Craft production. Ancient civilization. Rome: Craft

In the south of Italy, traditional crafts are treated with care. Until now, belonging to a particular craft remains a purely family matter: professional secrets are protected and passed on from generation to generation. Woodworking is the most popular craft in Calabria.

The region has always been the main supplier of wood to the Papal States, and local craftsmen have always been considered the best wood carvers. For centuries, carving remained a favorite pastime of shepherds who went to the mountains for a long time. The Palmi Museum houses a unique collection of carved canes and staffs. Collections of antique chairs are exhibited in the Polia and Sarastretta museums. And the most interesting exhibition of carved furniture is in Reggio di Calabria.

Traditional craft of Bisignano and Acre production musical instruments. The sound of the famous Bisignan guitars is considered the most complete and rich in the world.

In Napoleonic times, the industrial production of smoking pipes was organized in the town of Villa San Giovanni, which had a special research laboratory. The pipe factory is closed, but the old Calabrian ones smoking pipes are in demand among collectors even outside Italy.

A hundred years ago, any Calabrian woman was engaged in weaving. Now there are scientific centers to study the characteristics of local textile production. In an area inhabited by ethnic Greeks, the town of Bova Marina has workshops for processing fibers and creating products using ancient technologies from silk, wool and cotton. Small textile workshops are scattered throughout Calabria: from Tiriolo to Cortale, from Longobucco to San Giovanni in Fiore, from Palizza to Polistena, from Cariati to Cacurri. Each city has its own school. For example, in the province of Cosenza they weave carpets in the Arabic and Byzantine styles.

Near Vibo, Soriano, Conflenti, San Giorgio Morgeto and Altomonte there are centers for the production of wicker furniture, straw and willow products.

Stone processing factories are concentrated in the Lazza area around the quarries. Copper and iron products are produced in Catanzaro, Laureana, Borrello and Serra San Bruno. Ceramics are especially loved by Calabrians. Traditions of artistic clay processing have existed since antiquity. Often local ceramics resemble the vessels of the masters of ancient Hellas. Particularly popular are the products of the workshops Gerace, Seminara, Polistena, Nicotera, Pizzo, Squillace, Belvedere, Altomonte, Bisignano and Rogliano.

The crafts of the province of Cosenza include the traditional art of processing figs, but Belmonte Calabro is considered the real capital of dried figs.

Despite the general standards, it remains purely individual. What seems completely natural, for example, to a Milanese, may turn out to be inappropriate or completely unacceptable for a Calabrian. First of all, this concerns simple human relationships. In the north of Italy, you will receive a specific, but very restrained answer to your question, which is not conducive to further development of relations. In Calabria, on the contrary, the person answering gets carried away so much that both interlocutors often lose the basic thread of the conversation, of course, if you speak Italian. Often, all people nearby intervene in the dialogue, solely out of a desire to help. So to the question “How to get to the library?” you will receive not one, but several, sometimes mutually exclusive, pieces of advice.

Gradually, the conversation will move in a different direction, they will ask you about where you came from and what you are doing in Calabria, they will definitely ask how much you like it, and may complain about the difficulties of local life. Do not hesitate to reveal the secret of your origin, Russians are very loved here, although not everyone knows where Russia is and what language is spoken in this mysterious country. You shouldn’t count on the average store owner to name the current president of our country, but many remember Gorbachev, and the politically literate even Yeltsin. Often a spontaneous conversation ends with drinking coffee or homemade wine together. However, if you continue to insist on going to the library, they will find you a knowledgeable guide.

The Calabrians’ love for detailed communication should not be perceived as a consequence of laziness, it is their way of life. Unlike us, they do not fight for life, but simply live and enjoy this process. The lack of basic knowledge of the Italian language should not become a serious obstacle to communication. You'll be lucky if you come across a polyglot who speaks English or another European language; in any case, the language of drawings and gestures remains. All you need is a desire to convey information, and you can be sure of the readiness of local residents to understand a confused foreigner at any cost.

• • Subject of historical geography
    • Subject of historical geography - page 2
  • History of the emergence and development of historical geography
  • Geographical environment and development of society in the feudal era
    • Geographical environment and development of society in the feudal era - page 2
  • Physiographic zoning Western Europe
    • Physiographic zoning of Western Europe - page 2
    • Physiographic zoning of Western Europe - page 3
    • Physiographic zoning of Western Europe - page 4
  • Distinctive features of the physical geography of the Middle Ages
    • Distinctive features of the physical geography of the Middle Ages - page 2
    • Distinctive features of the physical geography of the Middle Ages - page 3
• Population geography and political geography
  • Ethnic map of medieval Europe
    • Ethnic map of medieval Europe - page 2
  • Political map of Europe during the early Middle Ages
    • Political map of Europe during the early Middle Ages - page 2
    • Political map of Europe during the early Middle Ages - page 3
  • Political geography of Western Europe during the period of developed feudalism
    • Political geography of Western Europe during the period of developed feudalism - page 2
    • Political geography of Western Europe during the period of developed feudalism - page 3
  • Social geography
    • Social geography - page 2
  • Population size, composition and location
    • Population size, composition and location - page 2
    • Population size, composition and location - page 3
  • Types of rural settlements
  • Medieval cities of Western Europe
    • Medieval cities of Western Europe - page 2
    • Medieval cities of Western Europe - page 3
  • Ecclesiastical geography of medieval Europe
  • Some features of the geography of medieval culture
• Economical geography
  • Development of agriculture in the early and developed Middle Ages
  • Farming and land use systems
    • Farming and land use systems - page 2
  • Features of the agrarian system of various countries of Western Europe
    • Features of the agrarian system of various countries of Western Europe - page 2
• Geography of craft and trade
  • Features of the location of medieval craft production
  • Wool production
  • Mining, metalworking shipbuilding
  • Geography of crafts in individual countries of Western Europe
  • Medieval trade
  • Mediterranean trading area
    • Mediterranean trading area - page 2
  • Northern area of ​​European trade
  • Areas of coin systems
  • Transport and communications
    • Transport and communications - page 2
• Geographical ideas and discoveries of the early and developed Middle Ages
  • Geographical ideas of the early Middle Ages
    • Geographical ideas of the early Middle Ages - page 2
  • Geographical ideas and discoveries of the era of the developed Middle Ages
  • Cartography of the Early and Developed Middle Ages
• Historical geography of Western Europe in the late Middle Ages (XVI - first half of the XVII century)
  • Political map
    • Political map - page 2
  • Social geography
  • Demographics of the late Middle Ages
    • Demography of the late Middle Ages - page 2
    • Demography of the late Middle Ages - page 3
  • Church geography
  • Geography of agriculture
    • Geography of agriculture - page 2
  • Geography of industry
    • Geography of industry - page 2
    • Geography of industry - page 3
  • Trade of late feudalism
    • Trade of late feudalism - page 2
    • Trade of late feudalism - page 3
  • Transport and communications
  • Travels and discoveries of the 16th-17th centuries.
    • Travels and discoveries of the 16th-17th centuries. - page 2
    • Travels and discoveries of the 16th-17th centuries. - page 3

Geography of crafts in individual countries of Western Europe - page 2

In the second half of the 15th century. the economic importance of this area grew even more: as already mentioned, at this time the rise of the mining industry began, which brought southern Germany to one of the most developed regions of Europe. For almost a century, until the middle of the 16th century, the imperial lands occupied a virtual monopoly position on the continent in the mining of silver and copper. The most important area for the extraction of silver ore and silver production was the Saxon-Czech mining region, where the richest deposits of the precious metal were discovered.

In copper smelting, the palm belonged to Mansfeld enterprises. At the same time, metal mining increased in traditional areas, especially in Tyrol. In terms of the scale of production and investment, in terms of the scale of construction of mines and smelters, German mining became the largest industry in Europe at that time. The rapid economic development of this region has led to an increased contrast between it and the rest of the country.

The territorial picture of the distribution of the leading industries in Italy was as follows. In Central Italy, the most developed Tuscany was the pan-European center of the wool industry. In addition to cloth, silk was also produced here, a variety of jewelry, expensive leather crafts, and art objects were made. In the Tuscan Maremma, non-ferrous metals were mined in small quantities. In addition to Florence, the most important centers of the region were Siena, Lucca, Prato; the rest of the cities in this part of the country, including Rome, did not play a big role in the economy.

In Northern Italy production was more varied. In addition to the textile industry, which existed in all major cities, metalworking and weapons production (Milan), shipbuilding (Genoa, Venice), glass production (Venice), jewelry making and various local crafts were developed here; iron was mined in the mountains (Lombardy), non-ferrous metals (Veneto), and salt was mined on the Adriatic coast. In general, despite the incomparably smaller scale of textile production, Northern Italy was economically more developed than Central Italy, and production here was distributed more evenly, covering the center (Milan), east (Venice) and west (Genoa) territories.

Besides those mentioned, Bologna, Verona, Padua, Piacenza, Vercelli, Chieri, Treviso, Pavia and many other cities were famous as the largest craft centers. In Southern Italy, Naples was the most important craft center, but its production mainly served the needs of local residents. In this area, perhaps, only mining stood out - the extraction of iron and non-ferrous metals in Calabria.

Until the 13th century, the time of the decisive successes of the Reconquista, in Spain there was a sharp line between the level of craft development of the Christian North and the Muslim South. In the south were located flourishing cities, centers not only of silk and cloth production, but also of various other crafts, drawing the nearby districts into the sphere of regular exchange - Seville, Cordoba, Granada, Valencia, Malaga, etc. Here the craft was distinguished not only by a high level of development, but also on a large scale; so, already in the 10th century. There were about 13 thousand weavers in Cordoba. The manufacture of weapons was widespread (the famous Arab armor and swords of high artistic decoration) - Almeria, Murcia, Seville, Granada and, above all, Cordoba and Toledo. Large tanneries were located in Cordoba, paper workshops in Xativa, ceramic factories in Seville, Valencia and many other places. Silver mines were developed in Jaen, and mercury mining began in Almaden.

Against this background, the craft production of the Christian north looked extremely poor. The only major craft center here was Sant'Iago, but it was also mainly focused on the immediate surroundings. Of the crafts that have received more or less significant development, only clothmaking (Albarassin), leather tanning (Zaragossa and other cities of Aragon and Catalonia), and iron mining can be mentioned.

The conquest of most lands from the Arabs led to a slight decline in the level of crafts in this territory, but cloth production and weaponry in the cities of inland Spain continued to develop. In the Kingdom of Aragon, the craft rose in Catalonia (Barcelona, ​​Lleida), where a variety of cloth, silk, cotton fabrics, pottery, leather, etc. By the end of the 15th century. in the Catalan craft there are signs of decline and cities such as Seville, Cordoba, Toledo, Segovia, Leon, Granada, etc. are coming into first place.

