The Minotaur is a monster from the Cretan labyrinth. Theseus and the Minotaur - Myths of Ancient Greece Summary of the myth of Theseus and the Minotaur

The story about the hero Theseus, who defeated the monster of the Minotaur, and the beautiful Ariadne, who gave her beloved a ball of thread to get out of the Labyrinth, is so beautiful that it does not need explanations and proofs, promising to live forever in world culture. Nevertheless, the scene of the events of this ancient myth is quite real - it really looked like a labyrinth and was directly related to the bulls.

The myth of Theseus and the Minotaur

Minotaur, "the bull of Minos", was the name of the son of Pasiphae, the wife of the Cretan king. This creature with the body of a man and the head of a bull was allegedly hidden by Minos in the labyrinth built by Daedalus, where he fed on human sacrifices. He was given to be devoured by criminals, and once every nine years, seven young men and seven girls were sent from Athens as tribute, who wandered through the corridors of the labyrinth, unable to get out of it, and eventually fell directly into the mouth of the Minotaur.

The son of the Athenian king Aegeus, Theseus, who went among these fourteen to the island of Crete, was able to defeat the Minotaur, and a ball of thread donated by Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, helped him get out: having started unwinding it at the entrance to the labyrinth, Theseus and his companions were then able to return.

The winner of the monster and his beloved went on a ship to Athens, but during a stop on the island of Naxos, Ariadne was kidnapped by Dionysus, who was in love with her, and the saddened Theseus returned to Athens alone. Forgetting that in the event of a happy outcome, the black sail on the ship had to be replaced with a white one, he involuntarily caused the death of his father: Aegeus, who saw the mourning sign, could not stand the news of his son’s death and threw himself from the rocks into the sea, which since then became known as the Aegean.

Minoan civilization

The myth of Theseus and the Minotaur refers to the Minoan culture, a civilization that existed in Crete during the Bronze Age, approximately from the 28th to the 15th centuries. BC. Records of the legend can be found among ancient Greek historians of the classical and Roman periods, when versions of the interpretation of the myth already differed. According to one of them, Taurus, the cruel commander of Minos, liked to arrange competitions in which teenage slaves were the prize. This version was voiced by Plutarch with reference to ancient Greek historians.

Be that as it may, the legend, in which the bull will be one of the main characters, could not but arise during the existence of the Minoan culture or when getting acquainted with its heritage. The bull among the Cretans was a particularly revered, sacred animal involved in various rituals and cults. Findings made by archaeologists made it possible to establish that taurocatapsias, or dances with bulls - ritual jumps over an animal, were popular on the island.

It can be assumed that during these “dances” there were victims - is this not where the legend of the regular tribute to the Minotaur originates? The Cretans themselves probably borrowed the image of a man with a bull's head from other religions - in particular, the Phoenicians, who revered Moloch, devouring children, or the Egyptians, in whose custom it was to worship gods with the heads of various animals.

As for the place where the labyrinth of the Minotaur was probably located and where King Minos lived, it was found in 1878 by the Greek Minos Kalokerinos, an antiquary who discovered ancient ruins under the earth and began to dig them up. Among the finds of Kalokerinos, before the authorities forbade him to continue excavations, were artifacts of the Minoan civilization, including tablets with records, which, unfortunately, died in a fire along with the Greek's house a few years later.
Excavations continued only in 1900, when the Englishman Arthur Evans bought a piece of land where the labyrinth was supposedly located.

Heinrich Schliemann, who owns the laurels of the discoverer of Troy, assumed that this was a labyrinth, but despite all efforts, Schliemann did not manage to reach the excavation site in Crete. Evans, on the other hand, set to work on a large scale, inviting many local workers and a few helpers from England. Nakhodka was called a palace and recognized as the capital of the Minoan civilization Knossos.

Strictly speaking, the discovered ruins were not a palace in the usual sense of the word for Europeans - they were rather the remains of a complex building that contained about one and a half thousand rooms and occupied an area of ​​​​about twenty thousand square meters.

Unfortunately, since Evans set out to dig out the traces of the Minoan civilization, all later layers turned out to be unexplored and lost, and therefore it was not possible to restore the history of Knossos after its decline based on the results of excavations. In addition, the Englishman undertook a partial reconstruction of the palace, recreating a number of buildings and premises in accordance with his ideas about the way of life of the ancient Cretans - and sometimes it is almost impossible to distinguish between the product of his activity and real ancient artifacts.

Palace or labyrinth?

Be that as it may, the palace of Knossos is a unique building that has no analogues in the ancient world. Built on a hill, it had such a design that it allowed all rooms to remain as lit as possible: large windows and courtyards were provided, and in addition, this building was multi-storey - reaching four floors in different parts. The rooms were connected by corridors of various sizes.

Obviously, most of the population of this city lived in the Palace of Knossos - there were pantries filled with oil, cereals, dried fish, cooking rooms, where there were presses for olives and grapes, mills. The organization of water supply and sanitation of the palace deserves special attention. At Knossos, at least three such systems were provided: one was supplied with water from the river through pipes, heating up under the rays of the sun along the way, the other provided for sewerage, and the third - the removal of rainwater during heavy rains. During the excavations of Knossos, bathrooms and toilets with a water supply system were found.

The discovered “throne room”, according to Evans, contained chairs for the ruler of Knossos and the queen, but later studies suggest that this room could be considered the place of the appearance of a female deity, since the Minoan civilization developed under matriarchy.

