Download the entire school biology course in tables. Subject. School textbooks on biology, their structure

The best cheat sheet in biology!
Contains material on all sections of the school course.

The reference book will help you systematize your knowledge, prepare for lessons, tests, as well as for the Unified State Exam and Unified State Exam.

In the application you will find:

Biology as a science. Methods of scientific knowledge:
- Biology as a science
- Level organization and evolution
- Biological systems

Cell as a biological system
- Modern Cell Theory
- Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
- Chemical composition of the cell
- Carbohydrates and lipids
- Proteins and nucleic acids
- Cell structure
- Metabolism and energy conversion
- Fermentation and respiration
- Photosynthesis and chemosynthesis
- Genetic information in the cell
- Biosynthesis of protein and nucleic acids
- Chromosomes, their structure and functions
- Cell life cycle
- Mitosis - division of somatic cells
- Meiosis
- Development of germ cells in plants and animals

Organism as a biological system
- Diversity of organisms
- Reproduction methods
- Fertilization in flowering plants and vertebrates
- Ontogenesis
- Genetics, its tasks
- Chromosomal theory of heredity
- Laws of inheritance by G. Mendel. T. Morgan's laws
- Genetics of sex. Gene interaction
- Human Genetics
- Patterns of variability
- Non-hereditary and hereditary variability
- Types of mutations
- Hereditary human diseases, their causes
- Selection, its tasks and methods, the law of homological series
- Biotechnology. Cellular and genetic engineering, cloning

System and diversity of the organic world
- Diversity of organisms, works of C. Linnaeus and J.B. Lamarck
- Kingdom of bacteria
- Kingdom of Mushrooms
- Lichens
- Plant Kingdom
- Structure and functions of plant organs
- Root, shoot, bud, stem, leaf
- Flower, seed, fruit
- Vital activity of the plant organism
- Reproduction of a plant organism
- Variety of plants
- Lower plants. Departments of algae
- Higher spore plants
- Higher seed plants
- Angiosperms
- The role of plants in nature and human life
- Unicellular
- Multicellular animals
- Flatworms
- Roundworms
- Annelids
- Shellfish
- Crustaceans
- Arachnids
- Insects
- Chordates
- Vertebrates
- Fish
- Amphibians, or Amphibians
- Reptiles, or Reptiles
- Birds
- Mammals

The human body and its health
- Fabrics
- Digestive system
- Respiratory system
- Excretory system
- Musculoskeletal system. Skeleton
- Muscles
- Integumentary system
- Circulatory system
- Lymphatic system
- Human reproduction and development
- Internal environment of the human body
- Blood groups
- Immunity
- Metabolism
- Vitamins
- Nervous system 146
- Endocrine system
- Analyzers. Sense organs
- Organ of vision
- Organs of hearing, smell, taste and touch
- Higher nervous activity
- Dream, its meaning. Consciousness, memory, emotions, speech, thinking
- Hygiene, healthy lifestyle

Evolution of living nature
- Type, its criteria. Population. Microevolution
- Evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin
- Forms of natural selection. Types of struggle for existence
- Synthetic theory of evolution. Elementary factors of evolution
- Evidence of the evolution of living nature
- Macroevolution. Directions and paths of evolution
- Hypotheses of the origin of life on Earth
- Basic aromorphoses in the evolution of plants and animals
- Human appearance. Hypotheses of human origins
- Driving forces and stages of human evolution
- Human races, their genetic relatedness

Ecosystems and their inherent patterns
- Habitats of organisms. Environmental factors and their significance
- Environmental factors: abiotic, biotic
- Anthropogenic factor
- Ecosystem and its components: producers, consumers, decomposers
- Ecosystem structure
- Trophic levels
- Circuits and power networks
- Rules of the ecological pyramid
- Diversity of ecosystems
- Self-development and change of ecosystems
- The biosphere is a global ecosystem.
- Teachings of V.I. Vernadsky about the biosphere
- Living matter, its functions
- Biological cycle and energy conversion in the biosphere
- Evolution of the biosphere

The best biology cheat sheet!
Contains material on all sections of the school course.

The reference book will help you systematize your knowledge, prepare for lessons, tests, as well as for the Unified State Exam and Unified State Exam.