In Spain and abroad, for example, Seville ceramics (especially tiles), saddles, inlaid harnesses and spurs, leather and velvet products, Toledo swords, daggers, hats and other household items were widely known. But already at this time, the destructive impact of the crown’s intervention in the development of crafts became noticeable - excessive regulation of production and sales of products, tax pressure, etc., which subsequently led to the collapse of the Spanish economy.

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Natural conditions- more than 4/5 of the territory is occupied by mountains. In the north are the southern slopes of the Alps (highest point Mont Blanc, 4807 m, mountains - 2000-4000 m). Along the entire peninsula are the Apennines (maximum height - 2914 m), at their foot there is a narrow intermittent strip of coastal lowlands. The relief of Sardinia and Sicily is also predominantly mountainous. There are many volcanoes - Vesuvius, Etna, Vulcano, Stromboli. Earthquakes are frequent. Karst landforms are widespread - wells, sinkholes, caves, etc. Largest plains- Padanskaya - 1/7 of the territory (length 500 km, width - 80-200 km), marshy Maremma (Tuscany), in the south - Campanian lowland. The eastern shores of the peninsula are slightly indented; in the west there are many convenient harbors. The river network is dense. The largest river is the Po. The soils in the Padan Valley are brown forest, in the lowlands - brown, in the upper zone of the mountains - mountain-meadow podzolic and mountain-forest. Groves - holm and cork oak, pine, Aleppo pine, beech, chestnut, oak, spruce, fir, subalpine meadows. The climate is subtropical, mild winters, hot summers.

In the Middle Ages Italy was not a single state. Northern Italy in the VI-VIII centuries. was under the rule of the Lombards from the 8th century. became part of the Carolingian Empire. The collapse of the Carolingian Empire and the separation of Northern and Central Italy into a special kingdom in 855 did not change the situation. Throughout the Middle Ages, many, mainly foreigners, fought for the crown of Italy. Undoubtedly, in the Middle Ages Italy was one of the economically developed and densely populated countries of Western Europe. The climate and soil were conducive to the cultivation of vineyards, olives, and fruit trees. Apulia, Calabria, Sicily are the breadbaskets not only of the southern regions of Italy, but also of the North and Center of the country. Mainly durum wheat varieties were grown. Urban communes played a major role in the construction and operation of land reclamation systems. In the X-XII centuries. in the Po Valley, southern Veneto, the Ligurian coast and Tuscany, local construction of canals and ditches, dams and drainage works by cities is documented. In the 12th century. residents of Verona reclaimed 1,200 hectares of land from the swamps, 20 km southeast of the city (Paleo region). The work was carried out by artisans, knights, and members of the liberal professions. The developed land was divided into plots, which first became hereditary holdings, and then property. They grew wheat, rye, millet, spelt, semi-spelt, barley, sorghum, oats, legumes (beans, beans, mutton groats, lentils, vetches); grapes, contracts of the X-XIII centuries. testify that wastelands and abandoned lands, and sometimes even arable lands, were turned into vineyards; fruit trees - apples, figs, pears, almonds, pomegranates, plums, peaches, cherries, medlar, rowan, laurel, and fruit trees were grown both in gardens and in vineyards and olive groves. In the 13th century roses began to be grown in the Amalfi region. The inhabitants of Campania adopted from the Arabs the culture of citrus fruits, previously unknown in Italy (from the 2/2 10th century). Sericulture spread throughout the country. Local raw silk appeared in Italy in the 10th century. The new crops in Calabria were cotton and sugar. reed, rice, and dyeing plants were grown. In the regions of Padua, Bologna, and Piedmont, flax was grown, and hemp was grown in Ferrarra and Bologna. In many peasant farms there were vegetable gardens where leeks, garlic, cabbage, lettuce, turnips, spinach, lettuce, and celery were grown, from the 13th century. - melons, pumpkins, from the 15th century. - rice, mulberry. According to a number of indirect data, it has been established that in Tuscany and in the south two-field farming was common, in the Padan Plain from the 13th century. - three-field. In addition, in the south and (almost everywhere) there was a system of polyculture, when grains, legumes were planted on separate plots of land, most often fenced (podere), and vineyards, olives, and fruit trees were located along the edges, which sometimes served as the border of the field. Productivity - in the 14th century. - sam-3, sam-4, sometimes - sam-5, in the early Middle Ages - sam-2, sam-3. Fertilizers were used, both naturally and specially, they introduced manure, ash, a mixture of legume stalks with ash - sovesho.

Types of peasant communities in the X-XIII centuries. were diverse: consorteries, village communities, parish associations, from the 12th century. rural communes and their federations. The family, or family collective, played a major role in the economic life of Italy. Basically, the family was individual, although there were also households that included adult brothers and sisters. The bride had to bring a dowry (dos) - movable property (clothing, bedding, household utensils), or money. The husband also made a gift (1/4 of his movable and immovable property, or depending on the size of the wife's dowry) the morning after the wedding night - morgencap - morning gift. The wife was under the authority of her husband, just like the children; liberation from the authority of the father took on the character of a special legal act (emancipatio). Property transactions were made with the consent of both spouses. The family was also a fiscal unit. It was several such families that made up the consorteria - a community of peasants who were co-owners of individual plots of land, which were their joint property, holding or renting. The number of consorts ranged from 2-3 to 10-20 families. Payments and duties were usually collected from the entire group of consorts. One of the types of rural communities in Italy were parish associations. Neighboring parishioners had to maintain the church, roads and bridges in proper condition, provide quarters and guard the parish castle, etc. One of the remarkable facts of the heyday of feudalism was the existence of rural communes; their emergence dates back to the 12th and late 11th centuries. In southern Italy from the 10th century. so-called settlement charters - collective agreements between peasants, often living in fortified burgs, with spiritual and secular feudal lords. The struggle against the feudal lords revolved around the ownership of communal lands and the procedure for electing the community administration. Community members demanded a reduction in payments and restrictions on the lord's judicial power. Great place were concerned with the issues of liberating serfs and colons from personal hereditary dependence. As a result of this struggle, rural communes began to appear. The rural commune was the collective feudal owner of a forest, pasture, meadow and vineyard, arable land, or a collective tenant of these lands from a lord or city. Communal lands could be jointly owned by members of the commune, but more often they were divided and distributed by the communal administration for holding or rent. The administrative and judicial bodies of the commune established and changed the boundaries of individual plots located within its boundaries and resolved various land disputes. The Commune also tried to regulate the mobilization of land ownership and rental relations. The alienation of land holdings could occur with the special permission of the commune council and was subject to conditions: a ban on selling them to feudal lords and the church, granting pre-emptive rights to members of the commune or the commune as a whole. There was a rural administration - rectors, syndics, consuls, podestas, elected by the commune itself, but more often approved by the city lord or lord. The commune had its own legislation. The highest legislative body of the commune was the general council, which met twice a year. It included heads of families, sometimes all taxpayers from 18 to 70 years old. Leading positions were occupied by representatives of the wealthy peasantry and popolans who had land on the territory of the commune. The highest stage in the development of rural communes were federations, which included several dozen small communes. The specificity of the agrarian system of Italy is such that high level urbanization led to the fact that cities began to gradually subordinate rural communes to their influence. At first, the city supported the struggle of the communes against the lords, and then it itself became a lord.

Patrimony structure in Italy it was the following - there were 2 types common - domain + peasant holdings, and peasant holdings, no domain, i.e. by the 12th century everywhere domain plowing became insignificant, so field corvee was only a few days a year. Basically, corvee was reduced to transport duty, often with grub. The small role of the patrimonial households was due to the unique economic and social status of the landowners - many of whom were city residents, traders, moneylenders, artisans, liberal professions, and members of the city administration. Therefore, their patrimonial economy was closely connected with the city economy. All this also determined the special path of evolution of feudal land rent - from the significant spread of cash rent (along with food and corvée) in the early Middle Ages to the almost universal predominance of product rent in Northern and Central Italy in the 13th-14th centuries.

The most numerous category of feudal-dependent peasants in Northern and Central Italy were libellarii, emphyteuti and other hereditary holders. The specificity of their economic and legal status was their possession of broad rights to dispose of holdings close to property - they could sublease land, donate it, sell it, both respecting the right of preferential purchase by the owner of the land, and without informing him about it. Therefore, the payment for commissioning was high, several times higher than the chinsh. Libellarii had to pay fees, perform transport duties, receive the master's envoy or himself, submit to the judicial power of the owner, pay fees for grazing cattle on the master's land, and for mowing the grass. As members of rural communes, they had to pay property and income taxes to the benefit of the commune and the city. XIII century - in Italy, the time of liberation of serfs and colones from the most severe forms of personal dependence. The cities initiated the liberation. Thus, in 1257, the “Book of Paradise” of Bologna appeared, according to which the personal dependence of the peasants around this city was annulled. At the end of the 13th century. Florence freed 6,000 peasants, however, only those lords who did not recognize the power of Florence. But we can say that the process of liberation of peasants took place everywhere.