One of the signs of the female Cretan deity was the labrys, a double-sided ax - an ax, symbolizing the maternal principle. His images are found on the frescoes of the Knossos Palace, and the labryses themselves were found, sometimes taller than human height. It is with this word that the term "labyrinth" is associated - perhaps this name was given to the building where this sign was revered as sacred - the palace of Knossos.

There are versions according to which the Minotaur was rather a ritual character, a man in a bull mask took part in certain sacraments in honor of the goddesses of the Cretan culture - and over time, a legend about a monster arose on the basis of these customs.

The reasons for the decline and disappearance of the Minoan civilization have not yet been finally established - it was previously believed that the destruction of the Knossos Palace and the departure of the inhabitants were caused by a volcanic eruption on the island of Santorini, but the latest research does not confirm this. Be that as it may, starting from the XIV century BC, the Palace of Knossos ceased to be the center of Minoan culture in order to become the legendary scene of the myth of Theseus and the Minotaur for the next millennia.

The ruins of another ancient city - Pompeii - were discovered much earlier than Knossos and its labyrinth were found, and the ruins of the buildings and objects of this ancient Roman city in Crete

Minotaur - a monster from Crete, the main opponent of Theseus. Described as a man with a bull's head, lived in an intricate labyrinth. Killed by Theseus.

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The legend of the origin of the Minotaur

Greek legends described him as a monster of great stature, with the body of an athlete and a bull's head. His mother was Pasiphae (not to be confused with Pasithea), daughter of the sun god Helios and queen of Crete, wife of Minos. Minos ascended the throne only by defeating his brother with the blessing of the gods. In order for Minos to confirm his noble intentions and become a pious king, Poseidon sent him a magnificent bull and ordered the animal to be sacrificed.

Minos felt sorry for killing such a wonderful creature, and he released the bull to graze along with the herd, and instead killed another, ordinary one. Poseidon became angry and inspired Pasiphae with an unnatural attraction to the bull. According to some sources, Poseidon himself (in a number of myths - Zeus) turned into a bull in order to copulate with the queen. To do this, the Athenian engineer Daedalus came up with an ingenious design in the form of a bronze cow attractive to a bull. It was hollow on the inside, and Pasiphae was in it.

After the due date, the queen gave birth to a monster. The Minotaur, by order of Minos, was hidden in the labyrinth of Daedalus - Knossos. The Minotaur was fed by criminals and Athenian youths and girls - they were brought in every nine years, seven males and seven females. In some myths, seven children were sacrificed to the Minotaur.

Pausanias wrote that the real name of the Minotaur was Asterius, i.e. "starry". Antique vases with images of this beast almost always contain images of stars or eyes. Mycenaean texts also contain references to a certain mistress of the labyrinth, which could probably be Ariadne.

Minotaur and Theseus

Diodorus writes that Theseus sailed in the second party, and Plutarch claimed that in the third. But it is known for sure that the hero was among the victims of the Minotaur after he killed him. According to some sources, to reduce the resistance of the captives, they were deprived of their sight. According to others, it was impossible to leave the intricate labyrinth, and those who escaped death at the hands of the Minotaur simply died without water and food.

Theseus was among the fourteen victims. Together with the others, he was launched into the labyrinth, where he fought the Minotaur and killed him with his bare hands. Sometimes it is indicated that the hero had a sword with him.

Ariadne (half-sister of the Minotaur, but daughter of Minos) gave him a ball of thread with her, which Theseus unwound all the way. As a result, he and the rest of the captives left the labyrinth unharmed. The throne at Amykla contains an image of a captive Minotaur led by Theseus on a rope.

Rationalist version of the legend of the Minotaur

Philochor, and after it Eusebius in their writings they described a different version of the origin of the Minotaur, in which the bull-headed monster acts as an allegory. According to legend, the Minotaur was a man, his name was Taurus. He taught the young king of Crete - Minos, and became famous for his cruelty. At that time, Athens was under the rule of Crete and paid tribute by people. Minos decided to establish a competition in which his teacher fought with sent Athenian youths. Taurus defeated nine, but Theseus, the son of the Athenian king, defeated him. In honor of the victory, Athens was exempted from paying tribute.

The labyrinth at Knossos and the myth of the Minotaur

Also Daedalus' Labyrinth, according to Plutarch was the most ordinary prison. Ordinary prisoners were housed within its walls, and in very tolerable conditions. Minos annually held competitions in honor of Androgeus, his son, who was killed by the Athenians. The winner received as slaves boys and girls sent from Athens. Before that, they were kept in the Labyrinth. Taurus enjoyed the great confidence of Minos and was the first winner of the competition. Taurus was known as a rude and hard-hearted master, merciless with slaves. Aristotle's "State Structure of Bottia" clearly expresses the author's idea that it was simply unprofitable to kill the sent people - young people were highly valued in the slave market. They most likely remained slaves in Crete until the end of their days.

Historian Daemon believed that Taurus was a commander whose fleet engaged in battle with the fleet of Theseus in the harbor and was defeated. Taurus died in this battle. Plutarch wrote that Taurus was a general killed in the war between Crete and Athens. The later story of the Minotaur is the fruit of human invention and myth-making.

Other hypotheses and the cult of bulls

Minotaur could be borrowed Phoenician god under the name . Moloch was depicted as a horned man, and children were sacrificed to him. The famous expression "hell of fire" came from the place where human sacrifices were made to Moloch - the children were "guided through the fire", that is, they were burned alive. The cult of Moloch could very well be in Crete. The death of the Minotaur marked the end of this cult.

