experience in secondary school has shown that in developing interest in a subject one cannot rely entirely on the content of the material being studied. Reducing the origins of cognitive interest only to the content side of the material only leads to situational interest in the lesson. If students are not involved in active activities, then any meaningful material will arouse in them a contemplative interest in the subject, which will not be a cognitive interest.

At school, students come to my lesson with their attention switched, so the main task for me as a teacher is to switch the brain path to the perception of chemical material. The student’s brain is designed in such a way that knowledge rarely penetrates into its depth; it often remains on the surface and is therefore fragile. A powerful incentive in this case is interest.

The development of cognitive interest is a complex task, the solution of which determines the effectiveness of a student’s educational activities. Conscious work begins with students understanding and accepting the learning tasks that are set before them. Most often, this situation is created when repeating what was learned earlier. Then the students themselves formulate the goal of the upcoming work. In connection with the need to improve academic performance, the development of students’ cognitive interests in the learning process has great importance for any academic subject. The desire of every teacher is to instill interest in their subject, but the chemistry program in high school, which promotes memorization, does not always develop the creative thinking activity of students.

No matter how good knowledge of the subject or high erudition the teacher has, a traditional lesson does little to contribute to the emotional mood of students for further perception of educational material, activation of their mental activity, development and realization of their potential mental abilities. The most active forms, means and methods of teaching (frontal experiments, research activities, lessons-competitions, computer technologies).

Every student has a passion for discovery and research. Even a low-performing student discovers interest in a subject when he discovers something. Therefore, in my lessons I often have to conduct frontal experiments. For example, 9th grade students on the topic “Chemical Properties of Oxygen” experimentally find out and discover the conditions for better combustion of some simple and complex substances.

The location of the frontal experiment is not an end in itself for me, but it is aimed at the students’ mental actions. Frontal observations convince students that each of them can make a discovery of something, the impetus for which is given by experience.

I also conduct research lessons with students, where the subject of their research is the rediscovery of what has already been discovered in science, and the students’ performance of research work is the knowledge for them of something not yet known. During the lesson, students themselves accumulate facts, put forward a hypothesis, conduct experiments, and create a theory. Tasks of this nature arouse increased interest in children, which leads to a deep and lasting assimilation of knowledge. The result of the work in the lesson is the conclusions that the children independently obtained as an answer to the teacher’s problematic question. For example, we identify the essence, mechanism and reason for the occurrence of ion exchange reactions, based on the theory of electrolytic dissociation with 9th grade students. Since an integral part of chemistry is the implementation of practical work, I almost completely moved away from the textbook and its instructions and invite the children to suggest the procedure for performing the work and all the equipment necessary for this. If a student finds it difficult to complete the work, he can use the textbook. I believe that this teaches children to think independently, and to consider the lesson as a research method.

To correlate new information with the system of previous knowledge, I work with generalizing diagrams and tables in lessons. For example, while studying the topic “Special chemical properties of nitric and sulfuric acids” in grade 9, we draw up diagrams with the help of which, using the method of comparison, we explain the oxidative properties of these acids depending on their concentration when they interact with non-metals and with metals of varying activity.

Chemistry has lessons that involve problem solving. I teach kids how to solve problems using an algorithm and create it themselves. For example, in the 11th grade, students solve all problems on the topic “Solutions. Methods of expressing the concentration of solutions” using an algorithm. I pay special attention to solving high-quality problems in organic and inorganic chemistry, where children learn to think and apply knowledge in practice. I believe that even in weak classes a good result is visible. I see one of the ways to develop cognitive interest by using various types of knowledge such as crosswords, puzzles, and chainwords in a general lesson. Such tasks contribute to the assimilation of certain chemical quantities, concepts, laws, memorization of the names of scientists, names and purposes of instruments and laboratory equipment.

To enhance the cognitive activity of students in the classroom and develop their interest in learning, I conduct competition lessons. Such lessons help improve academic performance, because not wanting to lag behind their friends and let their team down, students begin to read more on the subject and practice solving problems. Such lessons lead to diversity in the learning process.

In order for students to have sufficient background knowledge, without which they cannot advance in their studies, I use work with reference notes. Basic notes allow the student to draw up a plan for studying a chemical phenomenon or law, and also, if necessary, very quickly complete and repeat the material covered in subsequent courses. For example, a note on the topic “Chemical Kinetics” can be used in both 9th and 11th grades.

In order to test and correct students' knowledge on any topic, I work with test cards. They allow me to see the level of training of students, their level of preparation.

I consider one of the interesting forms of organizing the collective and cognitive activities of students to be a public review of knowledge, which is a test for them. The review develops the active cooperation of children in their main work - learning, helps to create an atmosphere of goodwill in the youth team, foster mutual assistance, and form a responsible attitude not only to their studies, but also to the successes of their classmates. Knowledge reviews deepen children's knowledge of the subject and serve to reinforce larger topics or the most complex sections of the chemistry course. For example, in the 11th grade I conduct reviews on the topics “Basic classes are not organic compounds", "Periodic law and the Periodic table of chemical elements D.I. Mendeleev", "Atomic structure and chemical bonding"; in the 10th grade - "Hydrocarbons", "Oxygen-containing organic compounds"; in the 9th grade - "Theory of electrolytic dissociation", "Metals", "Non-metals".