In the application you will find:

Biology as a science. Methods of scientific knowledge:
- Biology as a science
- Level organization and evolution
- Biological systems

Cell as a biological system
- Modern Cell Theory
- Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
- Chemical composition of the cell
- Carbohydrates and lipids
- Proteins and nucleic acids
- Cell structure
- Metabolism and energy conversion
- Fermentation and respiration
- Photosynthesis and chemosynthesis
- Genetic information in the cell
- Biosynthesis of protein and nucleic acids
- Chromosomes, their structure and functions
- Cell life cycle
- Mitosis - division of somatic cells
- Meiosis
- Development of germ cells in plants and animals

Organism as a biological system
- Diversity of organisms
- Reproduction methods
- Fertilization in flowering plants and vertebrates
- Ontogenesis
- Genetics, its tasks
- Chromosomal theory of heredity
- Laws of inheritance by G. Mendel. T. Morgan's laws
- Genetics of sex. Gene interaction
- Human Genetics
- Patterns of variability
- Non-hereditary and hereditary variability
- Types of mutations
- Hereditary human diseases, their causes
- Selection, its tasks and methods, the law of homological series
- Biotechnology. Cellular and genetic engineering, cloning

System and diversity of the organic world
- Diversity of organisms, works of C. Linnaeus and J.B. Lamarck
- Kingdom of bacteria
- Kingdom of Mushrooms
- Lichens
- Plant Kingdom
- Structure and functions of plant organs
- Root, shoot, bud, stem, leaf
- Flower, seed, fruit
- Vital activity of the plant organism
- Reproduction of a plant organism
- Variety of plants
- Lower plants. Departments of algae
- Higher spore plants
- Higher seed plants
- Angiosperms
- The role of plants in nature and human life
- Unicellular
- Multicellular animals
- Flatworms
- Roundworms
- Annelids
- Shellfish
- Crustaceans
- Arachnids
- Insects
- Chordates
- Vertebrates
- Fish
- Amphibians, or Amphibians
- Reptiles, or Reptiles
- Birds
- Mammals

The human body and its health
- Fabrics
- Digestive system
- Respiratory system
- Excretory system
- Musculoskeletal system. Skeleton
- Muscles
- Integumentary system
- Circulatory system
- Lymphatic system
- Human reproduction and development
- Internal environment of the human body
- Blood groups
- Immunity
- Metabolism
- Vitamins
- Nervous system 146
- Endocrine system
- Analyzers. Sense organs
- Organ of vision
- Organs of hearing, smell, taste and touch
- Higher nervous activity
- Dream, its meaning. Consciousness, memory, emotions, speech, thinking
- Hygiene, healthy lifestyle

Evolution of living nature
- Type, its criteria. Population. Microevolution
- Evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin
- Forms of natural selection. Types of struggle for existence
- Synthetic theory of evolution. Elementary factors of evolution
- Evidence of the evolution of living nature
- Macroevolution. Directions and paths of evolution
- Hypotheses of the origin of life on Earth
- Basic aromorphoses in the evolution of plants and animals
- Human appearance. Hypotheses of human origins
- Driving forces and stages of human evolution
- Human races, their genetic relatedness

Ecosystems and their inherent patterns
- Habitats of organisms. Environmental factors and their significance
- Environmental factors: abiotic, biotic
- Anthropogenic factor
- Ecosystem and its components: producers, consumers, decomposers
- Ecosystem structure
- Trophic levels
- Circuits and power networks
- Rules of the ecological pyramid
- Diversity of ecosystems
- Self-development and change of ecosystems
- The biosphere is a global ecosystem.
- Teachings of V.I. Vernadsky about the biosphere
- Living matter, its functions
- Biological cycle and energy conversion in the biosphere
- Evolution of the biosphere

The best biology cheat sheet!
Contains material on all sections of the school course.

The reference book will help you systematize your knowledge, prepare for lessons, tests, as well as for the Unified State Exam and Unified State Exam.

In the application you will find:

Biology as a science. Methods of scientific knowledge:
- Biology as a science
- Level organization and evolution
- Biological systems

Cell as a biological system
- Modern Cell Theory
- Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
- Chemical composition of the cell
- Carbohydrates and lipids
- Proteins and nucleic acids
- Cell structure
- Metabolism and energy conversion
- Fermentation and respiration
- Photosynthesis and chemosynthesis
- Genetic information in the cell
- Biosynthesis of protein and nucleic acids
- Chromosomes, their structure and functions
- Cell life cycle
- Mitosis - division of somatic cells
- Meiosis
- Development of germ cells in plants and animals