In Northern and Central Italy in the XIV-XV centuries. changes occurred in the situation of most of the peasantry. Traditional libelary and hereditary holdings of other types were replaced short-term rental - sharecropping and affectation (affitto - rent for a fixed monetary or natural sum - fict). The object of lease for use - mezzadria poderale (mezzadria poderale) were most often podere - compact plots of land - up to 20-30 or more hectares, rented to 1-2-3 peasant families running the farm together. The economy here was conducted according to the polyculture type. There are features of mezzadria in Northern and Central Italy. In Central Italy - with this form of lease, the land owner also took part in the costs of production and reproduction - in addition to the land, he provided the tenant (on credit) with part of the seeds, on new plots he gave a loan for the purchase of livestock, sometimes he could pay for additional work on planting vines, digging up vineyards, making ditches, etc. The tenant-sharecropper is not the former owner of the land, but runs his own farm, like a libellary. He cannot run the household on his own; he has no funds, although he does most of the work himself. He buys all or part of the livestock, delivers manure, etc., but has no rights to the leased plot. He not only cannot alienate the holding (donate, sell, mortgage), but he cannot use it economically at his own discretion, cannot carry out agrotechnical transformations if the latter were not stipulated by the contract and were not carried out at the request and direction of the owner, i.e. In Italy, farming leases using hired labor did not become noticeably widespread (especially in Tuscany)) until the 18th century. What is the position of the sharecropper? Must hand over ½ of the harvest of “all fruits” to the owner, i.e. grain, wine, fruit, etc., the tenant performs work on the site: expanding arable land, planting vines, fruit trees, preparing a certain amount of wine, must, oil, etc. In the XIV century. these works were partially paid for or recorded as debt, but most often were carried out at the expense of the tenant. In the XIV and XV centuries. + “add. gifts" - chickens, eggs, pork, lamb. The sharecropper could leave his plot only after paying the landowner in full and leaving the new tenant with manure, straw, chaff, etc. Livestock was bought at the market, the owner reimbursed ½ the cost of the livestock to the tenant, as well as ½ the cost of seeds (usually legumes, but not the main crop - wheat), but these amounts were also lent. Research shows that in the end, what was left to the sharecropper was only enough to cover his most basic needs, leaving him no surplus. At the market he bought livestock, seeds for the farm, or sold some of the wine to buy wheat, millet, beans, clothing and shoes. Landowners, who owned dozens and hundreds of leased poderes, sold up to ½ or more of the harvest at the city market. The tenant most often did not have enough share of his harvest even to provide for his needs, so chronic sharecropper indebtedness is a common occurrence in the Italian countryside. Therefore, sharecroppers resorted to outside earnings, hired work in a neighboring village, their wives spun and weaved for the workshops of Lana or Kalimala, later Seta. Florentine merchant of the 14th century. Paolo da Certaldo notes the ever-present feeling of discontent and hostility among sharecroppers towards their masters. He advised the landowner to avoid meeting with peasants as much as possible in holidays, when they are “hot with wine,” and visit them on weekdays, during field work, when they are “calm” and “submissive.” Tenants of small parcels (croppers or affictars) had to bear expenses at their own expense, unlike holders of larger land holdings. The landowner either had no or minimal participation in the costs. Farms of this kind were more profitable for the owner than any other. The tenant of the parcels could provide himself with the means to subsist only ½ of what was necessary, so he was engaged in crafts, trade, day labor, etc.

In the North of Italy (in Lombardy) the path of sharecropping and affectation was different. In the river valley The zone of irrigated meadows expanded with the use of new hydraulic structures. At the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV centuries. here large-scale rentals began to spread, in which elements of capitalist entrepreneurship with the constant use of hired labor appeared. The greatest development was the renting of a large plot of meadow by 3-4 tenants for the purpose of producing hay for sale or a large plot of arable land with payment in kind - grain. Tenants subleased the land and hired farm laborers. The size of the podere increased in the 16th century. (including meadow and arable land). Leasing of livestock (sochida) also expanded. So, the main figure in the XIV-XV centuries. became a tenant-shacropper in the village. The prerequisites for the medzadria were the concentration of land holdings in the hands of the populace. The transition to sharecropping was progressive, since sharecropping is a transitional form from feudal rent to capitalist rent, but in the Italian village all expenses fell on the tenant.

One of the main features of medieval Italy was its higher general level compared to other European countries. urbanization and urban civilization. Foreigners in different centuries were invariably amazed by the extraordinary economic activity, wealth, political freedom, and the sheer number of prosperous Italian cities. Only over time, and only in the Netherlands, did the scale of urbanization begin to approach Italian standards. Ancient cities - Turin, Milan, Verona, Parma, Modena, Bologna, Florence, etc. In the early Middle Ages, a hierarchy of legal and administrative status of cities developed in Italian society. Episcopal centers (there were about 300 of them throughout Italy) had the status of a city proper (cittá). Next came burgs (borghi), castles (castelli) with a trade and craft population and other urban-type settlements (terre). Among the various regions of Italy, the percentage of urbanization was especially high in Tuscany, in Central Italy - 26.3% in the 13th century. Other European countries were not able to reach this level by the 15th century. The specialization of cities began to appear early - Milan - weapons, Lucca - thin cloth made from French and Spanish wool, Venice - glass, velvet, brocade, salt, shipbuilding, Genoa, Pisa - shipbuilding, Florence - cloth.

Communal movement in Italy began in the 11th-12th centuries. Legally, the status of a commune was granted by a charter granted by the German emperor - as the supreme overlord of the Italian lands; sometimes charters were granted by the pope. For example, the commune of Milan was proclaimed in 1098, consuls appeared in 1117. The College of Consuls was chosen from 3 groups of the population - wealthy merchants, Valvassors and captains, i.e. knights and middle feudal lords. In the 13th century The city-communes of Northern and Central Italy turned into independent states, of which there were about 70. In the center of Italy, the exception was Rome and other cities of the papal region, where all attempts to establish communal administration were suppressed. In the south - in the 11th century. the cities enjoyed broad rights of self-government, but the situation changed after the conquest of Italy by the Normans in the second half of this century and the formation of the Kingdom of Sicily in 1130.

Milan- Castle of Italy. One of major cities Italy, with a population of 100 to 200 thousand people. Transit from Venice to Southern Germany went through Milan. Milanese artisans were famous for their high-quality and inexpensive cloth and the best weapons in Europe. The guilds gained strength and independence early. The small nobility was highly urbanized and isolated in an organized manner. The Valvassor corporation was called Motta. in 1198 the “Credenza of St. Ambrosia" is an organization of workshops, which is opposed to the "Credence of Consuls". Podestat did not take root in Milan, but the position of anzian (Polan elder) appeared. The first is Pagano della Tore, in the 14th century. the aristocratic tyranny of the Visconti was established (Matteo Visconti (1250-1322) - from the family of vice-counts of Milan, in 1294 - the ruler of Milan against Dela Torre (Guelphs), in 1302 the Visconti were expelled by the Tore from Milan, in 1311 they returned, in 1322, Matteo was succeeded by his son Galeazzo I the Great, after him the ruler of Milan, Gian Galeazzo (-1402), in 1395, Visconti bought the title from Emperor Wenceslaus, Duke of Milan and Count of Pavia, could not conquer the Duchy of Mantua, died of the plague in Marignano, in 1452 dominance passed to the house of Sforza).

Bologna- a Polish and Republican city, the glory of the city was the University of Bologna, whose lawyers revived Roman law. In 1228, as a result of the “great feud between the knights and the Polanians,” Bologna received the first Popolanian constitution, power was concentrated in the hands of the Ancian guilds. In 1255-1257 a captainate arose, a new constitution was issued, depriving magnates of civil rights, and a decree on the abolition of serfdom (the “Paradise Act”). In the 15th century they talked about Italian cities - Bologna - learned, Venice - rich, Florence - beautiful, Rome - eternal.

Venice- patrician aristocratic oligarchic republic (697-1797). The brightest. Serenissima. Venetian patriciate by the end of the 10th century. gained social homogeneity, agrarian, usurious and commercial interests intertwined and became united - commerce came first. According to M.A. Gukovsky, there has never been feudalism here. The peasantry is free, there were no special social unrest (with some exceptions - 1310, 1355, 1578), the patriciate is in power. The entire population is divided into 3 social groups - Nobili, Cittadini, Popolani. The last two groups had no political rights. In the 13th century the “Closing of the Grand Council” occurred and a constitution appeared. At the head of the state is the Doge, below is the Small Council (6), at the bottom of the pyramid is the Grand Council, where elections of all magistrates from the lowest to the Doge take place. The supreme authority is the Great Council, but there is also the Senate, the Council of Forty, the Council of Ten, etc. In 1268, the procedure for electing the Doge was established - 30 -9-40-12-45-11-41-1, so that there would be no various frauds, and the candidacy of the Doge would suit everyone. In 1315 there appeared " golden book", where all the names of the nobles were entered; such books existed in other Italian cities. There were 2 attempts to establish a personal dictatorship - in 1310 - the conspiracy of B. Tiepolo and in 1355 the conspiracy of M. Faliero, both failed, thanks to the vigilance of citizens. From the 13th century The maritime empire of colonial Venice was formed in the second half of the 15th century. interests began to extend to the terraferma - Padua, Treviso, Verona, the Patriarchate of Aquileia, Vicenza.

Genoa- the eternal rival of Venice. Oligarchic feudal republic. Republic of St. George, “Mistress” (Dominante). From the end of the 13th century. is experiencing its heyday, is conducting successful trade on the Black and Mediterranean seas, has trading posts in the East, in the Crimea (Sudak), trade relations with many European countries - Spain, France, etc. It was distinguished by political instability, either under the rule of Milan, then under the rule of the French, or under the rule of the Spaniards. Famous surnames - Doria, Spinola, Fieschi, Adorno. In the 15th century The constitution of Genoa appeared - headed by the Doge, who was chosen from citizens at least 50 years old, under the Doge there was a main advisory body - the Council of 12 elders (Antians), the legislative power was in the Small Council, there was a Grand Council (320). Until 1436, Genoa was part of the Duchy of Milan.

Rome- during the Middle Ages, for the most part, eked out a relatively miserable existence, on the one hand, from antiquity, the term - the eternal city and a certain status was preserved, on the other hand, the history of Rome was determined by the struggle of the popes with the feudal families of the city of Rome - Orsini, Colonna, and republican institutions - the Roman commune, senators. During the Middle Ages, many ancient buildings were stolen by zealous Roman owners to build their own. In the Middle Ages, the Capitol was called Goat Mountain; cattle were driven here to graze. Forum - Cow Field, its very place has been forgotten, 1 of the aqueducts has survived. But, nevertheless, Rome is a shrine Christendom. During the XIII century. Rome became an arena of political struggle. The position of the popes was extremely difficult, as they fought for power in the city with the senators. (Urban IV (1261-1264), Clement IV (1265-1268), Gregory X (1271-1276), Innocent V (1276), Adrian VI (1276), John XXI (1276-1277), Nicholas III (1276- 1280), Martin IV (1281-1285), Honorius IV (1285-1287), Nicholas IV (1287-1292). In 1308, the popes moved their residence to Avignon. In 1337, Petrarch visited Rome for the first time, and in 1341 was crowned with laurels on the Capitol. In May 1347, in the Eternal City, the people rebelled and established a republic led by Cola di Rienzo, who became the people's tribune. The nobility was forced to flee. Cola di Rienzo (Niccolò di Lorenzo Gabrini - the son of a washerwoman and an innkeeper ) put forward the idea of ​​​​unifying Italy led by Rome. Carries out a number of measures to strengthen the economic position of the city. Creates a militia, for which each of the 15 districts of the city had to field 100 foot and 25 horse soldiers, introduces criminal justice, and demands complete submission from the barons. He restored the salt monopoly introduced by Brancaleone (1252), streamlined the tax system, introduced a new coin, tried to encourage development and increase trade, organized a social security system, but in December 1347 (the commune existed since May) he was forced to leave the city. Wanders - mountains, in 1350 - was in Prague with Charles IV, after visiting Innocent IV Cola becomes a papal man, and when in 1354 he returns to Rome, his popularity fell sharply, the collection of taxes led to the fact that the people stopped supporting Kolu, a popular uprising begins, during which Kolu was forced to flee, but was captured and killed. The power of the pope in Rome was restored by Cardinal Albornoz, Pope Urban V decided to move to Rome in 1369, but the city made such a depressing impression that the pope returned to Avignon, but under the threat of losing all Italian possessions in general, he was still forced to move to Rome , in 1411, as eyewitnesses wrote, wolves wandered around the papal palace, the popes finally moved to The eternal City in 1417 (1420) under Pope Martin V.