The best place to establish a dialogue between teacher and students is also a lesson using computer technology. It is in such a lesson that it is possible to ignite the feelings of students. And this is our relationship with the guys to each other, to school, to family, to the team, to knowledge. Our emotional relationships to the world constitute beliefs, the soul of a person, the core of his personality.

The computer as a teaching tool is now becoming an indispensable tool for teachers. This problem seems relevant, since the pedagogical capabilities of the computer as a teaching tool in many respects far exceed the capabilities of traditional means. The use of computer technology makes it possible to produce a significant number of visual aids, print out lesson texts, assessments, tests and much more, increasing the visibility of the material being studied. For example, when studying the topic “Structure of the Atom”, you can use a fragment of the program “Chemistry, grade 8”, which allows you to consider the structure of the atom, the model of electron distribution over energy levels, as well as mechanisms of chemical bond formation, models of chemical reactions, and much more. This use becomes even more relevant when studying the course "Organic Chemistry", which is based on the spatial structure of many organic substances. This seems extremely important, since students usually do not develop the idea of ​​molecules as spatial structures. The traditional image of molecules of substances in one plane leads to the loss of an entire dimension and does not stimulate the development of spatial image. A significant achievement of computer technology in this matter is also the fact that the structure of molecules can be viewed from different angles - in dynamics.

The use of multimedia programs makes chemical experiments more accessible. For example, in the school chemistry curriculum there are no experiments with harmful substances, although the demonstration of some of them has educational value: there are experiments that formed the basis of historical discoveries and are necessary to form a complete picture of the development of chemical knowledge (production of oxygen, hydrogen), the properties of individual substances need to be known not in words, since they form the rules of correct behavior in extreme situations (the interaction of sulfur with mercury). The use of CDs to demonstrate a chemical experiment can also reduce the time required to demonstrate long-term experience (oil distillation) and facilitate the preparation of equipment. This does not mean that experimentation should be completely replaced by demonstration. So, before starting practical work, I prepare for it with my students using the “analyst” program (author - A.N. Levkin). This allows you to work out the sequence of experiments and saves reagents.

Computer technologies provide ample opportunities for studying chemical production. When we consider these issues, we as teachers rely on static diagrams. Multimedia programs allow you to demonstrate all processes in dynamics and look inside the reactor.

At our school, based on ready-made didactic materials, I created a set of tests on all topics of the school chemistry course. I use them to test my initial understanding of the material or as a test on theoretical questions.

The use of computer technologies not only improves the quality of subject teaching, but also develops such personal qualities of a school graduate as professionalism, mobility and competitiveness, which will make him more successful in further studies in other educational institutions.

All my actions when using visual and technical teaching aids in the learning process are aimed at creating students’ knowledge, and the information that I give in lessons and extracurricular activities leads to the development of their cognitive interest and increases the efficiency of the educational process.

The state, I believe, should be interested in using human potential as efficiently as possible, i.e. that the appropriate positions are filled with people who can use the relevant responsibilities properly.

When it comes to pedagogy, we must understand that the fates of specific people who may be placed on the “Procrustean bed” of the existing educational system are on the scales.

Bibliography

1. Identification, support and development of intellectually gifted children. Collection of the best works of participants of the XII All-Russian correspondence competition of teachers "Educational Potential of Russia" 2013/2014 academic year. - Obninsk: MAN: "Intelligence of the Future", 2014. - 134 p.
2. Evstafieva E.I., Titova I.M. Professional education: development of learning motivation / Chemistry at school, No. 7, 2012. - p. 20 - 25.
3. Markushev V.A., Bezrukova V.S., Kuzmina G.A. Scientific and pedagogical basis for the development of the methodology vocational training. Third pedagogical readings. - St. Petersburg, UMC of the Committee on Education, 2011. - 2011. - 298 p.

EXPLANATORY NOTE

When passing the candidate exam, the graduate student (applicant) must demonstrate an understanding of the patterns driving forces and the dynamics of the development of chemical science, evolution and the basic structural elements of chemical knowledge, including fundamental methodological ideas, theories and the natural scientific picture of the world; deep knowledge of programs, textbooks, educational and methodological aids in chemistry for secondary schools and the ability to analyze them; reveal the main ideas and methodological options for presenting the most important sections and topics of the chemistry course at the basic, advanced and in-depth levels of its study, disciplines of the chemical block in secondary and high school; deep understanding of the prospects for the development of chemical education in educational institutions various types; the ability to analyze one’s own work experience, the work experience of practicing teachers and innovative teachers. Those taking the candidate exam must be proficient in innovative pedagogical technologies for teaching chemistry and chemical unit disciplines, and be familiar with modern trends development of chemical education in the Republic of Belarus and the world as a whole, know the system of school and university chemical experiments.