Organism as a biological system
- Diversity of organisms
- Reproduction methods
- Fertilization in flowering plants and vertebrates
- Ontogenesis
- Genetics, its tasks
- Chromosomal theory of heredity
- Laws of inheritance by G. Mendel. T. Morgan's laws
- Genetics of sex. Gene interaction
- Human Genetics
- Patterns of variability
- Non-hereditary and hereditary variability
- Types of mutations
- Hereditary human diseases, their causes
- Selection, its tasks and methods, the law of homological series
- Biotechnology. Cellular and genetic engineering, cloning

System and diversity of the organic world
- Diversity of organisms, works of C. Linnaeus and J.B. Lamarck
- Kingdom of bacteria
- Kingdom of Mushrooms
- Lichens
- Plant Kingdom
- Structure and functions of plant organs
- Root, shoot, bud, stem, leaf
- Flower, seed, fruit
- Vital activity of the plant organism
- Reproduction of a plant organism
- Variety of plants
- Lower plants. Departments of algae
- Higher spore plants
- Higher seed plants
- Angiosperms
- The role of plants in nature and human life
- Unicellular
- Multicellular animals
- Flatworms
- Roundworms
- Annelids
- Shellfish
- Crustaceans
- Arachnids
- Insects
- Chordates
- Vertebrates
- Fish
- Amphibians, or Amphibians
- Reptiles, or Reptiles
- Birds
- Mammals

The human body and its health
- Fabrics
- Digestive system
- Respiratory system
- Excretory system
- Musculoskeletal system. Skeleton
- Muscles
- Integumentary system
- Circulatory system
- Lymphatic system
- Human reproduction and development
- Internal environment of the human body
- Blood groups
- Immunity
- Metabolism
- Vitamins
- Nervous system 146
- Endocrine system
- Analyzers. Sense organs
- Organ of vision
- Organs of hearing, smell, taste and touch
- Higher nervous activity
- Dream, its meaning. Consciousness, memory, emotions, speech, thinking
- Hygiene, healthy lifestyle

Evolution of living nature
- Type, its criteria. Population. Microevolution
- Evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin
- Forms of natural selection. Types of struggle for existence
- Synthetic theory of evolution. Elementary factors of evolution
- Evidence of the evolution of living nature
- Macroevolution. Directions and paths of evolution
- Hypotheses of the origin of life on Earth
- Basic aromorphoses in the evolution of plants and animals
- Human appearance. Hypotheses of human origins
- Driving forces and stages of human evolution
- Human races, their genetic relatedness

Ecosystems and their inherent patterns
- Habitats of organisms. Environmental factors and their significance
- Environmental factors: abiotic, biotic
- Anthropogenic factor
- Ecosystem and its components: producers, consumers, decomposers
- Ecosystem structure
- Trophic levels
- Circuits and power networks
- Rules of the ecological pyramid
- Diversity of ecosystems
- Self-development and change of ecosystems
- The biosphere is a global ecosystem.
- Teachings of V.I. Vernadsky about the biosphere
- Living matter, its functions
- Biological cycle and energy conversion in the biosphere
- Evolution of the biosphere
Download and install free android apk file for the Biology mod - the entire school course.

Orthoptera-gnawing-incomplete metamorphosis (grasshopper, locust, mole cricket, crickets)
Homoptera-piercing-sucking-incomplete metamorphosis (aphids, cicadas, humpbacks)
Hemiptera-piercing-sucking-incomplete (bugs)
Coleoptera-gnawing-complete (chafer beetle, ground beetles, weevil, ladybug)
Lepidoptera-sucking-complete (butterflies)
Diptera-piercing-sucking-licking-full (flies, mosquitoes, horseflies)
Hymenoptera - gnawing, licking - complete (ovi-eaters, ichneumon wasps, bees, wasps, bumblebees, ants)

Protozoa:
Rhizomes class - there is no constant body shape, the cytoplasm has all the organelles, there are pseudopodia (psepododes). Method of nutrition - phagocytosis, pinocytosis, excretion - through a contractile vacuole. Breathing through a membrane, reproduction-division (amoeba, plasmodium).
Class Flagellates - constant body shape, move using flagella, at the anterior end of the body there is a light-sensitive eye. There is a chromatophore. Method of nutrition - photosynthesis (light), pinocytosis (darkness). No digestive vacuole. Reproduction - asexual, sexual. (green euglena, lamblia, trypanosomes, volvox).