A number of modern historians consider the history of the Minotaur to be an allegorical story about the collision of the Indo-Europeans with the cultures of the autochthonous "peoples of the sea". These "sea peoples" of unknown origin revered bulls. The clash was won by the more civilized Indo-Europeans in the modern sense. Also, the appearance of the Minotaur is suggestive of the beast-headed Egyptian gods.

Theseus, a novel by Mary Renault, contains a description of ritual sacrifices. They were called "bull belts" - a kind of protocorrida. Scenes with bull belts are often found on the frescoes of the Cretan period. Artistic materials of the Minoan era contain images of taurocatapsia - ritual jumps over a bull. The cult of the worship of the bull was very strong in Crete, and such rituals were a significant part of it.

A similar theme can be traced back to the Bronze Age, from where it migrated to the Hittite kingdom, Syria, Bactria and the Indus Valley. Bullfighting and bull veneration are common in Mediterranean cultures. Today, this phenomenon has survived as a Spanish bullfight.

The double-edged ax of the executioner - "labrys", was an integral part of the bull cult. Probably, "labyrinth" is a modified "labrys". Pre-Hellenic religions often practiced sacred bullfights, and Cretan demonology contains quite a few bull-headed people. The minotaur living in the heart of the labyrinth was most likely a cruel legend, an echo of the even more terrifying rituals of Crete. The most ancient forms of the legend of Theseus and the Minotaur say that the hero defeated the monster with a double-edged axe.

Myths of Ancient Greece tell about the existence of Knossos (Knossos Palace), where King Minos ruled, and a terrible monster lived in the Labyrinth of his palace, the Minotaur - a creature with a bull's head and a human body, eating human flesh!

But in short, it all began with the fact that the mighty Zeus, the supreme god of Olympus, saw the beautiful Europe, the daughter of a wealthy Phoenician king. I saw and desired. In order not to frighten the girl and her friends, he took the form of a wonderful bull. His fur shone, his golden horns were curved, and a silver spot burned on his forehead like a moon. The bull's breath was fragrant with ambrosia, and the whole air was filled with this aroma. A miraculous bull appeared in a clearing and approached the maidens, among whom was Europe, when they frolicked and picked flowers. The maidens surrounded the marvelous animal and gently stroked it. The bull approached Europe, licked her hands and caressed her. Then quietly lay down at her feet, offering to sit on it.

Laughing, Europe sat down on the bull's broad back. Other girls wanted to sit next to her. But suddenly the bull jumped up and rushed to the sea. Like the wind, the golden-horned bull rushed, then he rushed into the sea and quickly, like a dolphin, swam through the azure waters. The waves of the sea parted before him, and soon they appeared in the sea distance of the shores of Crete. Zeus the bull quickly swam to him with his precious burden and went ashore. Europa became the wife of Zeus and lived in Crete ever since. TShe had three sons from Zeus: Minos, Rhadamanthys and Sarpidon. Later, Europa married King Asterion of Crete, who adopted the children of Zeus. After the death of Asterion, the eldest son, Minos, became king. He married Pasiphae, daughter of the sun god Helios and the nymph Kriti. They had 4 sons and 4 daughters, including the beautiful Ariadne. Together they lived in the palace of Knossos.

During one great feast, Minos wanted to make a sacrifice in honor of Poseidon, the god of the sea, and asked him that Poseidon send a magnificent animal for this (this is a strange way to make sacrifices, first asking them;). In response, Poseidon sent a beautiful white bull out of the sea. So beautiful that Minos took pity on him and sacrificed another bull. Poseidon was very angry, and in order to punish Minos, he inspired the voluptuous queen Parsifai with an insane passion for a white bull. To satisfy her perverse passion, Parsifai turned to the famous master Daedalus. Daedalus made an empty effigy of a cow, and when Parsiphae entered this effigy, the bull was reunited with her. From this disgusting copulation the Minotaur was born, a monster with a human body and a bull's head. In order to avoid a scandal, King Minos locked the Minotaur in labyrinth, a complex structure that Daedalus built for this.

The further fate of the white bull is unknown.

Further, the myth tells about Androgeos, the son of Minos, who took part in the games in Athens and became the winner in all sports disciplines. Some of the offended Athenians ambushed and killed him. This murder aroused the wrath of Minos, he immediately declared war on Athens and went on a campaign. The compensation that he demanded from the Athenian king Aegeus was much tougher and more shameful than the defeat of Athens itself: every 9 years, Aegeus had to send 7 girls and 7 boys to the Labyrinth. They were locked in the huge palace of the Labyrinth, where they were devoured by a terrible monster.

Theseus and the Minotaur

The son of the Athenian king, the young hero Theseus, decided to stop paying this terrible tribute and protect the innocent. When the ambassadors from Crete arrived for the third time for the due tribute, everyone in Athens was plunged into deep sadness and equipped a ship with black sails, Theseus voluntarily entered the number of young men sent to Crete, with the sole purpose of killing the Minotaur. King Aegeus categorically did not want to let go of his only son, but Theseus insisted on his own.

In Crete, at Knossos, the mighty king of Crete immediately drew attention to a beautiful muscular youth. He was also noticed by the daughter of Minos, Ariadne. Ariadne was fascinated by Theseus and decided to help him. Knowing that the Labyrinth was built in such a way that those who got there could never find a way out, she secretly gave Theseus a sharp sword and a ball (Ariadne's thread) secretly from her father, which helped him not to get lost. Theseus tied the thread at the entrance, and entered the Labyrinth, gradually unwinding the ball. Theseus walked further and, finally, he saw the Minotaur. With a formidable roar, bowing his head with huge sharp horns, the Minotaur rushed at the hero. A terrible battle began. Finally, Theseus grabbed the Minotaur by the horn and plunged his sharp sword into his chest. Having killed the Minotaur, Theseus found a way out with the help of a ball of thread and brought out all the Athenian boys and girls. Theseus quickly equipped his ship and, having cut through the bottom of all the ships of the Cretans, hastily set off on his return journey. Ariadne also left Knossos and sailed away with Theseus.