The program provides a list of only basic literature. When preparing for the exam, the applicant (graduate student) uses curricula, textbooks, collections of problems and popular scientific literature on chemistry for secondary schools, reviews current problems development of chemistry, as well as articles on the methods of teaching it in scientific and methodological journals (“Chemistry at school”, “Chemistry: teaching methods”, “Chemistry: problems of laying out”, “Adukatsiya i vyhavanne”, “Vestsi BDPU”, etc.) and additional literature on the topic of your research.

primary goal of this program - to identify in applicants the formation of a system of methodological views and beliefs, conscious knowledge and practical skills that ensure the effective implementation of the chemistry teaching process in educational institutions of all types and levels.

Methodological preparation involves the implementation of the following tasks:

• formation of scientific competence and methodological culture postgraduate students and candidates for scientific degrees pedagogical sciences, mastery of modern technologies for teaching chemistry;
• developing in applicants the ability to critically analyze their teaching activities, study and generalize advanced teaching experience;
• formation of a research culture of applicants for the organization, management and implementation of the chemical education process.

When passing the candidate exam, the examinee must discover understanding of the patterns, driving forces and dynamics of the development of chemical science, evolution and the basic structural elements of chemical knowledge, including fundamental methodological ideas, theories and the natural scientific picture of the world; deep knowledge programs, textbooks, educational and methodological aids in chemistry for secondary and higher schools and the ability to analyze them; reveal the main ideas and methodological options for presenting the most important sections and topics of the chemistry course at the basic, advanced and in-depth levels of its study, as well as the most important courses chemical disciplines at the university; understanding the prospects for the development of chemical education in educational institutions of various types; the ability to analyze one’s own work experience, the work experience of practicing teachers and innovative teachers.

The person taking the candidate exam must own innovative pedagogical technologies for teaching chemistry, be familiar with modern trends in the development of chemical education in the Republic of Belarus and the world as a whole, know the system and structure of school and university chemical workshops.

Applicants must know all the functions of a chemistry teacher and a teacher of chemical unit disciplines and the psychological and pedagogical conditions for their implementation; be able to apply them in practical activities.

Section I.

General issues of theory and methods of teaching chemistry

Introduction

Goals and objectives of the training course on methods of teaching chemistry.

The structure of the content of the methodology for teaching chemistry as a science, its methodology. Short story development of chemistry teaching methods. The idea of ​​the unity of the educational, educational and developmental functions of teaching chemistry as a leading one in the methodology. Construction of a training course on methods of teaching chemistry.

Contemporary problems of learning and teaching. Ways to improve chemistry teaching. Continuity in teaching chemistry in secondary and higher schools.

1.1 Goals and objectives of teaching chemistry in secondary and higher schools.

Model of a specialist and content of training. Dependence of learning content on learning goals. Features of teaching chemistry as a major and as a non-core academic discipline.

Scientific and methodological foundations of chemistry.Methodology in philosophy and natural science. Principles, stages and methods of scientific knowledge. Empirical and theoretical levels of chemical research. General scientific methods of knowledge in chemistry. Particular methods of chemical science. Chemical experiment, its structure, goals and significance in the study of substances and phenomena. Features of modern chemical experiment as a method of scientific knowledge.

Construction of a chemistry course based on the transfer of the science system to the education system. Basic teachings of chemical science and intrascientific connections between them. The influence of interscientific connections on the content of the academic discipline. Showing interdisciplinary connections between courses in chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology, geology and other fundamental sciences. The connection of chemistry with the sciences of the humanities.

A set of factors that determine the selection of the content of the academic subject of chemistry and didactic requirements for it: the social order of society, the level of development of chemical science, age characteristics of students, working conditions of educational institutions.

Modern ideas implemented in the content of the academic subject of chemistry and disciplines of the chemical block: methodologization, ecologization, economization, humanization, integrativeness.

Analysis and justification of the content and construction of a chemistry course in a mass secondary school, disciplines of the chemical block in the system higher education. The most important blocks of content, their structure and intra-subject connections. Theories, laws, systems of concepts, facts, methods of chemical science and their interaction in school course chemistry. Information about the contribution to science of outstanding chemists.

Systematic and non-systematic chemistry courses. Propaedeutic chemistry courses. Integrative science courses. The concept of a modular structure of content. The concept of linear and concentric course construction.

Standards, chemistry programs for secondary and higher schools as a normative document regulating the education of secondary school students and students, the structure and methodological apparatus of the program standard.

1.2. Education and development of personality in the process of teaching chemistry

The concept of student-centered learning by I.S. Yakimanskaya in the light of the idea of ​​humanization of chemistry teaching. Humanistic orientation of the school chemistry course.

Issues of environmental, economic, aesthetic and other areas of education in the study of chemistry. Program for an ecologized chemistry course by V.M. Nazarenko.

Psychological theories of developmental education as a scientific basis for optimizing the study of chemistry in secondary schools.

Problem-based teaching of chemistry as an important means of developing students’ thinking. Signs of an educational problem in the study of chemistry and stages of its solution. Methods of creating a problem situation, the activities of the teacher and students in the conditions of problem-based teaching of chemistry. Positive and negative aspects of problem-based learning.

The essence and ways of using a differentiated approach in teaching chemistry as a means of developmental education.

1.3. Methods of teaching chemistry in secondary and higher schools

Methods of teaching chemistry as a didactic equivalent of methods of chemical science. Specifics of chemistry teaching methods. The most complete realization of the unity of the three functions of teaching as the main criterion for choosing teaching methods. Necessity, validity and dialectics of combining methods of teaching chemistry. The concept of modern teaching technologies.