Tuscany. The center is the social, political and economic Guelphism, the cities of Luca, Siena, Pisa, Florence sought to become independent city-states. Florence- located on the banks of the Arno River, Republic (St. John). In 1115, the owner of the Tuscan Margraviate, Matilda of Canossa, died, bequeathing all her lands to the Roman Church. But the popes were unable to lay their hands on these territories; the popolani commune won here, the castles of the surrounding feudal lords were destroyed, and the grandees themselves were resettled in the city. From the end of the 12th century. business people of Florence began to unite into corporations, and in 1192 the first mention of the Kalimala cloth workshop appeared. In the city during this period of time, legislative power officially belonged to the entire people (popolo), and executive power - since 1138, to the college of consuls, who were elected for a period of 1 year by city districts (of which there were 6), consuls were chosen from the knights. The conflict between the knights and the popolans was inevitable, so new form executive power - podestat (1193). In Florence, just like in other cities of Italy, there were 2 parties - the Ghibellines and the Guelphs, but with Florentine features - the Ghibellines - large feudal nobility, the Guelphs - townspeople + knights-nobles. In 1250, the Guelphs defeated the Ghibellines, expelling them from the city, and introduced a new constitution. In honor of this event, Florence changed its coat of arms - a red lily on a white background (previously - a white lily on a red background), although there is a version that the flower of Florence is the iris. The popolans established a new position - Capitano del popolo - leader of the people, who became the owner of executive power, and the podesta retained some administrative functions. A house was built for the captain - Bargello (1255). The Ghibellines, expelled in 1250, entered into an alliance with the emperor and the Sienese, and in a battle in early September 1260 near Monteaperti they defeated the Guelphs, in mid-September they entered the city, the constitution of 1250 was abolished, as well as the position of leader of the people , and the palace built for him was made into the residence of the leader of the army - Palazzo del Podesta. But they did not lay down their weapons. The guilds became stronger; in 1287 there were 21 of them; these were not only economic, but also (primarily) political organizations. The workshops were divided into 7 senior ones (Kalimala, Seta, Lana, Moneychangers, Judges and notaries, Doctors and pharmacists, Furriers), 5 middle workshops (butchers, shoemakers, blacksmiths, carpenters, small traders) and 9 junior ones. In 1282, they achieved that the executive power was in the priors, the legislative power in 5 permanent councils. Popolans are divided into lower and higher - skinny and fat people. In 1293, representatives of the popolo grasso completely pushed the nobility out of power and introduced a new constitution, “Establishments of Justice,” according to which political rights belonged only to representatives of the guilds. Government - Signoria - 9 people + Gonfaloniere of Justice. (They freed the serfs - especially those grandees who did not recognize the power of the popolans). But the political structure changed frequently. Contemporaries joked about this: “The Florentine law lasts from evening to morning, and the Verona law from morning to noon”). The political struggle in Florence did not end there. The Guelphs were divided into blacks (the leader - the Donati family - believed that the main enemy of Italy was the emperor) and whites (the leader - the Cerchi clan - the main enemy - the pope), in 1301 the “blacks” won, many “white” Guelphs were forced to leave city ​​(including Dante, Boccaccio). In the XIV century. an electoral system was formed in Florence (by 1352-1355). She was characterized by complexity. 5 steps - 1. - compilation of initial lists for election, include in this list persons who had a Florentine civil, true Guelphs, included in the matricula of any guild and were engaged in craft or trade, had a decent reputation, were not bankrupt and solvent (could pay a fee to the treasury) and could provide a guarantee. Three types of lists were compiled - from workshops, from city blocks (by direct voting), from the Guelph party. Notaries compiled a consolidated list; those persons whose names were found in all three lists could apply for senior positions. Stage 2 - a commission was elected - gonfaloniers of justice, 8 priors, 16 gonfaloniers of companies, 12 good people , 21 workshop consuls, 80 special elected officials (138 people in total). The commission discussed the candidates, when the name was read, the candidate's relatives and consorts left the hall, and the monks walked around with bowls, into which each member of the commission threw black or white beans, the bowl was covered with a sheet with the name of the candidate. Stage 3 - special officials “secretaries” were involved - they counted the beans in each bowl. The result was entered into a special “secret” notebook (only those for whom 2/3 of the votes were cast), then the notebook was given to the minority brothers. Stage 4 - special officials were involved. There were 4 of them, 1 from each quarter (1 from junior workshops, 2 from senior workshops, 1 from rentiers). They, having taken the notebook from the minorities, decided whether the candidates could perform this or that position, and entered those who were suitable for this on small cards (cedole), which were the lot. They distributed these lots into bags for each position, forming “bags for election.” 5 - elections - a special notary pulled out a ballot card from the bag and read the name. If there were no challenges, then the candidate received the position corresponding to the bag. The tenure of office is 2-4 months, i.e. the city was in a state of permanent elections. Florentines were worried if they did not receive one or another master's degree. Thus, Donato Velluti, in 1350, was worried whether his name was included in the bag for the post of Gonfaloniere of Justice, and worried whether he would be elected; in 1351, he received this position. In the state system of Florence, according to the calculations of the Florentine historian Guidi, there were 1900 elected positions, + 737 positions in the Councils of the people and the commune, + 1500 positions in the workshops and the Guelph party + 3600 temporary or extraordinary positions (almost 8 thousand). The positions were paid. The highest are the gonfaloniere of justice (since 1289), 8 priors - 2 from each quarter, 16 - from the commune, 12 - “good people”. In the middle of the 14th century. in Florence, new families are being put forward (Bardi and Peruzzi, after Edward III refused to pay them a debt of 1,365,000 florins (in 1252, Florence was the first in Europe to mint a gold coin - the florin) experienced bankruptcy) Medici, Strozzi, Alberti. In the 15th century Florence is a powerful and aggressive republic - 800 thousand people, in 1405 it bought Pisa for 206 thousand florins, 1421 - Livorno for 100 thousand florins. The Medici are now the richest and most influential banking house in the city. Former doctors. From the 13th century settled in Florence, owned tower houses in the Old Market. The son of the first Gondi Medici - Ardingo in 1296 held the position of Gonfalonier of Justice, the same position was held by Averardo, the founder of the banking house, his son Salvestro. Averardo's great-great-grandsons Cosimo and Lorenzo received 180 thousand florins from their father Giovanni (1429) without loans and real estate. By the end of his life (1464), Cosimo had accumulated 400 thousand florins, had branches in Rome, Milan, Pisa, Geneva, Avignon, Bruges, Ghent, London, etc., his heir - grandson Lorenzo the Magnificent - became the sovereign ruler of the city. But the Medici had enemies - Uzzano, Albizzi, so they were periodically expelled from the city, but the Medici returned, in 1513, after another return, they became dukes (Lorenzo, son of Piero - Duke of Urbino, and Julian - son of Lorenzo the Magnificent - Duke of Nemours. Daughter one of the Medici - Catherine became Queen of France. And Allesandro became the first Duke of Tuscany in 1569. In 1495, Florence was going through a period when Girolamo Savonarola, a Dominican monk, abbot of the monastery of San Marco, a fanatic, had a huge influence on the souls of the inhabitants, believing that God had sent him into the world to eradicate the vices of the higher clergy and secular rulers. Having come to power, Savonarola unleashed his wrath on everything worldly. From his sermons, economic troubles began in the city, therefore, with the sanction of Pope Alexander VI, the Signoria opened a case against Savonarola, in May 1497 he was excommunicated, and on May 28, 1498 he was executed in the Piazza della Signoria.

Political development town-communes went through several stages from the 11th to the 15th centuries.

Stage 1 - from the end of the 11th to the beginning of the 13th centuries. - the period of consular rule. Legislative power belongs to 2 councils - Big and Small. Executive power is in the hands of a college of consuls, the number of which varies from 2 to 20. different years and in different cities. Not the entire population of the city had the right to vote, but only nobles, knights, merchants, and artisans.

Stage 2 - from the end of the 12th to the middle of the 13th centuries. - podestat. Executive power passed from the consuls to the podestà, a foreigner, a knight, over 30 years old, had his own staff, received a salary from the commune, held the position for 1 year, after which he reported to the commune, and was subject to control by city councilors. Suffrage was granted to citizens who paid taxes and owned property. The short duration of master's degrees was a feature of urban democracy (from 2 to 6 months, max - 1 year), the Popolan government was the captain of the people.

Stage 3 - middle (could have been a little earlier) of the 14th century. - Signoria. The captain turned into a lord, first for an indefinite period, then hereditarily. At the end of the 13th century. this was the case in Verona (da Romano, then Della Scala), Milan, Mantua (Gonzaga, from 1328 Louis Gonzaga became captain, Louis's successors ruled Mantua until the suppression of the male dynasty (duchy from 1530), Ferrara (d´ Este), Padua (Carrara, a Venetian possession since 1406), Lucca (Castracani).The establishment of the signoria occurred with outward observance of the constitutional norms of the commune, but in essence it was a violent act, because the election of a lord at a popular assembly was carried out under armed pressure from supporters of the applicant, and the composition of the assembly was specially selected. Legally, the signoria rested on two principles - 1. the election of the lord at a national assembly or in grand council; 2 - granting him a vicariate by the emperor or the papacy. The People's Assembly transferred full power to the lord in the city commune and district: the right to issue and amend statutes, appoint officials, manage finances, and command the city army. The imperial and papal vicariate entrusted the lord with sovereign power over the commune, the right of court in the highest instance, the right of supreme legislative initiative, and decisions on issues of war and peace. Thus, signoria is a specific Italian form of government that arose in conditions when there were many heterogeneous economic centers, none of which became the economic and political center of the country, but each could unite a district or a larger area around itself, i.e. The Signoria was faced with the task of implementing local regional centralization.