Invertebrates. Coelenterates. Hydra.
Double-layer, radial symmetry. Ectoderm, endoderm, between layers - mesoglea. At the anterior end of the body there is a mouth with tentacles with stinging cells. The posterior end of the body is the sole for attachment to the substrate. Digestion - cavity and intracellular. Breathing through the entire body cavity. Blood supply is absent. Excretion through the surface of the body. Nervous system of diffuse type. Sense organs are not developed. Reproduction is asexual and sexual. As a result of fertilization, a floating face called a planula appears. Mobile - jellyfish, stationary - polyps, sea anemone, hydra.

Type flatworms. White planaria.
Three-layer animals. Bilateral symmetry of the body. Moves with the help of a skin-muscular sac. No body cavity. There is no anal opening. Circulatory and respiratory systems are absent. excretory organs - protonephridia. The nervous system consists of a paired brain ganglion and two nerve trunks. Hermaphrodites. Larval stages are often present. Reproduction with change of hosts. Ciliated (white planaria); flukes (fluke, schistosome); tapeworms (tapeworms).

Type annelids. Earthworm. Leech, nereid, serpula.
The body is elongated, round, segmented. Symmetry is bilateral. There is a secondary cavity. Digestive system: mouth - pharynx - esophagus - crop - stomach - midgut - hindgut - anus. The circulatory system is closed, consisting of vessels. Blood contains hemoglobin. Breathing through the entire surface of the body. Excretory system - in each segment there is a pair of nephridia. There are sense organs: eyes, olfactory pits, organs of touch. Dioecious or secondary hermaphrodites. Development is direct. Some marine annelids have metamorphosis. Polychaetes (peskozhil, nereid); oligochaete (earthworm); leeches.

Type of shellfish. Prudovik, toothless.
Bilateral symmetry. The body has three sections: head, torso, leg. WITH inside shells, the entire body is covered by a mantle - a fold of skin. Digestive system: mouth-pharynx-stomach-midgut-anus. The circulatory system is not closed. The heart is two-chambered (prudovik) or three-chambered (toothless). Respiratory system - gills (toothless) and lung sacs (pond). Excretory organs - kidneys. Gastropods are hermaphrodites. Bivalves and cephalopods are dioecious. Gastropods (pea, ball, pond snail, slug, grape snail). Bivalve (mussels, oysters, scallops, pearl mussel, shipworm, toothless). Cephalopods (squid, cuttlefish, octopus).

Phylum arthropod.
The body is segmented, the limbs are articulated. Movement is provided by muscles. The body is covered with chitinous cover. The growth of arthropods is accompanied by molting. Body parts: head, chest, abdomen. Digestive system: oral apparatus - pharynx - esophagus - stomach - anterior, middle, hindgut - anus - glands. The circulatory system is not closed. There is a pulsating vessel - the “heart”, through which hemolymph circulates. Respiratory s-ma: in aquatic forms - gills, in terrestrial forms - lungs, trachea. Excretory s-ma: Malpighian vessels in insects and arachnids, green glands at the base of the antennae in crustaceans. The nervous system consists of the suprapharyngeal and subpharyngeal nerve nodes. Many have well-developed sensory organs: compound eyes, organs of touch - mechanoreceptors, organs of hearing. Dioecious. Sexual dimorphism (difference between male and female). Development is direct and indirect. Crustaceans (crayfish, shrimp, crab, lobster); arachnids (spiders, tarantulas, ticks, scorpions); insects (beetles, flies, mosquitoes, louse).

Type echinoderm
Sea stars Sea urchins Holothurians
Dartertails
Consist of two layers.
The skeleton is formed by calcareous plates bearing spines. Having found prey, it covers it with its body, turns out its stomach, and stomach juices digest the food. The anus lies on the upper surface. Body in a calcareous shell. The mouth is surrounded by a special jaw apparatus with five teeth. The skeleton consists of small calcareous bodies.
The circulatory system consists of two vessels: one supplies the mouth and the other anus.
Water-vascular system: formed by a ring canal surrounding the esophagus and 5 radial canals.
Most are dioecious, but some are hermaphrodites. Development with metamorphosis. Animals are capable of regeneration (restoration of body parts)

Phylum chordata. Subtype skullless. Lancelets.
The body consists of a torso, tail, fin, and is covered with skin. Skeleton-notochord. Alimentary canal: mouth, pharynx, intestinal tube, anus. One circle of blood circulation, no heart, cold-blooded animals. Respiratory organs: gill slits in the pharynx. Excretory organs: nephridin. nervous system in the form of a neural tube. Sense organs: tentacles, olfactory fossa. Dioecious. Fertilization is external. The eggs develop in water.