Classification of methods of teaching chemistry according to R.G. Ivanova. Verbal methods training. Explanation, description, story, conversation. Lecture and seminar system for teaching chemistry.

Verbal and visual methods of teaching chemistry. Chemical experiment as a specific method and means of teaching chemistry, its types, place and significance in the educational process. Educational, educational and developmental functions of a chemical experiment.

Demonstration experiment in chemistry and requirements for it. Methods for demonstrating chemical experiments. Safety precautions when performing them.

Methods of selection and use of various visual aids when studying chemistry, depending on the nature of the content and age characteristics of students. The concept of a set of teaching aids on specific topics in a chemistry course. Methodology for compiling and using reference notes in chemistry in teaching.

Management of cognitive activity of pupils and students with various combinations of the teacher’s words with visualization and experiment.

Verbal-visual-practical methods of teaching chemistry. Independent work of pupils and students as a way to implement verbal, visual and practical methods. Forms and types of independent work in chemistry. Chemistry experiment: laboratory experiments and practical lessons in chemistry. Methodology for developing laboratory skills and abilities in students.

Programmed training as a type of independent work in chemistry. Basic principles of programmed learning.

Methodology for using chemical problems in teaching. The role of tasks in realizing the unity of the three functions of learning. The place of tasks in a chemistry course and in the educational process. Classification of chemical problems. Solving calculation problems at the stages of teaching chemistry. Methodology for selecting and composing tasks for the lesson. Using quantitative concepts to solve calculation problems. A unified methodological approach to solving chemical problems in high school. Solving experimental problems.

Methodology for using TSO in teaching chemistry. Methods of working with a graphic projector, educational films and filmstrips, transparencies, tape recorders and video recorders.

Computerization of training. The use of programmed and algorithmic teaching methods in computer-based chemistry teaching methods. Controlling computer programs.

1.4. Monitoring and evaluation of chemistry learning results

Goals, objectives and significance of monitoring the results of teaching chemistry.

System for monitoring learning results. Credit rating system and final control system. Contents of tasks for control. Forms of control. Classification and functions of tests. Methods of oral control of learning results: individual oral questioning, frontal control conversation, test, exam. Methods of written verification of results: test work, written independent work of a controlling nature, written homework. Experimental verification of learning results.

The use of computer technology and other technical means to monitor learning outcomes.

Assessing the results of chemistry learning on a 10-point grading scale in secondary and higher schools, adopted in the Republic of Belarus.

1.5. Means of teaching chemistry in secondary and higher schools.

Chemistry room

The concept of the system of chemistry teaching aids and educational equipment. A high school chemistry lab and a student workshop laboratory at a university as a necessary condition for full-fledged chemistry education. Modern requirements to the school chemistry room and student laboratory. Laboratory premises and furniture. Arrangement of classroom-laboratory and laboratory rooms. System of educational equipment for the chemistry classroom and chemical laboratories. Equipment of workplaces for teachers, students, students and laboratory assistants.

Tools for ensuring safety requirements when working in a chemistry room and chemical laboratories. Work of a teacher of pupils and students on self-equipment of a chemical laboratory and laboratories.

Textbook of chemistry and chemical disciplines as a teaching system. The role and place of the textbook in the educational process. A brief history of domestic school and university chemistry textbooks. Foreign chemistry textbooks. The structure of the content of a chemistry textbook and its difference from other educational and popular science literature. Requirements for a chemistry textbook, determined by its functions.

Methods of teaching pupils and students to work with the textbook. Maintaining a workbook and laboratory notebook in chemistry.

Technical teaching aids, their types and varieties: chalk board, overhead projector (graphic projector), slide projector, film projector, epidiascope, computer, video and sound reproducing equipment. Tables, drawings and photographs as teaching aids. Ways to use technical teaching aids to increase the cognitive activity of students and increase the efficiency of knowledge acquisition. Didactic capabilities of technical teaching aids and assessment of the effectiveness of their use.

The role of the computer in organizing and conducting extracurricular and extracurricular cognitive activities of students. Computer tutorials for chemistry courses. Internet resources on chemistry and the possibilities of their use in teaching in secondary and higher schools.

1.6. Chemical language as a subject and means of knowledge in teaching chemistry.Structure chemical language. Chemical language and its functions in the process of teaching and learning. The place of chemical language in the system of teaching aids. Theoretical basis formation of chemical language. The volume and content of language knowledge, skills and abilities in school and university chemistry courses and their connection with the system of chemical concepts. Methods for studying terminology, nomenclature and symbolism in school and university chemistry courses.

1.7. Organizational forms of teaching chemistry in secondary and higher schools

The lesson as the main organizational form in teaching chemistry in high school. Lesson as a structural element of the educational process. Types of lessons. Lesson as a system. Requirements for a chemistry lesson. Structure and construction of lessons of different types. The concept of the dominant didactic goal of the lesson.

Educational, educational and developmental goals of the lesson. Lesson content system. The meaning and methodology of selecting methods and didactic tools in the classroom.