Stage 4 - mid-XIV to late XV centuries. - transformation into large territorial states. Milan, Venice, Florence, Papal State, Naples. There was periodic struggle between them for lands and influence. Milan versus Venice in Lombardy, Venice versus Rome in Romagna, Florence versus Milan over the cities of Tuscany. In each state, steps were taken to unify the legislative, financial and military systems, but the main thing - in the conquered territory - was receiving income from them in the form of taxes, maintaining military fortresses. The centralization policy continued in the 16th century, without leaving the local framework. Positivity - political particularism in Italy - led to the flourishing of culture (renaissance), new forms of handicraft production (manufacture), organization of trade (kº) and financial transactions (banks, bills, double-entry bookkeeping).

The economic power of Italian cities was facilitated by the country's favorable geographical position at the crossroads between Europe and the countries of the Middle East. Rome - a center of pilgrimage, the CP contributed to the fact that Italian cities became intermediaries in trade on the Mediterranean Sea between Europe and the Middle East. The growth of urban wealth also depended on the exploitation of the countryside; complex farms (poderes) and small monoculture plots (parcels) were bought in the disretto, introducing a rental system. Italian cities(banking houses of individual cities) were creditors of the crowned heads and feudal nobility of Europe. All this led to development of early capitalist relations in the leading industries connected with the foreign market - clothmaking, silk weaving, shipbuilding. In the XIV century. manufactories appeared in Florence and other cities, manufactories functioned within the workshop. Merchant capital was used in trade, industrial entrepreneurship, and financial transactions.

The guild master's enterprise finally outgrows the old craft framework, turning into an early type of manufactory. These processes take place most clearly in the workshops of the Florentine workshop “Lana”, which become, as it were, an example of capitalist relations in Italy. Such a workshop, already in the 13th century. which included several dozen auxiliary workers, who are not difficult to find on the streets of Florence, turn into a complex branched organism. The degeneration of a workshop enterprise is associated with a corresponding change in technical production. The division of production into fractional operations leads to a significant modification of the tools of labor. The main feature of manufacture is the creation of groups and categories of workers performing one specific operation. In wool production there could be from 20 to 30 operations, each of which was performed by a special worker, in craft - an artisan made the product from start to finish. For example, M.A. Gukovsky describes the process of making fabric in Florence: wool (foreign) comes from the city customs to the sorting workshop. Here it is unpacked and sorted by weight and grade, initial cleaning is performed, sorted into 3 piles - fine, medium, coarse, and tied into bales. Then the wool is washed (in a boiling liquid of a special composition), then rinsed in the Arno in cold water, dried in the sun, then goes to the main wool workshop, hanged and subjected to fine cleaning, workers select the dirt, others cut off the remaining knots, pieces of skin with scissors and attach uniformity. After this, the wool was hung on special frames, knocked out, soaked in water, combed with combs, and during this process long and short fibers were separated. The long ones were sent to the spinner (worsted fabrics), who processes it, then goes back to the main workshop, is again checked, registered, sheared on shearing frames, ground, and dried. Again the wool goes to the main workshop, then to the weaver, then again to the main workshop, after which its final finishing begins - felting, stretching, shearing, drying, carding, dyeing. Coloring is the most crucial moment. Then again to the main workshop - it is checked, minor flaws are eliminated, the fabric is cleaned, folded and labeled. The central workshop of the woolen worker, his bottega has a different character - located on the lower floor of his house, in a number of rooms and premises facing the courtyard, since the front rooms are occupied by a shop with a display case and an entrance, the bottega accommodates several dozen, and sometimes hundreds of hired workers, more often total daily workers of various profiles - from unskilled workers performing auxiliary operations to experienced graders. Low-skilled workers - chompi - are the most numerous. Factors, accountants, and cashiers supervised the workers. The entrepreneurs who owned the bottega themselves did not take any part in production. Their competence includes investing capital, purchasing raw materials, selling finished products, and general management. The technical equipment differed little from previous times. D. Villani noted that in the 30s. XIV century in Florence there were 200-300 workshops producing 80 thousand pieces of cloth per year, their cost was 3 times the city budget. In Florence per year in the 14th century. 1,600,000 m of cloth were produced.

Early capitalism, which originated in the most advanced centers of Italy - Florence, Siena, Bologna, Perugia, Milan, Venice, etc. - developed in a feudal environment. Papal Rome, although it used the banking system of Siena and Florence, was a typical feudal center. Southern Italy and Sicily also developed as typically feudal areas. Previous forms of feudal exploitation and even serfdom remained intact in the foothills of the Alps and in some mountainous areas of the Apennines.

Early capitalist relations led to new methods of exploitation. It was cheap labor that was the main lever that the owners of manufactories used in order to overtake workshop production in terms of the relative cheapness of products, while improving their quality. Archival documents from Prato allow us to establish the daily wage of a hired worker in the cloth industry - 8 soldi. But from this amount you need to deduct a few soldi for fines. Food = 2-4 soldi per day, but I actually received 5 soldi. In fact, 18-25% of wage workers lived from hand to mouth. Therefore, in the second half of the 14th century. A social movement begins in Florence - low-skilled workers - Chompy. The reasons that led to the rebellion - the consequences of the Black Death, harsh working conditions and low wages, chompies - did not have political rights. The uprising began in the summer of 1378. The rebels destroyed the palaces of the nobility (fat people), prisons were opened and prisoners were released. The rebels had their own leaders - Meo del Grasso, Luca Melanie, teacher Gasparo del Rico and notary Agnolo Latini. The rebels seized power and held new elections. The new signory included representatives from the Ciompi. Michele Lando, an employee of the wool workshop, was declared Gonfaloniere of Justice. 3 new workshops were organized - 2 for small craftsmen and 1 for chompi. The petition stipulated that it was necessary to destroy the power of the entrepreneurs of the Lana workshop over the Chompi, the elimination of the position of a foreign official, a moratorium on debts, and rewards for the leaders of the uprising (for example, S. Medici received 600 gold florins per year + income from the shops of the Old Bridge). The priors agreed to everything. The new signoria, where representatives of the Ciompi, carried out a number of activities - adherents of the old regime were expelled and political criminals were returned from exile, popular troops of 40 detachments were created, which received payment, measures were taken to maintain power over the contado, a commission was created to revise the laws, Some measures have been taken to redistribute taxes. distribution of bread to the poor was organized. A demand was made that the industrial enterprises of Florence provide employment to all those workers who were available in the city. Michele Lando turned out to be a traitor, he was bribed and used to fight the Chompis. The “fat people” began to sabotage the orders of the signoria, the shops were not opened, and the workshops too. Unemployment and hunger began in the city. Ciompi, dissatisfied with the actions of the new government against the “fat people,” spoke out again in August of 1378, but was completely defeated. The workshop in which the chompi were united was liquidated, and their further organization was prohibited. Many Chompies were forced to flee the city. In 1382, 2 workshops of small artisans were also closed, and the position of a foreign official in the Lana workshop was restored. The “fat people” returned to power.

At the beginning of the 14th century. In Northern Italy there was a major social movement known as Dolcino uprising. In the second half of the 13th century. the discontent of the peasant and urban poor found expression in the spread of the heretical teachings of the Cathars and Waldenses. At the end of this century, a sect arose near Parma, led by the peasant Gherardo Segarelli, who called themselves the Apostolic Brothers. The sect preached equality, brotherhood, and evangelical life. Social composition - peasants, representatives of the lower strata of the village and city. In the chronicle of Salimbene they are called "rascals, villagers." In 1280, Segarelli was arrested, the sect itself was banned by the church, its members went underground. In 1300 (1301) Segarelli was burned at the stake. The North Italian priest Dolcino becomes the head of the sect. Dolcino preaches - Segarelli and the apostolic brothers looked at their contemporary era as a transition to the 1000-year kingdom of God, the goal of which is a return to the true rules of life bequeathed by Christ and the apostles. The world went through 4 stages - 1. - the era of the Old Testament - people only multiplied, 2 - the time of Christ and the apostles, at the end of this period the church established itself on earth, but received power and wealth, which perverted the apostolic ideal; 3. - the time of monastic orders that wanted to correct the situation, but neither the Benedictines nor the Franciscans succeeded in this; 4 - stage Segarelli - whose task is to create a true, apostolic church. The apostolic brothers believed that they were entrusted with the task of breaking down old orders and establishing new orders. The pope, Dolcino predicted, should be removed, and the choice of a new pope should depend not on the decision of the cardinals, but on God. All existing monastic orders must be dissolved, the church hierarchy must be destroyed, and a new church will emerge. The Neapolitan king Frederick was supposed to destroy the church. The apostles must only convince by word and example that they are right. The apostles taught that the spiritual authority given by Christ to the church was lost by it. therefore, the Roman Church is a harlot, which apostatized from the faith of Christ; spiritual power passed to the apostles. Everyone can join their order, no one can be saved and enter the kingdom of God if he does not belong to their order, everyone who persecutes them commits sin, prayers can be done not only in church, tithes cannot be given to the church. In 1303, when it became clear that preaching the doctrine peacefully was not effective, the apostles switched to military action as a response to the offensive of the church and feudal lords. The apostles planned in the river valley. Sessions to create a community that would live according to their rules - and with an equal redistribution of land. A league was created against the Apostolics - which included the Marquises of Saluzzo, Monferrato, the bishops of Vercelli, and others. On March 28, 1304, the battle of Gattinara took place, in which the rebels under the leadership of Cattaneo di Bergamo and Ambrogio Salomon were victorious. The Apostliki retreated to a mountain in the Novara region, where they created a camp and fortified themselves on Mount Parete Kalva (Sheer Wall). Pope Clement V issued a bull calling for a crusade against the Apostles. In the winter of 1305/1306. The position of the besieged was difficult. On the night of March 10, 1306, the apostles crossed the pass through the snow and reached Mount Zebello, not far from Treviso, where fortifications were created. In the summer of 1306, several battles took place, in which the apostles also won. In the autumn of 1306, the pope issued a new bull and addressed the Count of Savoy and the Archbishop of Milan and the Lombard inquisitors with an appeal to take part in crusade. A dead zone was created around the Apostolic camp, the blockade ring narrowed, and a city began. In March 1307, the assault on the Apostolic fortress began; the battle lasted 3 days. Many fell, many were taken prisoner - Dolcino, Margherita, Longino di Bergamo. An investigation was carried out, all sect leaders were executed after torture.