However, Ariadne and Theseus were not destined to live together happily ever after. Theseus had to yield Ariadne to the god Dionysus. She didn't make it to Athens. The goddess was Ariadne, the wife of the great Dionysus. But that is another story...

The ship of Theseus rushed on its black sails across the azure sea, approaching the shores of Attica. Theseus, saddened by the loss of Ariadne, forgot about the agreement with his father - he had to replace the black sails with white ones in case of a safe return. Aegeus was waiting for his son. A dot appeared in the distance, now it grows, approaching the shore, and it is already clear that this is his son's ship, a ship under black sails. So Theseus is dead! In desperation, Aegeus threw himself from a high cliff into the sea, and the waves washed his lifeless body ashore. Since then, the sea in which Aegeus died has been called the Aegean.

At this time, in the palace of Knossos, Daedalus, who was being held captive by Minos so that he would not leave and reveal the secret of the Labyrinth, was planning his escape. With the help of artificial wings, which were held together with wax, he flew away with his son Icarus. Then you probably know everything. Icarus, fascinated by the flight, flew too high to the sun, the hot sun's rays melted the wax, and ... Icarus was called the sea in which young Icarus died.

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Minotaur - the bull of Minos, king of Crete, according to legend, was a half-man, half-buffalo, which is remembered mainly in connection with the myths about the exploits of Theseus. Although there are images of the Minotaur related to the archaic period in the history of Ancient Greece, the first mention of it in the ancient sources that have come down to us is made by Apollodorus and Plutarch.

The history of the Minotaur, set out by Apollodorus in the Library, is as follows: Asterius, the ruler of Crete, married the daughter of the Phoenician king Europe and adopted her children - Sarpedon, Rhadamanthia and Minos, the sons of Zeus. The grown-up brothers quarreled because of their love for the young Miletus, the son of Apollo and Aria. A war broke out, as a result of which Minos managed to expel the brothers and seize power in all of Crete. To consolidate his victory, Minos tries to earn the patronage of the gods. He asks Poseidon to send a bull from the depths of the sea, promising to sacrifice it to the gods. Poseidon complies with the request, but Minos sacrifices another bull. Enraged by the violation of the promise given to him, Poseidon endows the bull with a ferocious disposition and instills in the wife of Minos Pasiphae a love passion for the bull. Pasiphae asks Daedalus, an Athenian exiled to Crete for murder, to come up with a way that would allow her to satisfy her passion. Daedalus carves a hollow figure of a cow from wood, covers it with the skin of a sacrificial animal, and places Parsifae inside the figure. From copulation with a bull, Pasiphae gives birth to Asterius, who was nicknamed the Minotaur.

The Minotaur is a creature with the body of a man and the head of a bull. On the advice of the oracles, Minos imprisons him in the Labyrinth, a building built by Daedalus in such a way that he can no longer get out of it.

After a while, another descendant of Minos, Androgey, goes to the Panathinian Games, where he defeats all rivals. King Aegeus sends him to kill the Marathon bull, which sows death and destruction throughout the Marathon valley. Androgey finds a bull brought by Hercules from Crete (this is one of his twelve labors), but dies in a duel with him. (According to another version, Androgeus is killed by envious rivals in the Panathenian games.) Having learned about the death of his son, Minos with his fleet attacks Athens and captures Megara, a suburb of Athens, but, not being able to conquer Athens, asks Zeus to avenge the Athenians for the death of his son. The city is covered by a terrible plague. The townspeople ask the oracle for advice, and he replies that the only way to exorcise the plague is to fulfill the demands of Minos, whatever they may be. Minos orders every year as a sacrifice to the Minotaur to send seven young men and seven girls to Crete. By the will of the lot or by choice, Theseus, the son of the king of Attica, Aegeus, falls into the third party. Upon arrival in Crete, the daughter of Minos Ariadne falls in love with him and promises him help if he takes her as his wife and takes her to Athens. Theseus vows to fulfill the request. On the advice of Daedalus, Ariadne gives Theseus a ball of thread, the end of which he ties at the entrance to the Labyrinth. Theseus unravels the tangle during his journey inside the trap building. In the middle of the Labyrinth, he finds a sleeping Minotaur and beats him to death with his fists. On the way back, which he finds holding on to the untangled thread, Theseus frees the other captives, who, together with Ariadne, leads to the sea, where they build a ship on which they go to Athens.

Not all ancient authors agree with Apollodorus' version. Diodorus Siculus and Plutarch in Theseus state that the Athenians were twice obliged to send a sacrifice to the Minotaur every ten years throughout his life. Referring to Hellanicus, Plutarch adds that Minos specially came to Athens to choose victims, who, according to various sources, then either died from the horns of the Minotaur, or were doomed to wander through the Labyrinth in search of a way out until their death. Moreover, not all Greek authors agree with the version about the death of the Minotaur. The same Plutarch writes that the captives were forbidden to take any weapons with them to Crete, however, judging by the image on the Greek amphora, Theseus, holding the bull by the horns, pierces him with a sword. On a gold ornament from Corinth dating from the 7th century AD. BC, perhaps the oldest depiction of this mythological scene, Theseus also pierces the Minotaur in the chest with a sword, holding him by the ear. A similar scene is depicted on a shield dating from about the same time.