Subphylum vertebrates (cranial). Superclass of fish.
Streamlined body shape. Body parts: head, torso, tail, fins. Trunk and caudal sections of the spine. The bony skull and limbs-fins are formed by many small bones. The cervical region is missing. Inside the vertebrae there are cartilaginous remnants of the notochord. Digestive system: mouth - oral cavity - pharynx - esophagus - stomach - intestines - anus. The swim bladder is an outgrowth of the intestine. One circle of blood circulation, two-chambered heart, cold-blooded. Respiratory organs: gills, protected by gill covers. Excretory organs: kidneys, 2 ureters, bladder. Dioecious animals. External fertilization in water - spawning.

Class amphibians or amphibians.
Body parts: head, torso, front and hind limbs. The skin is bare and covered with mucus. The spine is divided into cervical, trunk, sacral and caudal sections. The skull consists of the skull and jaw. Movable articulation of the skull, one cervical vertebra. The muscles are well developed. The gluteal, thigh and calf muscles appear. Like fish - digestive system. cloaca. Two circles of blood circulation. Mixed blood, three-chambered heart. Both circles start from the ventricle. Blood - venous, arterial, mixed. Cold-blooded animals. Respiratory organs: paired lungs. Respiratory tract: nostrils, oral cavity, larynx, lungs. There is cutaneous breathing. excretory s-ma-pairs kidneys, ureters, cloaca, bladder. Brain and spinal cord with nerves. Eyes with upper and lower eyelids. In tailless animals, fertilization is external, in tailed animals it is internal. Development with metamorphosis.

Class reptiles (reptiles).
The skin is dry. The outer layers of the epidermis are keratinized. The cervical region is well developed. The thoracolumbar spine is connected to the ribs with the sternum. Intercostal muscles appear. Like amphibians, they have digestive systems. They breathe oxygen using their lungs. There is no skin respiration. Two circles of blood circulation. The circulatory system is closed. The heart is three-chambered. Cold-blooded. Selected system - see amphibians. the size of the cerebellum increases. The primary cortex appears. Language. Dioecious. Fertilization is internal. Eggs are laid on land. Development is direct.

Bird class.
Streamlined body shape. Head, torso, neck, forelimbs - wings, hind limbs - legs. The skin is dry. Digestive system like reptiles. No teeth. The circulatory system is closed. Two circles. Blood doesn't mix. The heart is 4-chambered. Warm-blooded. Double breathing. Allocation system like reptiles, but there is no bladder. Enlargement of the cerebral hemispheres. The organs of hearing and vision are well developed. Characterized by color vision. Dioecious animals. Development is direct. Sexual dimorphism.

Classification of birds.
Residents - sparrows, jackdaws, pigeons, magpies
Nomadic - owls, bullfinches, tits, rooks.
Migratory birds - orioles, nightingales, ducks, starlings, cranes.

Class mammals.
Presence of hair on the body. There are many glands in the skin: sebaceous, sweat, and milk glands. Food system like reptiles. Teeth and salivary glands. Two circles of blood circulation. The heart is 4-chambered. Red blood cells do not have a nucleus. They breathe atmospheric air. Organs breathing - lungs. There is a diaphragm. The auricle appears. Dioecious. Development is direct. Uterus. Viviparity.

Bacterial cells:
spherical - cocci, rod-shaped - bacilli; arched - vibrios. Spiral-shaped - spirella. Colonies of bacteria: diplococci, streptococci.

The structure of bacteria.
Shell - 2 layers. Cytoplasm. The nuclear substance is presented in the form of a DNA molecule closed in a ring. Ribosomes synthesize protein. Cellular inclusions - starch, glycogen, fats.

Mushrooms.
Mold, yeast, cap: tubular, lamellar. They have a cell wall. Little mobile. Unlimited growth, reproduction by spores and vegetatively, by parts of mycelium. Contains chitin. The reserve nutritional substance is glycogen. no chloroplasts. The body consists of individual threads. Presented in unicellular and multicellular forms.

Lichens.
Scale - the thallus has the form of plaques or crusts, tightly adjacent to the substrates. - lecanora. Leafy thallus in the form of plates, attached to the substrate by hyphae - xanthorium. Bushy - thallus in the form of stems, fused with a substrate only by the base - reindeer moss. They are an indicator of clean air. Serve as food for animals. "pioneers" of vegetation. Scale: tree bark and stones. Produces: sugar, alcohol, dyes, litmus.