Throughout the Middle Ages Southern Italy developed in its own special way. Starting from the 6th century. Apulia, Calabria, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia were provinces of Byzantium. In the 9th century. The Saracens temporarily captured part of Apulia, and in Sicily they formed an emirate with its capital in Palermo. From the middle of the 11th century. Normans from the Duchy of Normandy (led by Robert from the Altavila family, nicknamed Guiscard (Guiscard) (cunning) and Roger, his barot. In 1046 he took the title of Duke of Apulia and Calabria (Robert), but the conquest continued until the 12th century, and only Roger II (1130-1154) managed to unite all of Southern Italy and Sicily under his rule) in France they captured a number of regions of Calabria, Sicily and by the end of the century all of Italy, founding the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1130). The process of the formation of feudalism here was not only slower than in Northern and Central Italy, but also differed in a number of specific features. The main changes in the economic and social sphere, which form the basis of feudalization, fall on the XI-XIII centuries. By this time, large feudal estates of spiritual and secular lords were taking shape. The territory of a large church estate was divided into 3 parts - 1 - the master's domain (lordly plowing), 2 - taxable plots of dependent peasants, 3 - lands that were rented out, as a rule, all this was located in stripes. A large secular estate also consisted of separate, small-sized estates. The reason for the dispersion was that in Southern Italy the purchase of land played a significant role in the formation and expansion of the secular fiefdom. Further, the growth of secular feudal land ownership occurred at the expense of the state fund. lands, the catapans who headed the Byzantine themes, the Gaetan and Neapolitan dukes, and the Salerno princes distributed these possessions. The dispersion was explained by the absence of primordacy before the Norman conquest, both in the Byzantine and Lombard regions of Southern Italy; the land was divided among all the sons (and partly daughters) of the feudal lord. In the southern Italian fiefdom in the X-XIII centuries. rent in kind prevailed. But the buyers of grain and wine were primarily not local cities, but the cities of Northern and Central Italy, as well as Dalmatia, Provence, Byzantium, Spain, Syria, Tunisia, Egypt, and Cyprus. It was mainly the owners of church estates who sold their products to foreign merchants.

The population of Southern Italy was distinguished by great ethnic diversity - Italians, Lombards, Saracens, Jews, Greeks, Normans. The Norman conquest of southern Italy led to changes in society. During the conquest, Robert Guiscard and other Norman leaders confiscated lands from the local nobility, which were distributed primarily to the relatives and associates of the Norman leaders and ordinary soldiers, and also catholic church. In addition, they received plots that belonged to small allodists, who were transferred along with the land. Therefore, it was the Norman conquest that accelerated the development feudal relations and feudal subordination of the free peasantry. A centralized state was created. The Kingdom of Sicily had a large knighthood. In 1152-1153 A Catalog of Barons was compiled - a census of the feudal lords of Southern Italy (with the exception of Calabria) indicating the size of the services that they are obliged to bear for their fiefs. They counted 8.620 feudal lords. True, small knights were also mentioned. Throughout the 12th century. a bureaucratic apparatus was formed. Under Roger II, the institution of justiciars was introduced, the king's local representatives in charge of criminal courts. At their head was the great justiciar. Following the Arab model, central financial bodies were created - doana regia (royal treasury), doana de secretis (chamber of accounts), and then doana baronum (plateia - lists of serfs belonging to the barons) were prepared and stored in it. The camerari - local financial agents - were subordinate to the master of the cameraria, who headed the financial department. It remained the highest authority and court of appeal in the 12th century. curia (council) under the king. No very large feudal secular estates were formed in Sicily. The barons here did not have the right of supreme jurisdiction; they judged only civil cases and minor criminal offenses. The king and the justiciars considered cases of treason, crimes related to lese majeste, murder, robbery, arson, etc. (with the exception of large church corporations, which had complete judicial immunity). The king also accepted appeals from the baronial court. Without the king's permission, the barons could not dispose of their fiefs. In order to control the transfer of fiefs to other hands, William II (1154-1166) passed a law requiring the king's consent to the marriage of a vassal or his daughter. The escheated fiefs passed to the royal curia. The relations of the Norman state with the cities were more complicated. In the IX-X centuries. urban growth is observed. The cities not only fought with the Saracens, but also traded with them. Amalfi, Atrani, Ravello conducted intermediary trade with North Africa and Spain. In the second half of the 11th century. the importance of Amalfi as an intermediary in trade with the East fell, this was due to the fact that in 1131 it was subjugated by the Normans, which meant the loss of the privileges of the Amalfians in Byzantium, Arab countries hostile to the Normans, and because the Amalfians suffered defeat in the naval war with Pisa in 1135-1137. Venice took Amalfi's place. The following cities are identified in Southern Sicily: Baria, Naples, Salerno. Crafts in Southern Italy were much less developed than trade. But nevertheless, Naples was famous for its linen fabrics, ships were built in Amalfi, but still in Southern Italy they preferred to buy oriental goods - luxury goods and more. With the rise of the northern and central Italian coastal cities and the decline of Amalfi, transit trade came to naught, while the volume of exported wheat, wine, olive oil and other products increased. The south was turning into the breadbasket of Northern Italy and other Mediterranean countries. Since food rent predominated in Southern Italy, internal trade developed poorly; only small local trade was relatively lively. Peasants sometimes needed money in order to pay off the feudal lord and the state.

Southern Italy has long attracted the attention of German emperors who fought for the subjugation of Northern and Central Italy. Frederick I managed to arrange the marriage of his son Henry and Roger II's daughter Constance, the heiress of the childless Sicilian king William II. But after William's death, the southern Italian barons opposed Tancred, Count of Apulia, to Henry. Only after the death of Tancred in 1194 did Henry VI manage to establish himself on the Sicilian throne. In 1198, he died suddenly, leaving a 3-year-old son, Frederick, whose guardian was Pope Innocent III. In 1212, Frederick II became emperor. This played a negative role in the life of the Sicilian kingdom. Its goal was to unite Germany and Italy, and Sicily served as the source of material resources for this union. Frederick spent his childhood in Palermo; he viewed Sicily as the “apple of his eye,” and considered it the center of his possessions. Frederick was an extraordinary man, a religious skeptic (as he said, there are 3 deceivers - Moses, Jesus, Mohammed), but he was the first to legalize the burning of heretics, not because they thought differently, but because they undermined the foundations of the state. Under him, a circle of poets was formed who wrote in the popular Italian language (the Sicilian school of poets - dolce stile nuovo), and in 1224 he founded a university in Naples. Frederick II strengthened central power. In 1220, the Capuan Assizes appeared - decrees on the destruction of all fortifications built by the feudal lords after the death of William II. The Melphian Constitutions (1231), a set of laws of the Sicilian state, played a significant role in strengthening royal power. They prohibited the carrying of weapons and the conduct of private wars in the state. The procedure for transferring fiefs by inheritance was established only with the permission of the royal curia, and Roger II's decree on marriages was included. In the 13th century chivalry was still a broad layer. Frederick's letters mention fiefs who hold up to 1/100 of the fief, or “poor feudal lords” who own a fief on which sit from 1-3 to 10 villans. Here there was no reliance on royal power on knighthood or cities. Frederick created a fiscal system, supplementing the system of taxes and duties adopted from the Normans with new levies, borrowing them from the Arabs. He introduced a direct tax - an annual levy (since 1235), which was paid by the feudal lords, the church, and the cities. Frederick sent letters to the inhabitants of the kingdom expressing his ardent love, invariably ending: “joyfully hurry to deposit the money.” There were also indirect taxes on wine, meat, olive oil, and cheese. The population was obliged to build fortifications. For the first time in Europe, a state monopoly on iron, salt, resin, and raw silk was introduced. Officials bought them completely from private individuals and sold them at a high price. All dyehouses belonged to the state. The policy regarding the grain trade was essentially approaching a monopoly; private individuals were forbidden to export grain from the kingdom until ships with grain belonging to the state were sent. The development of crafts was not encouraged; all necessary items were imported. Last years Frederick's reign - the beginning of the decline of Southern Italy. After the death of Frederick (1250) and the Troubles (until 1266), the Angevin dynasty was established. The situation of the peasants deteriorated sharply. The French feudal lords began to introduce banal rights, which were almost not widespread in the previous era. The laws that attached peasants to the land were confirmed. Charles of Anjou saw the Kingdom of Sicily as the first link in the chain grandiose plans that he wanted to implement - establishing dominance throughout Italy, the Balkans, Byzantium, and the Levant. He carried out the conquest of Sicily with the money of Florentine and Siena bankers, for which they entered here. In 1282, a revolt against Anjou began in Palermo. It began on March 31 (residents were unhappy with the transfer of the capital to Naples), the impetus for the uprising was the insult of local women by French soldiers. Later, a legend arose that the uprising was organized and began with the ringing of a bell. The uprising was called the "Sicilian Vespers". The movement spread throughout the island and up to 4,000 French were killed. Charles landed in Sicily and besieged Messina. The Sicilian parliament offered the crown to the Aragonese king Pedro III, the husband of Manfred's daughter, who took possession of the island. Charles returned to southern Italy. The War of the Sicilian Vespers began. Theater of operations - both at sea and on land. The war continued under Charles I's son Charles II (1283-1309) and was unsuccessful for the Angevins. At the peace of Caltabellotte (1302), Charles II had to recognize the fall of Sicily, where the Aragonese dynasty had established itself, leaving the Angevins with the Neapolitan kingdom.

XIV-XV centuries for Southern Italy - a time of political and economic decline, conservation of feudal relations. In political life, feudal strife for the crown. (Robert (1309-1343), head of the Guelphs of all Italy, lord of Florence, Rome, Genoa; his granddaughter Giovanna I (1343-1382 - strangled in prison), then Duke of Durazzo Charles III (Anjou); son of Charles, Vladislav (1386- 1414), his daughter Giovanna II (1414-1435), under whom anarchy reached its climax, adopted King Alfonso V of Aragon and Sicily, then declared another heir - Louis III of Anjou, and in 1442 Alfonso I occupied Naples, for the first time under Spanish rule uniting Aragon, Sicily, Naples, and transferred it to his illegitimate son Ferrante (Ferdinando) (1458-1494), and after the death of the latter, the Kingdom of Naples became a bone of contention between France and Spain.

CRAFT

Initially, many middle-income plebeians were engaged in crafts in Rome. A craftsman usually worked in a workshop or supervised its work and participated in the marketing of products. The workshops were small, and the number of auxiliary labor in them was limited.

Slave labor was more widely used in mines and in heavy work associated with public construction, such as temples, or the grandiose “cloaca maxima” - an underground drainage system that served to collect soil water.

With the growth of slavery in Rome, cheap slave labor gradually began to displace the labor of the free producer.