Preparing the teacher for the lesson. Lesson concept and design. Determining lesson objectives. Methodology for planning a lesson content system. Step-by-step generalizations. System planning organizational forms. Methodology for establishing interdisciplinary connections between lesson content and others academic subjects. Methodology for determining the system of logical approaches to teaching methods and means in relation to the goals, content and level of training of students. Planning the introductory part of the lesson. Methodology for establishing intra-subject connections between a lesson and previous and subsequent material.

Techniques and methods for drawing up a plan and notes for a chemistry lesson and working on them. Modeling a lesson.

Conducting a lesson. Organization of class work. Communication between teacher and students during the lesson. The system of tasks and requirements of the teacher for students in the lesson and ensuring their implementation. Saving time in class. Chemistry lesson analysis. Lesson analysis scheme depending on its type.

Optional classes in chemistry. The purpose and objectives of school electives. The place of elective classes in the system of forms of teaching chemistry. The relationship between elective classes in chemistry, their content and requirements for them. Features of the organization and methods of conducting optional classes in chemistry.

Extracurricular work in chemistry. The purpose of extracurricular work and its importance in the educational process. System of extracurricular work in chemistry. Contents, forms, types and methods of extracurricular work in chemistry. Planning extracurricular activities, means of their organization and implementation.

Organizational forms of teaching chemistry at a university: lecture, seminar, laboratory workshop. Methodology for conducting a university lecture in chemistry. Requirements for a modern lecture. Organization of lecture form of training. Communication between the lecturer and the audience. Lecture demonstrations and demonstration experiment. Lecture control over knowledge acquisition.

Seminar in teaching chemistry and types of seminar classes. The main goal of the seminar is to develop the students’ speech. Discussion-based way of conducting seminars. Selection of material for discussion. Methodology for organizing a seminar lesson.

Laboratory workshop and its role in teaching chemistry. Forms of organization of laboratory workshops. Individual and group laboratory work. Educational and scientific communication when performing laboratory tasks.

1.8. Formation and development of systems of the most important chemical concepts

Classification of chemical concepts, their relationship with theories and facts and methodological conditions for their formation. Concepts: basic and developing. The relationship between systems of concepts about matter, a chemical element, and a chemical reaction.

The structure of the system of concepts about substances: its main components are concepts about the composition, structure, properties, classification, chemical methods of research and application of substances. The connection of these components with the system of concepts about chemical reactions. Revealing the dialectical essence of the concept of matter in the process of studying it. Qualitative and quantitative characteristics of a substance.

The structure of the system of concepts about a chemical element, its main components: classification of chemical elements, their prevalence in nature, the atom of a chemical element as a specific carrier of the concept of “chemical element”. Systematization of information about a chemical element in the periodic table. The problem of the relationship between the concepts of “valency” and “oxidation state” in a chemistry course, as well as the concepts of “chemical element” and “simple substance”. Formation and development of concepts about the natural group of chemical elements. Methodology for studying groups of chemical elements.

The structure of the system of concepts about chemical facilities and their models. Typology of chemical objects (substance, molecule, molecular model), their essence, interrelation, invariant and variable components. Typology of models, their use in chemistry. The problem of the relationship between a model and a real object in chemistry.

The structure of the content of the concept of “chemical reaction”, its components: characteristics, essence and mechanisms, patterns of occurrence and progression, classification, quantitative characteristics, practical use and methods for studying chemical reactions. Formation and development of each component in their interrelation. Connection of the concept of “chemical reaction” with theoretical topics and with other chemical concepts. Providing an understanding of a chemical reaction as a chemical form of motion of matter.

2. Methodology of chemical and pedagogical research

2.1 Methodology of chemical and pedagogical research

Science and scientific research

Pedagogical sciences. Types of scientific and pedagogical research, Structural components of research work. The relationship between science and scientific research.

Chemical-pedagogical research

Chemical-pedagogical research and its specificity. Specifics of the object and subject of scientific and pedagogical research By theory and methodology of chemical education.

Methodological foundations of chemical and pedagogical research

Methodology of science. Methodological approaches (system-structural, functional, personal-activity). Integrative approach in chemical-pedagogical research.

Psychological and pedagogical concepts and theories used in research on the theory and methodology of teaching chemistry. Taking into account the specifics of teaching chemistry in the study, due to the specifics of chemistry.

Consideration of the methodological system in the trinity of training, education and development, teaching and learning, theoretical and axeological stages of knowledge.

Methodological foundations for identifying natural connections in training (adequacy of the target, motivational, content, procedural and effective-evaluative aspects of training).

2.2. Methodology and organization of chemical and pedagogical research

Methods in chemical and pedagogical research

Research methods. Classification of research methods (by degree of generality, by purpose).

General scientific methods. Theoretical analysis and synthesis. Analytical review methodological literature. Modeling. Study and generalization of teaching experience. Closed and open type(advantages and disadvantages). Pedagogical experiment

Organization and stages of research

Organization of chemical and pedagogical research. The main stages of the study (ascertaining, theoretical, experimental, final).

Selecting an object, subject and purpose of research in accordance With problem (topic). Setting and implementing tasks. Formulating a research hypothesis. Correction of the hypothesis during the study.