An unusual interpretation of the scene of the death of the Minotaur is depicted on an amphora kept in the Museum of Basel (c. 660 BC). It depicts Theseus and Ariadne throwing stones at a bull-man who, contrary to tradition, does not look like a man with a bull's head, but like a bull with a human head. In this, Theseus and Ariadne are helped by the Athenian captives.

The Etruscans apparently had a special interest in the myth of the Minotaur. During excavations in Etruria (modern Tuscany), numerous images of mythological scenes were found, belonging to a fairly wide time range. The Etruscans often twisted the meaning of Greek myths and legends in a peculiar way. For example, the victor sitting on the back of the Minotaur with a bow in his left hand, depicted on the Castellan mirror, is not Theseus, but Hercules (Hercules). Another object, an Etruscan black vase from the Louvre, again depicts Hercules with a lion skin on his shoulders, who beats the Minotaur with a club.

In ancient times, there was no consensus about the appearance of the Minotaur. Apollodorus believes that he had the body of a man and the head of a bull. Diodorus agrees with him. However, on a black amphora from Vulci, the Minotaur is depicted with a tail and a spotted skin like that of a leopard. The Roman authors seem to have had an even more vague idea of ​​the Minotaur than the Greeks. Pausanias finds it difficult to say who the Minotaur was - a man or a beast. Catullus simply calls him a "wild monster", and Virgil - "a hybrid descendant with a dual nature." For Ovid, the Minotaur is "a monster with a dual essence" (in "Metamorphoses") and "half-man, half-bull" (in "Heroids"). In the indefinite image of a half-man, half-bull, the Minotaur also passed into the art of medieval Europe.

As part of the heroic myth of Theseus, the legend of the Minotaur did not escape the introduction of various details related to the intervention of the goddess Athena in their fate. On Greek vases, one can often see scenes in which Athena encourages the hero when he plunges the sword into the monster, or pulls him out of the gates of the Labyrinth.

Referring to Philochor, Plutarch cites a version of the legend allegedly stated by the inhabitants of Crete themselves. They claimed that the Minotaur was actually the commander of King Minos named Taurus. As a reward for winning the Games, which Minos hosted in memory of his son Androgeus, Taurus received young Athenian captives as slaves, who were kept in an impregnable Cretan dungeon known as the Labyrinth. Being by nature a rude person, Taurus treats them with extreme cruelty. However, at the third Games in honor of Androgey, Theseus significantly outperformed all other participants, including Taurus. For his athletic prowess, Theseus earned the love of Ariadne. Minos was also pleased with the victory of the Athenian, because he disliked the influential Taurus for his cruel character, moreover, the king suspected him of having an affair with his wife Pasiphae. Minos had to return the Athenian captives to their homeland and cancel the obligation he had imposed on Athens.

In the art of ancient Rome, mosaics depicting the Labyrinth were widespread. Such mosaics have been preserved in many parts of the former Roman Empire - in Pompeii, Cremona, Brindisi, Neapathos (Italy), Aix en Provence (France), Sousse (Tunisia), Cormerode (Switzerland), Salzburg (Austria), etc. in these images, the Minotaur is the central figure. On the mosaic floor of the palace in Pompeii, Theseus and the Minotaur clashed in a deadly duel in front of the frightened captive girls. On the Salzburg mosaic, Theseus, in a fluttering cloak, grabs the Minotaur by the right horn, in his free hand he holds a club, ready to bring it down on the back of the monster. Birds are also depicted in the mosaic at Camerod, possibly a reference to Daedalus and Icarus, who escaped the Labyrinth into which Minos imprisoned them with makeshift wings. The mosaic in Sousse depicts the defeated Minotaur. Theseus and the young Athenians sail from the gates of the Labyrinth, over which the words are written: "The prisoner here will perish."

Although the images of the Minotaur and the Labyrinth in Roman villas had hardly any symbolic meaning and served only for decoration, the mosaics in the crypts and on the sarcophagi reflect the Roman belief in the afterlife. On the reverse side of the Greek coins depicting the Labyrinth, one can often see not only the head of a bull, but also the faces of the goddesses Demeter and Persephone. Thus, even in ancient Greece, the Labyrinth was considered a symbol of the underworld, and the Minotaur was considered the personification of death itself.

In the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the Minotaur continued to be a popular character in church mosaics, illustrations for manuscripts, anthologies and encyclopedias, comments on ancient works, in poetry, and art. The dwelling of the Minotaur was seen as a symbol of worldly pleasures. On the mosaic in the church of San Savino in Piacenza, the Labyrinth symbolizes the world, wide at the entrance and narrow at the exit. It is not easy for a person spoiled by the pleasures of life to find his way to salvation. Guido of Pisa goes even further in his commentary on Dante's Inferno. In his opinion, the Minotaur was a descendant of Pasiphae and Taurus, the court king Minos, and symbolizes the Devil, and the Labyrinth is a symbol of the world of delusions (labor - "error" and intus - "inside"). Just as the Devil takes possession of souls when people take the wrong path, so the Minotaur devours young Athenians when they enter his dwelling. Just as Ariadne helped Theseus get out of the Labyrinth, so Jesus Christ leads lost souls to the light of eternal life. In other words, Theseus' duel with the Minotaur and the release of young captives symbolize the struggle of the Lord and Satan for human souls.