Moss.
Peat - sphagnum, green - cuckoo flax. The science of bryology. Dioecious plant.
Horsetails.
Spring organs are generative, summer organs are vegetative.

Internal structure of the stem.
The bark has a protective function. The skin is a single-layer covering tissue. Protection from dust, overheating, microorganisms. Water and gas exchange. Cork is a multilayer covering fabric. There are lentils. Formed on the surface of wintering stems, protects against temperature fluctuations and pests). Bast is formed by mechanical (fibers) and conductive (sieve tubes) tissues. Gives strength by carrying solutions from leaves to roots. Cambium is a single-layer educational tissue. Stem growth in thickness and cell differentiation. Wood is formed by three tissues: conductive - vessels; main - loosely located cells; mechanical - wood fibers; vessels for carrying water and mineral substances; support function; the main one is a spare one. The core is the main tissue made of living, loosely arranged cells. Stores nutrients.

Class dicotyledonous.
Cruciferous plants: inflorescence-tassel, fruit-pod, cabbage, turnip, rapeseed, shepherd's purse.
Rosaceae: inflorescence - raceme, simple umbrella, scutellum, fruit - drupe, apple, polynut, rose hip, apple tree, rowan, cinquefoil, gravel, strawberry, plum, pear.
Legumes: bone, head, bean fruit, soybean, lupine, peas, acacia, beans, clover, porridge, sweet clover.
Solanaceae - raceme, curl, panicle, fruit - berry, capsule. Tomatoes, nightshade, tobacco, petunia, eggplant, henbane, dope.

Monocot class.
Liliaceae: inflorescence-brush; fruit - berry, capsule. Onions, garlic, lilies, daffodils, tulips.
Cereals: compound spike, plume, panicle, cob, fruit-caryopsis. Wheat, oats, rice, wild oats, wheat grass. Crow's eye.

Dicotyledons
2 cotyledons, taproot, reticulate or pinnate, with double perianth, cruciferous, nightshade, rosaceae. Monocots
1 cotyledon, fibrous root; venation: parallel or arcuate; cereals, lilies, orchids.

Root.
The main one develops from the embryonic root. Adventitious - develops from a stem or leaf. Lateral - develop from the main, subordinate and lateral. root vegetables: turnips, carrots; root tubers: dahlia, sweet potato; adventitious sucker roots: ivy; aerial roots - orchids.

Nervous system
Central: brain and spinal cord. Peripheral: nerves and ganglia.
Somatic
Regulates work skeletal muscles. Vegetative
Regulates the functioning of all internal organs.
Sympathetic
Strengthens the exchange of things. Increases excitability. Parasympathetic
Helps restore energy. Reduces metabolism. Regulates the body during sleep. Metasympathetic
Located in the walls of the organ itself and participates in the processes of its self-regulation

Eye.
Covers of the eye: retina - light-receiving system. Fibrous membrane: sclera, choroid. Rods are twilight light receptors, cones are color vision receptors. Optical system: cornea, iris, pupil, lens, vitreous body. The color of the iris determines the color of the eyes. The vitreous body maintains the shape of the eyeball.

Ear.
External: auricle - fixed cartilaginous, tympanic membrane. Medium: a narrow cavity filled with air, in which the auditory ossicles, malleus (receives vibrations and transmits them to the incus and stapes), incus, stapes, auditory-Eustachian tube are located. Inner ear: represents a cavity filled with fluid. The cochlea is a system of labyrinths and winding channels. 24,000 taut fibers of varying lengths.

Taste analyzer.
The tip of the tongue is sweet, on the back of the tongue is bitter, on the side and front is salty, sour is the lateral surface.