Selection and implementation of methods to evaluate the effectiveness of the study, confirmation of the hypothesis and achievement of the research goal.

Pedagogical experiment in chemical education

Pedagogical experiment, essence, requirements, plan and conditions of implementation, functions, types and types, methodology and organization, project, stages, stages, factors.

2.3 Assessing the effectiveness of chemistry-pedagogical research

Novelty and significance of the researchCriteria for the novelty and significance of chemical and pedagogical research. The concept of criteria for the effectiveness of pedagogical research. Novelty, relevance, theoretical and practical significance. Scale and readiness for implementation. Efficiency.

Measurement in Educational Research

Measurement in educational research. The concept of measurement in educational research. Criteria and indicators for assessing the results of the educational process.

Parameters of the effectiveness of the educational process. Component analysis of education and training outcomes. Operational analysis of the quality of students' knowledge and skills. Statistical methods in pedagogy and methods of teaching chemistry, reliability criteria.

Generalization and presentation of scientific results

Processing, interpretation and consolidation of research results. Processing and presentation of the results of chemical and pedagogical research (in tables, diagrams, diagrams, drawings, graphs). Literary presentation of the results of chemical and pedagogical research.

A dissertation as a final research project and as a genre of literary work about the results of chemical and pedagogical research.

Section III. Particular issues of theory and methods of teaching chemistry

3.1 Scientific foundations of school and university chemistry courses

General and inorganic chemistry

Basic chemical concepts and laws. Atomic-molecular science. Basic stoichiometric laws of chemistry. Laws of gas state.

The most important classes and nomenclature inorganic substances. General provisions of chemical nomenclature. Classification and nomenclature of simple and complex substances.

Periodic law and atomic structure.Atom. Atomic nucleus. Isotopes. The phenomenon of radioactivity. Quantum mechanical description of the atom. Electronic cloud. Atomic orbital. Quantum numbers. Principles of filling atomic orbitals. Basic characteristics of atoms: atomic radii, ionization energies, electron affinity, electronegativity, relative electronegativity. Periodic law D.I. Mendeleev. Modern formulation of the periodic law. The periodic table is a natural classification of elements based on the electronic structures of their atoms. Periodicity of properties of chemical elements.

Chemical bonding and intermolecular interaction.The nature of the chemical bond. Basic characteristics of chemical bonds. Basic types of chemical bonds. Covalent bond. The concept of the valence bond method. Bond polarity and molecular polarity. s- and p-bonds. Multiplicity of communication. Types of crystal lattices formed by substances with covalent bonds in molecules. Ionic bond. Ionic crystal lattices and properties of substances with an ionic crystal lattice. Polarizability and polarizing effect of ions, their influence on the properties of substances. Metal connection. Intermolecular interaction. Hydrogen bond. Intramolecular and intermolecular hydrogen bonds.

Theory of electrolytic dissociation.Basic principles of the theory of electrolytic dissociation. Reasons and mechanism of electrolytic dissociation of substances with different types of chemical bonds. Ion hydration. Degree of electrolytic dissociation. Strong and weak electrolytes. True and apparent degree of dissociation. Activity coefficient. Dissociation constant. Acids, bases and salts from the point of view of the theory of electrolytic dissociation. Amphoteric electrolytes. Electrolytic dissociation of water. Ionic product of water. pH of the environment. Indicators. Buffer solutions. Hydrolysis of salts. Product of solubility. Conditions for the formation and dissolution of sediments. Proton theory of acids and bases by Brønsted and Lowry. Concept of Lewis acids and bases. Acidity and basicity constants.

Complex connections.Structure of complex compounds. The nature of chemical bonds in complex compounds. Classification, nomenclature of complex compounds. Stability of complex compounds. Instability constant. Formation and destruction of complex ions in solutions. Acid-base properties of complex compounds. Explanation of the hydrolysis of salts and the amphotericity of hydroxides from the point of view of complex formation and the proton theory of acid-base equilibrium.

Redox processes.Classification of redox reactions. Rules for drawing up equations of redox reactions. Methods for setting coefficients. The role of the environment in the course of redox processes. Electrode potential. The concept of a galvanic element. Standard red-ox potentials. Direction of redox reactions in solutions. Corrosion of metals and methods of protection. Electrolysis of solutions and melts.

Properties of basic elements and their compounds.Halogens. General characteristics of elements and simple substances. Chemical properties of simple substances. Preparation, structure and chemical properties of the main types of compounds. Biogenic significance of elements and their compounds. p-elements of the sixth, fifth and fourth groups. General characteristics of elements and simple substances. Chemical properties of simple substances. Receipt. Structure and chemical properties of the main types of compounds. Biogenic significance of elements and their compounds.

Metals. Position in the periodic table and features of physical and chemical properties. Natural metal compounds. Principles of receipt. The role of metals in the life of plant and local organisms.

Physical and colloidal chemistry

Energy and direction of chemical processes.The concept of internal energy of a system and enthalpy. Heat of reaction, its thermodynamic and thermochemical designations. Hess's law and consequences from it. Assessment of the possibility of a chemical reaction occurring in a given direction. The concept of entropy and isobaric-isothermal potential. Maximum process performance. The role of enthalpy and entropy factors in the direction of processes under various conditions.