Such an understanding of the image of the Minotaur was close to the poetry of Boccaccio. In the "Genealogy of the Gods" he claims that from the union of the soul (Pasiphae - the daughter of the sun) and carnal pleasures comes the vice of bestial rage, which the Minotaur personifies. In the Middle Ages, it was customary to depict the Minotaur as resembling a centaur - with a human head and a bull's torso. This is apparently due to the vagueness of his description by Ovid and Virgil. Isidore of Seville mentions the Minotaur in an article on the centaur in his Etymology. In the form of a centaur, he is depicted both on the mosaic in the Cathedral of San Michele in Pavia, and on most of the illustrations for Dante's Inferno. Of interest is an extract from the translation of the works of Orosius, made by King Alfred, which says that the Minotaur is half-man, half-lion.

Undoubtedly, the best literary monument to the Minotaur was Dante's "Hell", in which the monster guards the "cruel" in the seventh circle. Dante does not directly name the Minotaur and speaks of him as "the misfortune of Crete", "creature" and "brutal wrath". During a journey through hell, Virgil, who accompanies Dante, taunts the Minotaur with a reminder of his death at the hands of Theseus. Enraged by the words of the poet, the monster begins to rush about in a blind rage, and the wanderers hurriedly bypass it. In Dante, the Minotaur is a victim of his own passions, he cannot forget his defeat, which predetermined his eternal fate.

In The Legend of the Good Woman by Geoffrey Chaucer (14th century), another variation of the ancient myth is set forth: Theseus takes with him pieces of wax and resin into the Labyrinth, which he throws into the mouth of the Minotaur to glue his teeth together. This episode is interpreted allegorically by Guido of Pisa. In his opinion, wax and resin symbolize the self-sacrifice of Christ in the name of saving mankind from Satan.

In the era of the late Middle Ages, the history of the Minotaur continued to interest artists and researchers and, to a lesser extent, poets and writers. In the editions of Metamorphoses and heraldic collections of the 16th and 17th centuries, one can find many engravings depicting the Minotaur. In the comments of George Sandis on the works of Ovid (1632), the Labyrinth is the world in which a person lives, the Minotaur symbolizes sensual pleasures, and Ariadne symbolizes sincere love.

Researchers of the 18th century tried to see in myths a reflection of real historical events. Thus, Diderot in the Encyclopedia (1765) writes that the monstrous image of the Minotaur should be understood as a condemnation of the betrayal of Pasiphae with the courtier of Minos Taurus, and the victory of Theseus over the Minotaur is an allegory for the outcome of the struggle of King Minos with the Athenians.

The marble statue of the sculptor Antonio Canova "Theseus the Triumphant" (1781-1782) symbolizes the victory of mind and beauty over the animal nature. Inspired by the frescoes of Pompeii, Canova sculpted Theseus sitting on the lifeless body of a bull-headed monster. The beautiful, muscular body of Theseus, the calm expression of his face, contrasts with the heavy body and bullish head of his opponent.

On the canvas Postav Moreau "The Athenians in the Labyrinth of the Minotaur" (1855) Theseus is not at all. On one of the sketches, Moreau depicted the Minotaur, squeezing a victim in his hands and trampling on a mountain of lifeless bodies with his foot, but in the end the artist abandoned this idea and depicted an equally dramatic scene: young Athenians hear the steps of an approaching monster - the girls huddle together in horror, the young men listen in fright, one of them, on his knees, points with his hand in the direction of the corridor, along which a creature resembling a centaur with the head and arms of a man and the body of a bull is approaching.

Moreau to some extent anticipated the attitude towards the Minotaur that was formed in the 20th century. The Minotaur was torn out of the usual circle of Theseus' exploits and the mysteries of the Labyrinth. Comparative mythology, the works of Darwin and Freud forced us to take a fresh look at this creature, at humanity in the beast and bestial cruelty in man. Such a change can be seen, for example, on the painting by George Watts "Minotaur". Impressed by a newspaper article about street prostitution, the artist decided to allegorically depict the destruction of innocence by rudeness. Minotaur looks into the distance from the wall of his citadel. In his hand he squeezes the crushed body of a swan. However, although the meaning of the allegory is quite transparent, the Minotaur hardly looks like a monster. Rather, as a being in which the human mind and consciousness struggle with dark instincts.

Since it was established how strong the influence of the Minoan civilization was on Greek culture, the emergence of the myth of the Minotaur began to be associated with the dominion of the Minoans at sea. Jackson Knight believes that the legend of the half-bull, half-man Minotaur arose from the stories of Athenian youths who brought tribute to Crete (some of which may have been tribute themselves). They talked about a culture they hardly understood: about an unusual palace and rituals, priests in bull masks and a labyrinth dance. Knight believes that the Minotaur is a figment of the imagination of the Greeks, a mythological image of priests with bull-headed masks.

Martin Nilsson disagrees with this point of view, and points out that although attempts to connect the legend of the Minotaur with the Cretan bull cult seem logical, there is no evidence that the Minoans also adhered to this cult. In Crete, bullfights were common entertainment, not a sacred ceremony. Nilson believes that the formation of the myth was influenced by images of half-humans, half-animals.

Cretan frescoes depicting jumping over a bull, apparently, can serve as confirmation that the myth of the Minotaur is a reflection of the Minoan custom of setting up a bull as opponents of captive gladiators. Such a duel usually ended badly for the captive, and the bull was sacrificed, killing with a double-sided ax - “labrys” (perhaps the word “labyrinth” comes from here).