Endocrine glands.
The hypothalamus is a part of the diencephalon. Releases neurohormones (vasopressin, oxytocin). Regulates the secretion of pituitary hormones. The pituitary gland is located below the diencephalon pons. There are two functions: growth (tropic): somatotropic hormone regulates growth. Hyperfunction - at a young age causes the disease gigantism. In adulthood - acromegaly. Hypofunction - dwarfism; regulatory: gonadotropic hormones regulate activity. Sex glands, prolactin - enhances milk production, thyroid-stimulating - regulates the functioning of the thyroid gland, adrenocorticotropic - enhances the synthesis of hormones of the adrenal cortex.
Pineal gland: outgrowth of the diencephalon. It secretes the hormone melatonin, which inhibits the action of gonadotropic hormones.
Thyroid gland: iodine-containing hormones: thyroxine and triiodothyronine, affecting oxidative processes that regulate metabolism, growth, and affect the central nervous system.
The adrenal glands are paired glands located above the kidneys. Comp. Of two layers: cortical and medulla (internal). The cortex produces 3 groups of hormones: cortisone and corticosterone, which affect metabolism and stimulate the formation of glycogen, aldosterone - the metabolism of potassium and sodium; androgens, estrogens, progesterone - development of secondary sexual characteristics. The medulla: adrenaline and norepinephrine - increase blood pressure, dilate the coronary vessels of the heart. Pancreas: Located below the stomach. The gland has mixed secretion; the endocrine part of the gland is the islets of Lagerhans. Produces insulin (reduces glucose levels, stimulates the liver to convert glucose into glycogen), glucagon (increases glucose levels, stimulates the rapid breakdown of glycogen into glucose). Sex glands: produce estrogens and androgens. Progesterone is the pregnancy hormone.

Bones. Skeleton.
Organic things - 30%. Miner. Salts - 60%, water - 10%.
The medulla is the large unpaired frontal bone; -flat bone; the seam is motionless! Facial section - upper and lower jaw, palatine, zygomatic, nasal, lacrimal bones - flat - fixed suture. Body skeleton: Spine: 33-34 vertebrae; 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 4-5 coccygeal. The bones are short and mixed; the joint is semi-movable. Chest: 12 pairs of ribs and sternum - short - mixed - flat - semi-movable. The girdle of the upper limbs (a pair of shoulder blades, a pair of clavicles) is flat and movable. The skeleton of the upper limbs (humerus, forearm, hand) is tubular, short, movable. The girdle of the lower extremities (two pelvic bones) is flat and motionless. The skeleton of the lower extremities (femur, tibia; the foot is formed by two rows of tarsus (7), metatarsals (5), and toe bones (14) - tubular - long - movable.

Circulatory system.
Arteries - blood flows from the heart to the organs. They pass into capillaries. Arterial blood (saturated with oxygen) flows through the arteries. Veins - blood moves to the heart from the organs - venous blood. Large circle: left ventricle - aorta - arterial capillaries - venous capillaries - portal vein - superior and inferior vena cava - right atrium. (23 minutes). Small circle: right atrium - right ventricle - pulmonary arteries - pulmonary veins - left atrium (4 seconds). Relaxation-0.4; contraction-relaxation-0.1; relaxation-contraction-0.3.

Respiratory system.
Nasal cavity-nasopharynx-larynx-trachea-bronchi-lungs. The respiratory center is the medulla oblongata.
Digestive system.
Teeth 32: 4 incisors, 2 canines, 4 small and 6 large molars on each jaw. Salivary glands - 3. - pharynx, esophagus - stomach - intestines. Pepsin is a stomach enzyme that breaks down proteins into peptides, while lipase breaks down milk fats. Absorbed in the stomach: water, glucose, minimal salt. The environment is acidic; the pancreatic juice enzyme trypsin breaks down proteins into amino acids, lipases into glycerol and fatty acids, and amylase into carbohydrates into glucose. The environment is alkaline.

Plastic exchange - assimilation - synthesis - energy consumption. Energy exchange - dissimilation - decay - release of energy.
Vitamins: water-soluble (C, B1-thiamine, B2-riboflavin, B6-pyrodoxine, B12-cyanocobalamide, PP-nicotinic acid); fat-soluble (A-retinol, D-calciferol, E-tocopherol, K-phylloquinone).

BJU
Proteins: 20 amino acids, biopolymers. The primary structure is a chain of amino acids, a peptide bond; secondary - helix, hydrogen bond; tertiary - globule, hydrogen bonds, ionic, covalent, hydrophobic; quaternary - association of globules in several structures. At decay 1g = 17.6 kJ.
Carbohydrates. Monosaccharides - ribose, glucose; disaccharides - maltose, sucrose; polysaccharides - starch, cellulose. 17.6 kJ.
Fats. Glycerol esters. 38.9 kJ.
DNA: A=T, C=G. a biopolymer consisting of nucleotides.
RNA: A=U, C=G. single polynucleotide chain. + ribose + H2PO4 residue.