Rate of chemical reactions, chemical equilibrium.The rate of chemical reactions. Factors influencing the rate of a chemical reaction. Classification of chemical reactions. Molecularity and reaction order. Activation energy. Reversible and irreversible reactions. Conditions for the onset of chemical equilibrium. Chemical equilibrium constant. The Le Chatelier-Brown principle and its application. Concept of catalysis. Catalysis is homogeneous and heterogeneous. Theories of catalysis. Biocatalysis and biocatalysts.

Properties of dilute solutions.General characteristics of dilute solutions of non-electrolytes. Properties of solutions (pressure saturated steam over solution, ebullioscopy and cryoscopy, osmosis). The role of osmosis in biological processes. Dispersed systems, their classification. Colloidal solutions and their properties: kinetic, optical, electrical. The structure of colloidal particles. The importance of colloids in biology.

Organic chemistry

Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes). Isomerism. Nomenclature. Synthesis methods. Physical and chemical properties of alkanes. Radical substitution reactions S R . Radical halogenation of alkanes. Haloalkanes, chemical properties and applications. Unsaturated hydrocarbons. Alkenes. Isomerism and nomenclature. Electronic structure alkenes Preparation methods and chemical properties. Ionic addition reactions at a double bond, mechanisms and basic principles. Polymerization. The concept of polymers, their properties and characteristics, use in everyday life and industry. Alkynes. Isomerism and nomenclature. Preparation, chemical properties and applications of alkynes. Alkadienes. Classification, nomenclature, isomerism, electronic structure.

Aromatic hydrocarbons (arenes).Nomenclature, isomerism. Aromaticity, Hückel's rule. Polycyclic aromatic systems. Methods for obtaining benzene and its homologues. Electrophilic substitution reactions in the aromatic ring S E Ar, general patterns and mechanism.

Alcohols. Monohydric and polyhydric alcohols, nomenclature, isomerism, methods of preparation. Physical, chemical and biomedical properties. Phenols, methods of production. Chemical properties: acidity (influence of substituents), reactions at the hydroxyl group and aromatic ring.

Amines. Classification, isomerism, nomenclature. Methods for obtaining aliphatic and aromatic amines, their basicity and chemical properties.

Aldehydes and ketones.Isomerism and nomenclature. Comparative reactivity of aldehydes and ketones. Preparation methods and chemical properties. Aldehydes and ketones of the aromatic series. Preparation methods and chemical properties.

Carboxylic acids and their derivatives.Carboxylic acids. Nomenclature. Factors affecting acidity. Physico-chemical properties and methods for producing acids. Aromatic carboxylic acids. Preparation methods and chemical properties. Derivatives of carboxylic acids: salts, acid halides, anhydrides, esters, amides and their mutual transitions. Mechanism of esterification reaction.

Carbohydrates. Monosaccharides. Classification, stereochemistry, tautomerism. Preparation methods and chemical properties. The most important representatives of monosaccharides and their biological role. Disaccharides, their types, classification. Differences in chemical properties. Mutorotation. Sucrose inversion. Biological significance disaccharides. Polysaccharides. Starch and glycogen, their structure. Cellulose, structure and properties. Chemical processing of cellulose and the use of its derivatives.

Amino acids. Structure, nomenclature, synthesis and chemical properties. a-Amino acids, classification, stereochemistry, acid-base properties, features of chemical behavior. Peptides, peptide bond. Separation of amino acids and peptides.

Heterocyclic compounds.Heterocyclic compounds, classification and nomenclature. Five-membered heterocycles with one and two heteroatoms, their aromaticity. Six-membered heterocycles with one and two heteroatoms. An idea of ​​the chemical properties of heterocycles with one heteroatom. Heterocycles in natural compounds.

3.2 Features of the content, structure and methodology of studying chemistry courses in secondary and higher schools.

Principles of construction and scientific and methodological analysis of educational support for chemistry courses in the main one. complete (secondary) and higher schools. Educational value of chemistry courses.

Scientific and methodological analysis of the section “Basic chemical concepts”.The structure, content and logic of studying basic chemical concepts at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of studying chemistry. Analysis and methodology for the formation of basic chemical concepts. Features of the formation of concepts about a chemical element and substance at the initial stage. General methodological principles for the study of specific chemical elements and simple substances based on atomic-molecular concepts (using the example of the study of oxygen and hydrogen). Analysis and methodology for forming quantitative characteristics of a substance. The concept of a chemical reaction at the level of atomic-molecular concepts. Interrelation of initial chemical concepts. Development of initial chemical concepts when studying selected topics in the eighth grade chemistry course. The structure and content of an educational chemical experiment in the section "Basic chemical concepts". Problems of methods of teaching basic chemical concepts in secondary school. Features of studying the section "Basic chemical concepts" in university chemistry courses.