The most significant contribution to the artistic image of the Minotaur in the 20th century can be considered a series of engravings and sketches made by Picasso between 1933 and 1937. For the surrealists, the Minotaur was a symbol of the conflict between the forces of consciousness and the subconscious. Picasso made a sketch for the cover of the first issue of the Minotaur magazine. On each of the subsequent issues, published until 1939, the Minotaur was depicted, as it was represented by Dali, Magritte, Max Ernst, Rivera and others. Picasso's minotaur is changeable: in one drawing he is the personification of the dark and cruel in man, in the other he is a playful cheerful animal. In depictions of the death of the Minotaur, Picasso connects the Spanish bullfight with the Cretan ritual. In the engraving "The Minotaur in the Arena", a naked girl pierces the monster's back with a sword in front of an indifferent audience. In the drawing “Death of the Minotaur”, a bull-man bleeding in an empty arena, raising his head, looks longingly at the sky. The series ends with an image of the redemption of the Minotaur, which brings to mind the finale of the story of King Oedipus: a blind, decrepit beast is led by a leash by a little girl with a bouquet of flowers.

In these and other drawings, Picasso not only reinterprets the myth of the Minotaur, but turns him into a tragic hero. The artist, like no one else, managed to use the versatility of this image to reflect the various states of the human soul. A contradictory image in which incompatible concepts have merged: bestial cruelty and humanity, anger and suffering, death and extraordinary vitality, is perhaps one of the best symbols of human consciousness of the 20th century.

There is no serious reason to doubt the validity of the opinion that the myth of Theseus' victory over the Minotaur and his release of the Athenians from shameful tribute is based on historical events. Minos, like Melqart, personification of the sun; he is a representative of the Phoenician culture both in terms of wise legislation, justice, technical arts, and in terms of fierce and sensual religious customs. The myth says that Minos killed the Megarian Nis and forced the Athenians to send boys and girls as tribute to him, and that he gave these boys and girls to be devoured (sacrificed) by a bull (the personification of the sun) in the Labyrinth. The mythological Labyrinth was a symbol of the starry sky with winding lines of constellations and orbits - it is clear that this legend is based on the legend of the rule of the Phoenicians in Attica. The small island of Minoa, which protected the Megarian harbor of Nisei from the sea waves and was subsequently connected by a bridge to the shore, was such a point on which the Phoenicians liked to establish their settlements. The Athenian tradition said that Porphyrion - "the maker of purple" - built in Attica the temple of Aphrodite, that is, Ashera-Astarte. - The bull of Marathon, whom Theseus killed in myth, came from Crete. All these are traces of Phoenician settlement and dominion.

The myth of Ariadne, the wife of Dionysus, the goddess of the fertile land, in honor of which a holiday was celebrated on the island of Naxos, beginning with sad and ending with joyful rites, was probably also a symbolic memory of the displacement of the cult of Ashera-Astarte by the Hellenic culture, the center of which in the Cyclades archipelago later became the cult of Apollo on the island of Delos. According to the myth, Theseus, returning from Crete, stopped at Delos, performed the first dance of victory there at the altar of Apollo, and broke the branch of the sacred olive tree. The Athenians sent an embassy every year to Delos to minister there. For this embassy there was a special ship of ancient construction, according to the popular opinion expressed in the myth, the very one on which Theseus returned from Crete.

Fight of Theseus with the Minotaur. Drawing on an ancient Greek vase

The myth of Theseus and the Minotaur

The Athenians suffered great grief at that time. A few years ago, Androgey, the son of the mighty Cretan king Minos, came to Athens for the feast, and at the games he defeated all the best fighters of the city in single combat. Such a shame struck the Athenians and more than all the other kings of Aegeus. Aegeus decided to lime the winner and sent him for this purpose to the marathon bull; the calculation was successful, and in the battle with the bull Androgei fell dead. The news of his death quickly reached Minos, who was then on the island of Paros: he, according to a vow, offered sacrifices to the gods. The Cretan king equipped a strong fleet and himself went with him to the shores of Attica, intending to take revenge on the treacherous Athenians for the death of his son. Having conquered Megara allied with Attica, he camped near Athens and kept the city under siege until hunger and disease forced the inhabitants to surrender. Then Minos imposed a heavy tribute on the Athenians: every eight years they had to send seven young men and seven maidens to Crete - both were doomed to be eaten by the Minotaur, a terrible cannibal monster, a bull-man. The Minotaur was the fruit of unnatural love, the wife of Minos, Pasiphae, for the bull sent by Poseidon to Crete. According to the myth, Pasiphae seduced this bull by lying down in a wooden cow made for her by the famous craftsman Daedalus. The Minotaur lived in a labyrinth built by Daedalus - a building with countless and intricate passages. As soon as the unfortunate victims landed on the shores of Crete, they were immediately taken to this building, and here they were devoured by the monstrous Minotaur.

During the stay of Theseus in Athens, the ambassadors of Minos arrived there and demanded the usual tribute; for the third time the Athenians had to pay this tribute. The city was filled with sorrow and cries. According to the established custom, the victims of the Minotaur were chosen by lot. Heartbroken fathers, who had adult sons and daughters, made bitter reproaches to Aegeus, saying that he, being the culprit of all evil, alone remains uninvolved in the people's grief, alone does not bear punishment, and together with his son calmly and indifferently looks at how the citizens are taken away children are sent to a cruel death. Hearing these reproaches and grumblings, Theseus decided to voluntarily go to Crete along with those who would be indicated by fate. The father begged and conjured him to stay at home: it would be hard for the old man to die childless after fate sent him happiness in his old age, which he craved all his life - gave him a son, the heir to his name and throne. Theseus did not change, however, his decision. He assured that he had enough strength to overcome the Minotaur, that he would not only free the victims doomed to the Minotaur, but also save the city from the obligation to serve a terrible service: according to an agreement concluded between the Athenians and the king of Crete, they were obliged to pay this tribute only until then as long as the Minotaur is alive. Aegeus yielded, and Theseus, calling with his companions for the help of Apollo, courageously and cheerfully set off on a ship equipped with black sails as a sign of sadness.