From the 2nd century BC e. the number of slaves in Rome increased greatly and slave labor was widely introduced into all branches of handicraft production. Along with small workshops, larger ones emerged, in which slaves mainly worked, not only in auxiliary work, but also in more complex work.

The workshop owners were predominantly freedmen. More often these were people of average income who did not themselves participate in the labor process. The most successful of them achieved quite high social status. A slave who paid a quitrent to his master could also become the owner of a workshop.

The Roman citizen treated the craft with contempt. But many wealthy citizens received payment for renting houses, premises, plots of land, mines, and lakes suitable for fishing.

IN late period empire, the decomposition of slave relations led to the predominance of free artisans in production, who, however, were attached to their profession. By force of law, the profession of a craftsman became not only mandatory, but also hereditary.

Craftsmen united in various colleges; created in the 6th century. BC e., they were professional associations of free artisans. These associations of artisans based on professions did not concern production interests; they were limited to common cults. Over time, craftsmen of narrow specialties began to join professional associations, and admission to these boards became more limited.

In the late republican and early imperial times, when a huge amount was concentrated in the hands of individual wealthy families

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the creation of slaves, home colleges appeared, which included people of various professions, both slaves and freedmen. Members of these colleges enjoyed a number of advantages: they participated in home festivities, religious rites, meals, and every member of the college, including a slave, could count on burial in the family crypt - the columbarium. These boards have become widespread in everyday life. Their appearance was also desirable for the higher circles of the slave-owning nobility: it contributed to the strengthening of the system of subordination of dependent people.

In the II-III centuries. n. e. Colleges of “small people” were especially widespread. Such boards included people of different professions, with a small income that allowed each member of the association to do required contributions. The members of the college of “small people” were mainly freedmen from the lower strata, as well as plebeians and slave artisans.

The leading role in these boards belonged to their patrons and other persons holding honorary positions. They were rich freedmen and representatives of the slave-owning nobility. A slave could also achieve the honorary position of master. But in essence, the upper strata of the colleges of “little people” were isolated from the mass of ordinary members.

Colleges of “small people” were a convenient form of municipal structure until, during the late empire, the decomposition of slave relations led to the emergence of new forms of social organization of the artisan population. At this time, through the legislative order, the collegiums became a direct instrument for the enslavement of the lower urban strata of society.

Metal mining and processing were known in ancient Italy during the most early period history of state formations. They developed especially highly in Etruria, where bronze casting and processing of precious metals reached an extremely high level.

Italy itself is not rich in fossil metals, but significant deposits of iron ore were located on the island of Ephalia in the Tyrrhenian Sea.

The method of smelting and processing iron was the same as in Greece. “Blacksmiths forge pieces of metal partly into weapons, partly into picks and sickles and other tools skillfully prepared by them,” says one ancient historian.

With the development of slavery in Rome, metallurgy reached its highest level. This was facilitated by the conquest of new territories rich in metal deposits and a large influx of labor.

Spanish mines were of particular importance in the development of Roman metallurgy. Spain is rich in minerals. Nowhere on earth, says Strabo, is there so much gold, silver, copper and iron in a natural state.

Regarding gold mining in Spain, Pliny said that Asturias, Galaecia and Lusitania annually yield 20,000 pounds of gold, most of which, however, is produced by Asturias, and no country in the world abounded in gold for so many centuries as it did.

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Preliminary exploration was limited to removing the top layer of earth and carefully studying the metal content in it.

The structure of the mines was essentially the same as in Greece, in the Laurian mines, but there were some technical improvements in the Roman mines of Spain. The drifts were made somewhat wider, wooden fastenings and mechanical devices were more often used to lift ore from the mine, and, what is especially significant, drainage mechanisms were used, the design of which was based on the use of an Archimedes screw. The drainage propeller was rotated by one or two slaves, who, holding a horizontal beam with their hands, stepped onto the propeller blades. This mechanism made it possible not only to pump out excess water in the adits, but also to divert underground flows, draining passages for sampling rock.

It is known about Galetia that there is no silver in it, but a lot of gold. They mined gold not in mines, but in an open way, using the power of rapid mountain streams, which, washing away the banks, destroy rocks and break off large blocks full of golden sand. People engaged in gold mining collect these stones and break down blocks saturated with gold sand. After this, they wash the earth and the resulting gold is melted in forges.

Another method of extracting gold is described in detail by Pliny, who says that this method “exceeds the work of the giants themselves. Using this method, mountains are undermined by the light of lamps, and adits are built in them at a great distance... To avoid landslides, vaults are installed in many places to support the mountain. The hard rocks encountered are overcome with fire and acids, or more often they are cut through, since the heat and smoke suffocate the workers; It happens that pieces weighing 150 pounds are cut off. The workers carry these pieces on their shoulders day and night and pass them to each other in the dark. Only those who work in the upper rows see the light... At the end of the work, the pillars of the vaults are cut down, starting with the inner ones. The mountain begins to collapse, and only the watchman at the top notices it. The watchman calls the workers with shouts and signs and at the same time runs away from the mountain. The settled mountain falls with such a crash that it is difficult for a person to even imagine. The winners, amid unimaginable noise and wind, look at the ruins of nature. But there is no gold yet. For when they dug, they did not yet know whether they would find him...”

Further, Pliny says that the collapse of the mountain is washed away by streams of water from mountain rivers, for which water pipelines are installed through rocks and stones, sometimes over long distances. The eroded earth flows down the gutters, and the gold settles in these gutters on ledges of rough thorns.

Pliny also has information about the smelting of gold. “What is dug out of the ground is crushed, washed, burned and turned into powder. The remaining sediment is thrown out of the smelter, crushed and melted again. Smelters are made from white clay-like rock of the earth, since no other earth can withstand the pressure of air, fire and hot metal.”

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The Romans' technology for processing various metals did not undergo significant changes compared to the technology known to the Greeks. We can only talk about the wider use of some branches of production that were already widespread in Hellenistic times.

This especially applies to the use of the technique of gilding silver and copper objects by amalgamation. This technique found wide application in the late republican and early imperial times, when luxury penetrated the life of the wealthy classes of slave owners and expensive silver utensils and numerous household silver items began to be used in large quantities.

When processing metals, a lathe was often used, the prototype of which was the long-known lathe for processing wood.

Roman craftsmen knew how to make steel, Spanish steel was especially famous, but the Romans did not use liquid smelting of iron, although they had observations about the transformation of iron into liquid state. “Iron,” says Pliny, “when melted, becomes liquid and then breaks like a sponge.”

Some technical improvements also occurred in blacksmithing: the design of blacksmith bellows was improved, and a nail board was invented, which was used along with the old technique of forging nails. They used metalworking equipment more widely.

Iron products have become more diverse. But in general, throughout the development of Roman metallurgy, it remained at a relatively low level, only the production of luxury goods and art developed quite quickly.

Work in the workshops was divided into many specialized processes carried out different people. Narrow specialization and division of labor in crafts survived until late ancient times. In the IV-V centuries. n. e. In the silversmith's workshop, even small silver vessels were made by many people.

Ceramics were widely used throughout the Mediterranean, and Roman culture inherited many traditions that had long existed in Italy itself, but were especially developed in Greece and the countries of the Hellenistic East. A hand-made pottery wheel was used to make dishes. The design of pottery kilns remained essentially unchanged, but kilns for mass production often achieved significantly large sizes and allowed higher firing of ceramics. Previously known techniques for producing relief ceramics using molds and stamps were widely used.

The production of red-glazed relief ceramics became widespread. It replaced painted and black-glazed Greek dishes.

One of the largest centers producing relief red-glazed ware was Arretium in Italy. In the vicinity of this city, about two dozen ceramic workshops with remains of their products were discovered. Arretin craftsmen have achieved perfection in making

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vii red glaze, which has an even color and a shiny surface, reminiscent of the shine of sealing wax. The vessels are decorated with relief ornaments and figurative images, usually arranged in horizontal belts.

The method of making red-glazed pottery was transferred from Italy to the western Roman provinces. In the 1st and 2nd centuries. And. e. The workshops of Gaul especially flourished. The production of red-glazed pottery was no less widespread in the eastern Roman provinces, mainly in the centers of Asia Minor - Pergamon and Samos. Its forms and ornamentation were closely related to Hellenistic Greek traditions. The red glaze has neither the density nor the shine of the Italian one.

The most significant area of ​​Roman pottery is associated with the production of building materials: bricks, tiles, ceramic pipes for heating walls and floors, and other products. Wooden molds were used to form a variety of building materials.

Burnt brick became one of the building materials for the first time among the Romans. It was used to build not only residential buildings and large public buildings, but also grandiose defensive walls and towers, underground canals and viaducts, which often reached a great length.

Such structures required a large amount of building material. A special organization of this production was required. The work was carried out not only in ordinary ergasteria by slaves and artisans, but to a large extent by soldiers. This is evidenced by stamps on bricks and tiles indicating the number and name of the legion.

Roman fired brick is relatively flat and usually square in shape. Half-size bricks with a triangular shape were used. The sizes of building bricks varied depending on their purpose.

In the architecture of Roman baths, special building materials were used to construct a heating system for floors and walls. In the hot section of the thermal baths, hypocausts were built, the floor was laid on top of numerous, low columns, usually made of square or round bricks. Hot air passed through the underground.

Ceramic devices used to heat the walls were made with great ingenuity.

One of the types of such bricks has the shape of a large slab, on one plane of which there are four moldings in the corners in the form of protrusions 6-8 cm high. Such slabs were used for wall cladding, laying the slabs on edge so that the protrusions faced the inside of the wall . Thanks to the protrusions, the cladding of the slabs remained at some distance from the wall, leaving space for the circulation of hot air, heating the walls of the room.

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Hollow bricks or large vessels were placed in the ceilings of vaults to lighten the structure and improve acoustics. Extremely light hollow bricks, probably also used in the masonry of vaults, were made in Spain from special clay. Such bricks could float on water.

In Roman construction and engineering technology it was used a large number of pottery pipes. They were used to make underground water pipes, drains for roofs, and were used as chimneys and in the heating system.

Depending on the purpose, the sizes and shapes of the pipes varied. To connect a section of pipes, their ends were made of different diameters: the outlet end ended in a narrow coupling, which was inserted into a wide hole in the adjacent pipe. The joints were coated with lime mortar.

The wide variety of ceramic building materials among the Romans was associated with the needs of engineering technology, civil and military construction. The flourishing of this area of ​​pottery, however, hardly affected the production of roofing tiles. Compared to Greek tiles, Roman tiles look modest, their forms are monotonous, and artistic ornamentation has largely disappeared, being partially preserved in the Eastern provinces.