Scientific and methodological analysis of the section "Main classes of inorganic compounds".The structure, content and logic of studying the main classes of inorganic compounds at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of chemistry. Analysis and methodology for studying oxides, bases, acids and salts in primary school. Analysis and methodology for forming the concept of the relationship between classes of inorganic compounds. Development and generalization of concepts about the most important classes of inorganic compounds and the relationship between classes of inorganic compounds in complete (secondary) school. Structure and content of an educational chemical experiment in the section "Main classes of inorganic compounds." Problems of teaching methods for basic classes of inorganic compounds in secondary school. Features of studying the section “Main classes of inorganic compounds” in university chemistry courses.

Scientific and methodological analysis of the section "Structure of the atom and the periodic law."Periodic law and theory of atomic structure as scientific basis school chemistry course. The structure, content and logic of studying the structure of the atom and the periodic law at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of chemistry. Analysis and methodology for studying the structure of the atom and the periodic law. Problems associated with radioactive contamination of the territory of Belarus in connection with the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant.

Structure, content and logic of studying the periodic system of chemical elements D.I. Mendeleev at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of studying chemistry. Analysis and methodology for studying the periodic system of chemical elements based on the theory of atomic structure. The meaning of the periodic law. Features of studying the section “Atomic structure and periodic law” in university chemistry courses.

Scientific and methodological analysis of the section "Chemical bonding and structure of matter".The importance of studying chemical bonds and the structure of substances in a chemistry course. The structure, content and logic of studying chemical bonds and the structure of matter at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of studying chemistry. Analysis and methodology for forming the concept of chemical bonding based on electronic and energy concepts. Development of the concept of valence based on electronic representations. The degree of oxidation of elements and its use in the process of teaching chemistry. Structure of solids in the light of modern concepts. Disclosure of the dependence of the properties of substances on their structure as the main idea of ​​studying the school course. Features of studying the section "Chemical bonding and structure of matter" in university chemistry courses.

Scientific and methodological analysis of the section "Chemical reactions".

Structure, content and logic of studying chemical reactions at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of studying chemistry. Analysis and methodology for the formation and development of a system of concepts about chemical reactions in basic and full (secondary) schools.

Analysis and methodology for generating knowledge about the rate of chemical reactions. Factors influencing the rate of chemical reactions and methods for developing knowledge about them. Worldview and applied significance of knowledge about the rate of chemical reactions.

Analysis and methodology for developing concepts about the reversibility of chemical processes and chemical equilibrium. Le Chatelier's principle and its significance for using a deductive approach in studying the conditions for shifting equilibrium during the occurrence of reversible chemical reactions. Features of studying the section "Chemical reactions" in university chemistry courses.

Scientific and methodological analysis of the section "Chemistry of solutions and the fundamentals of the theory of electrolytic dissociation."The place and significance of educational material about solutions in a school chemistry course. Structure, content and logic of studying solutions at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of studying chemistry. Analysis and methodology for studying solutions in a school chemistry course.

The place and significance of the theory of electrolytes in the school chemistry course. Structure, content and logic of studying the processes of dissociation of electrolytes at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of chemistry study. Analysis and methodology for studying the basic provisions and concepts of the theory of electrolytic dissociation in a school chemistry course. Disclosure of the mechanisms of electrolytic dissociation of substances with different structures. Development and generalization of students' knowledge about acids, bases and salts based on the theory of electrolytic dissociation.

Analysis and methodology for studying the hydrolysis of salts in specialized classes and classes with in-depth study of chemistry. The importance of knowledge about hydrolysis in practice and for understanding a number of natural phenomena. Features of studying the section "Chemistry of solutions and the basics of the theory of electrolytic dissociation."in university chemistry courses.

Scientific and methodological analysis of the sections "Non-metals" and "Metals"..Educational tasks of studying non-metals and metals in a high school chemistry course. The structure, content and logic of studying non-metals and metals at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of chemistry. Analysis and methodology for studying non-metals and metals at various stages of chemistry education. The importance and place of chemical experiment and visual aids in the study of non-metals. Analysis and methodology for studying subgroups of nonmetals and metals. Interdisciplinary connections in the study of nonmetals and metals. The role of studying the systematics of non-metals and metals for the development of general chemical and polytechnic horizons and the scientific worldview of students. Features of studying the section "Non-metals" and "Metals".in university chemistry courses.

Scientific and methodological analysis of the organic chemistry course.Objectives of the organic chemistry course. The structure, content and logic of studying organic compounds at basic, advanced and in-depth levels of studying chemistry in high school and university. The theory of the chemical structure of organic compounds as the basis for the study of organic chemistry.

Analysis and methodology for studying the basic principles of the theory of chemical structure. Development of concepts about the electronic cloud, the nature of its hybridization, the overlap of electronic clouds, and the strength of communication. Electronic and spatial structure of organic substances. The concept of isomerism and homology of organic compounds. The essence of the mutual influence of atoms in molecules. Disclosure of the idea of ​​the relationship between the structure and properties of organic substances. Development of the concept of a chemical reaction in the course of organic chemistry.

Analysis and methods for studying hydrocarbons, homo-, poly- and heterofunctional and heterocyclic substances. Relationship between classes of organic compounds. The importance of the organic chemistry course in polytechnic training and the formation of the scientific worldview of students. The relationship between biology and chemistry in the study of organic substances. Organic chemistry as the basis for the study of integrative disciplines of chemical-biological and medical-pharmaceutical profile.

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