The oracle of Delphi gave Theseus advice - to ask parting words from Aphrodite, the goddess of love, and choose her as a guide. Although Theseus did not understand the meaning of the words of the oracle, before sailing he offered a sacrifice to the goddess on the seashore. Only upon arrival in Crete did Theseus understand the meaning of what he had heard from the oracle. Ariadne, the lovely daughter of the fierce Minos, saw the young man, and felt boundless love for him. She secretly handed him a ball of thread with which he could find a way out of the labyrinth. When Theseus, along with the unfortunate victims of the Minotaur, was led into a labyrinth that stood in a wild and desert area, he attached one end of the thread at the entrance to the building and, unraveling the skein, went along the winding passages to the place where the Minotaur was waiting for them. Theseus immediately attacked the monster and, after a heated struggle, killed him. Having killed the Minotaur, he, holding on to the thread, went back together with the rescued young men and maidens and safely got out of the labyrinth. Joyful were the cliques of those who escaped from the Minotaur, when they came out of the labyrinth and again saw the rays of sunlight; Ariadne was waiting for them in trembling excitement and fear. Having crowned the curls with myrtle and roses, with joyful cries and singing, young men and maidens dance a merry dance; the rows of dancers constantly get in the way and get confused and make figures that look like intricate meanders of a labyrinth. Subsequently, this dance was danced on Delos in memory of the liberation of the Athenian youths and maidens.

Theseus kills the Minotaur. Drawing on an ancient Greek vase. Photo by Marie-Lan Nguyen

Not long, however, they rejoiced and rejoiced; Upon learning of their salvation from the labyrinth of the Minotaur, Minos fell into a great rage, and a new disaster was ready to break out over him. Theseus and his companions began to hastily prepare to sail from the island. Ariadne also left Crete with them: love forced her to follow Theseus to a foreign land; she was also afraid of the wrath of her father if he knew that the Athenians had come out of the labyrinth with her help. Before sailing from Crete, Theseus, on the advice of Ariadne, destroyed the bottom on all Cretan ships - so that Minos would not be able to immediately go in pursuit of the fugitives. So happily and safely they reached the island of Naxos, where they stopped for a while. Here Dionysus appeared to Theseus in a dream and announced that his savior from the Minotaur, Ariadne, should not follow Theseus further: by the will of fate, she was destined to be the wife of Dionysus. Theseus was afraid of incurring the wrath of God and fulfilled his command: with heavy grief in his heart, he sailed from the island at the time when Ariadne fell asleep. Waking up, she saw herself abandoned, alone on a deserted island, and burst into loud complaints about her helplessness and the treachery of the young man, for whom she had sacrificed everything. Then the god Dionysus appeared before her, told her her fate and reassured her with a promise to make her a participant in the bliss of the gods. Ariadne became the bride of Dionysus, and Zeus introduced her to the face of the gods. The crown that was put on her when she was betrothed to Dionysus was subsequently caught up to heaven and turned into a constellation, and to this day these stars shine in the sky and are called by people the crown of Ariadne.

Longing for the lost Ariadne, Theseus sailed from Naxos to the shores of Attica. Saying goodbye to his father, he promised him that if he killed the Minotaur, he would replace the black sails with white ones on the ship when he returned. Struck by grief, Theseus, approaching the shores of his homeland, forgot about his promise and did not take off his black sails. For many days now the old Athenian king had been sitting by the seaside on a high rock and looking into the distance at the sea: he was still waiting for his beloved son. And then, finally, the long-awaited ship appeared in the distance, but - woe! - the sails on it are black: Aegean son fell in mortal combat with the Minotaur! In despair, the unfortunate father threw himself into the sea and drowned in its waves. Meanwhile, Theseus arrived at the harbor, immediately began to bring the promised sacrifice to the gods, and sent a messenger to the city with the news of deliverance from the shameful tribute. The messenger was amazed to see that only a part of the citizens rejoiced at the news he brought and was going to marry him as the herald of the winner of the Minotaur, while the majority listened to him with sadness. The mystery was soon cleared up. The news of the death of Aegeus quickly spread throughout the city, and as soon as the Athenian citizens learned about this unfortunate event, they were all filled with great sorrow. The messenger sent by Theseus accepted the crown that was due to him, but did not adorn his forehead with it, but sadly placed it on his staff and returned to the harbor to his master. Theseus had not yet finished the sacrifice in honor of the victory over the Minotaur, and therefore the messenger, so as not to embarrass him with the mournful news of the sacred ceremony, stopped in front of the temple and waited. Theseus ended the sacrifice with a generous distribution of alms. Then a messenger approached him and told him about the disastrous death of his father. Theseus was shocked by the sad news and, full of sorrow, quietly entered the mourning city, which he hoped to see rejoicing and greeting him with loud cries of joy.

The ship, on which Theseus traveled to Crete to the Minotaur and back, was considered sacred by the Athenians and kept for many centuries, using it only for the sacred embassies that were sent annually from Athens to Delos, on the feast of Apollo. When any part of the ship fell into disrepair, it was immediately replaced by a new one and, thus, in that ship, over time, all parts were replaced by other, new parts.