An example of a common type of Roman tile is the roof tile found at Herculaneum. Two collapsed roof slopes, consisting of flat and semicircular tiles in cross-section, have been preserved here.

When the Romans in the 1st century. BC e. penetrated into the Middle East, they found developed glassmaking here. Local craftsmen made precious two-color vessels, the surface of which was covered with carved images reminiscent of carved cameos. They made glassware covered with gilding and decorated with engraving, as well as the finest mosaic objects from multi-colored glass threads. Bundles of these threads, dissected transversely into numerous plates, preserved the image of a flower on each plate. From such plates, using a mold, the master created colorful mosaic vessels.

All these achievements were adopted by the Romans and used by Italian craftsmen.

But the main achievement of Roman glassmaking took a different path, the origins of which are also connected with the Eastern Mediterranean.

In Syria, glassmakers invented a method for melting transparent, colorless glass. In the 1st century BC e. The blow tube was invented. Its use has opened up completely new possibilities for the wide production of relatively cheap, mass-produced glass products. Syrian masters already in the 1st century. n. e. transferred their art of glassmaking to the soil of Italy, and from there the production of blown glass spread to all the western provinces and continued to develop there until late ancient times.

Roman glassmaking techniques were varied. Tube blowing was done with and without molds. The forms allowed language

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prepare blown figured vessels with relief ornamentation, relief letters and signs. Vessels made by simple blowing are extremely diverse, and most of them make up the most mass-produced products.

As glassmaking developed, the methods of decorating vessels also became more complex: they began to use more polishing and engraving, creating continuous patterns on the surface of the vessels, decorating them with applied colored threads and dark glass soldering.

The invention of transparent colorless glass is associated with another great achievement of Roman craft - the manufacture of window glass.

In Italy, window glass was used already in the 1st century. n. e. Subsequently, this area of ​​glassmaking received very wide development, especially in the Western Roman provinces, and continued to develop in these

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regions until the 4th century. n. e. Glass production workshops with numerous remains of products were excavated here.

Wooden molds were used to make window glass. They were pre-moistened with water and then the glass mass was poured out, stretching it to the edges with tongs. The edges of window glass are always rounded and slightly thickened. The usual size of window glass is 30-40 cm. But glass of much larger sizes is known. Bronze window frames with remains of glass measuring 1.0 X 0.70 and 54 X 0.72 m, with a glass thickness of 0.013 m, were found in Pompeii.

In Italy, crafts were especially highly developed in Etruria and Campania. Artisan weavers made fine and coarse woolen fabrics; there were also dyers and fullers.

Clothing workshops required bulky equipment that was not available to small farmers. The center of this production in Campania was Pompeii. Several large fulling workshops were excavated here. The paintings on the walls of Pompeian houses provide detailed information about the process of work.

To remove fat from wool, cloth was soaked in mortar vats. In large workshops there were several such stupas, separated from each other by low partitions. The fabric was drenched in urine and covered with special clay that could absorb fat. A special artisan - fullon - trampled and crushed the fabric with his feet, leaning on the partitions, then beat the fabric with rollers on special tables, then thoroughly washed it with water and dried it on poles or ropes. After drying, they were brushed using hedgehog skin or a plant such as thistle, and white fabrics were fumigated with sulfur, stretching the fabric over a hemispherical frame. After fumigation, the fabric was rubbed with special clay, which imparted strength and shine to the surface, and for final finishing, folded pieces of fabric were placed under a press.

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An image of a press with two vertical screws is found on one of the Pompeian frescoes. An authentic wooden press was found in Herculaneum. It consists of a vertically placed wooden frame, in the center of which one wooden screw is fixed. The screw rotated using a through rod, pressing on the horizontal boards between which the fabric was clamped.

Within one fulling workshop, work was divided between different persons. The main master was a fullon, whose work was very hard; it was performed by free artisans. There were other workers in the workshop, including women, who performed the lighter processes involved in finishing the fabric.

Carpentry and carpentry saw significant development; there were also cabinet makers. Numerous wooden items were preserved in Herculaneum, charred by the hot ash of the eruption.

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Vesuvius in 49 AD e.: tools, a bed with a raised wall at the head, a chest, a small cabinet decorated with carvings, and other items made mainly by local craftsmen. IN Roman time Even more than in Hellenistic times, veneers from expensive types of overlay wood were used in carpentry.

Carpentry was even more important. Interfloor decking and rafters for roofing were made from wooden beams. Carpenters also put together temporary cladding on both sides of the walls, which were constructed primarily from layers of crushed stone and mortar. Carpentry was particularly developed in the forest-rich northern provinces.

Information about the construction of two wooden bridges has been preserved. One of them was built by Caesar across the Rhine, the other - much more grandiose - was built across the Danube by order of Emperor Trajan (beginning of the 2nd century AD). The deck of this bridge rested on wooden arches supported by stone bulls.

Carpentry work was widely introduced into military equipment associated with the construction of siege engines: the needs of military affairs largely determined the development of some branches of crafts. This applies, in particular, to the development of leatherworking. To arm Roman soldiers, shields and shoes were required, which were made of leather; armor was also made from leather.

Shields were made of thick leather stretched over a wooden frame. Legionnaires' shoes had very thick soles, forged with nails with wide heads; whole pieces of leather were sewn to the edges of the sole, cut inside into narrow strips. This device allowed air to pass through and made it possible to quickly and easily strengthen shoes on the foot. The image of a tannery was preserved on one of the Pompeian frescoes.

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Stonemasonry is primarily associated with the extraction of stone. Stone types are varied, and not every stone is suitable for construction. There was no good stone in the immediate vicinity of Rome, and it had to be imported. Vitruvius advises keeping the broken stone in the air for two years, and those rocks that give cracks should be used for foundations, and well-preserved ones should be used in the above-ground part of buildings.

The methods of extracting stone and the tools used in the quarries remained essentially the same as those used by the Greeks. Special mention should be made of the method of extracting large monoliths for hewing out an entire column trunk. The technique of these works is illustrated by the preserved traces of an unfinished excavation of a monolithic block in one of the quarries of the western province. On the leveled surface of the rock, grooves with recesses for wedges, located at the same distance, are still visible. The wedges used were metal or wood. The wood for the wedges was hard and dry. It was driven into the grooves and soaked for a long time, as a result of which a crack formed along the line of the groove and the required part of the rock monolith was broken off. The Romans' stone processing techniques remained largely old.

One of the main construction techniques was the method of constructing an arch and a semicircular vault from wedge-shaped stone blocks laid dry. The complexity of such structures lay in the need for careful cutting of wedge blocks, the dimensions and shape of which had to match exactly. Sometimes blocks were hewn out in quarries from a solid mass of stone, which made it possible to better fit the sides of the blocks with less loss.

When laying out an arch or arched vault, a temporary wooden frame was used, on which wedge-shaped blocks were laid, starting with the two lower, supporting stones and ending with one, the upper, castle,

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which, pushing apart other stones, held the entire complex structure of the vault.

To lay stone wall cladding, stones were cut in the form of blocks, laid dry and connected with staples and iron fasteners filled with lead. The inside of the wall was filled with so-called Roman concrete: even alternating layers of crushed stone and lime mortar, forming a strong monolith.

During the period of the empire, wall cladding with tiles made of marble and other rare types of stone was widely used. The surface of the tiles was carefully polished, contributing to the impression of pomp and luxury.

Those areas of craft labor that were directly related to the achievements of monumental Roman construction and the urgent needs of military and engineering technology achieved the highest and most original development.

There were times when rich merchants came to Venice and were immediately escorted to the Arsenal. The galley was already rocking on the waves and the crew was ready to set sail to the sea to pass through the sea gates and deliver their guests to the places where the masters of Italy performed their miracles.

Famous guests wanted to have colored glass and pamper their beloved women with rare lace.
So the ships were heading to Murano and Burano. The first island has a rare and ancient destiny.

Even after the invasion of the Huns, all the best glassblowers of this era fled here. Secrets here were strictly kept secret and even the stoves were removed to protect them from competition.

This place was famous for its products, and had its privileges. Even the city police could not interfere in the life of the island, and all residents had special rights. But it was strictly forbidden to leave the land, but girls could marry Venetian rich men on the condition that they would also remain in Murano.

Each workshop had its own ancestral secrets, and becoming a student was not easy. The apprentice had to work for more than 15 years to prove his ability to make these masterpieces.

There were rumors in the 15th century that glass could break from a drop of poison. The worst thing was that the masters could be lured away by foreign rulers and then destroyed. This was not the case and many masters passed on their knowledge to the workers.

Ten of the best artisans were in England and created their things for the king. But the Council of Doges did not like such a miracle and the people were recalled to their homeland. Venetian glass is so perfect that only in this corner is it produced best.

The main attraction remains the wonderful museum, where such types of glass objects are collected that it will take your breath away to admire these creations.

There is a school attached to the building, and these days the craftsmen are ready to show that they have not lost the heritage of their ancestors at all. A separate part is devoted to archeology and presents many valuable finds in these places.

When you approach Burano, you will immediately notice these colorful houses, which are simple and so elegant that all the children on this island feel like rulers of a fairyland.

Special instructions are being given to residents of the center. They are all required to constantly update the paint on their buildings. The colors here can be chosen according to the taste of the authorities, to whom the resident sends his request on such an important topic.
People like to tell the story that this idea arose so that drunken husbands could find their way home by colors, and even a stain of paint was placed on the forehead of chronic alcoholics and then carried into their home.

The great Galuppi was born in Burano. This composer and virtuoso performer became famous outside his country and gave concerts in Russia many times, where he played for the Empress.

But this is not the only thing that made the island famous. These places are famous for their finest lace and there is a story about how it was during the 16th century. At that time, many monasteries stood on Venetian soil and the impoverished nobility sent young girls there. They could not marry without a dowry, despite their high level of education and a lot of advantages.

How can these young ladies like the monotonous monastic reality? So the beauties decided to create something like salons in places for general visits. This became so fashionable in the 18th century that the reception rooms of all monasteries were crowded with young men, and young nuns decorously received guests with lace cutlery in their hands.

The lion's share of the products brought huge profits to these monasteries, but often such masterpieces of the craftswomen were received by fans. This is how the art of weaving arose, and the fashion for such things rose in price so much that Colbert realized that it would be more profitable for him to personally bring craftswomen and train all French women in such a way. fine art.

Manufactories were opened, and many countries had already mastered the technique of this craft. But the products of Burano are still the best, and no one can surpass the local craftswomen. By visiting these places, you will get a lot of new impressions from such legendary new products of the country.