Cell organelles.
Core. Surrounded by a two-layer porous membrane. Contains chromatin. The nucleolus consists of protein and RNA. Nuclear juice is karyolymph. F-i: storage of hereditary information; regulation of protein synthesis; transport of substances; RNA synthesis, ribosome assembly.
EPS. Rough - a system of membranes that form tubules, cisterns, tubes - protein synthesis on ribosomes, transport of substances through cisterns and tubes, cell division into sections - compartments. Smooth - has the same structure, but does not carry ribosomes - lipid synthesis, protein is not synthesized, other functions are similar to SER.
Ribosomes. The smallest organelles, with a diameter of about 20 nm. Consist of two subunits. They contain rRNA and proteins. Synthesized in the nucleolus. They form a polysome. F-i: biosynthesis of the primary structure of the protein according to the principle of matrix synthesis.
Lysosomes. A single membrane vesicle with a diameter of 0.2-0.8 microns, oval in shape. Formed in the Golgi complex. Functions: digestive, participates in the dissolution of organelles, cells and parts of the body.
Mitochondria. Double membrane organelle. Outer membrane smooth, the inner one has projections called cristae. Inside it is filled with a structureless matrix. It has a round, oval, cylindrical, rod-shaped shape. F-i: energy and respiratory center of cells, release of energy during the breathing process. Energy storage in the form of ATP molecules. Oxidation under the action of enzymes to CO2 and H2O.
Cellular center. An organelle of a non-membrane structure, consisting of two centrioles. F-i: participate in the division of cells of animals and lower plants, forming a division spindle.
Golgi apparatus. A system of flattened tanks, bounded by double membranes, forming bubbles at the edges. F-i: transport of biosynthesis products. Substances are packaged in vials. Lysosomes form.
Organelles of movement: microtubules - long thin hollow cylinders, composed of proteins - support and movement. Microthreads - thin structures - promote the flow of cytoplasm, support. Cilia, flagella.
Plastids. Chloroplasts: contents of plastids called stroma; form grana; the membranes of the grana contain chlorophyll, which gives them a green color. Leucoplasts: round, colorless, when exposed to light, they transform into chloroplasts and serve as a site for the deposition of nutrients. Chromoplasts: Double-membrane spherical organelle, gives different colors to leaves and fruits.
Vacuole. Characteristic only for plants. The membrane cavity is filled with cell sap. Vacuole is a derivative of EPS. Functions: regulation of water-salt solution; maintaining turgor pressure; accumulation of metabolic products and reserve substances, removal of toxic substances from metabolism.

Energy exchange.
Preparatory: in the digestive tract in the body, in lysosomes in the cell; High molecular weight organic substances are broken down into low molecular weight ones. Proteins - amino acids + Q1, fats - glycerol + higher fatty acids, polysaccharides - glucose + Q. Glycolysis (oxygen-free) occurs in the cytoplasm and is not associated with membranes; Enzymatic breakdown of glucose occurs - fermentation. Lactic acid fermentation: C6H12O6 + 2H3PO4 + 2ADP = 2C3H6O3 + 2ATP + 2H2O. Hydrolysis: carried out in mitochondria: CO2 is formed as a result of the oxidation of lactic acid under the action of enzymes; In the matrix: the hydrogen atom, with the help of carrier enzymes, enters the inner membrane of the mitochondrion, forming cristae. Oxidation of hydrogen atoms to cations in the cristae membrane, cations are transported by carrier proteins. 36 ATP molecules are formed.

Mitosis.
Prophase: spiralization of chromosomes, causing them to become visible; each chromosome consists of two chromatids; dissolution of the nuclear membrane; spindle formation.
Metaphase: arrangement of chromosomes along the equator; The spindle filaments are attached to the centromeres.
Anaphase: centromere division; individual chromatids move towards the poles of the cell.
Telophase: chromatids despiral, a new nuclear membrane forms around them, and two new nuclei are formed; the cell membrane is formed at the equator; the filaments of the spindle dissolve; two daughter diploid cells are formed.

Meiosis
First division.
Prophase: duplication of homologous chromosomes; chromosome spiralization; conjugation of homologous chromosomes; chromosomes fuse in pairs and crossing over occurs; thickening of chromosomes, dissolution of the nuclear membrane; spindle formation.
Metaphase: homologous chromosomes line up in pairs on both sides of the equator.
Anaphase: separation of pairs of homologous chromosomes; divergence of bichromatid chromosomes to the poles of the cell.
Telophase: formation of two daughter cells. Chromosomes consist of two chromatids. Second division.
Prophase: there is no interphase, two cells begin dividing at the same time; a fission spindle is formed; similar to prophase of mitosis.
Metaphase: bichromatid chromosomes are located along the equator of the cell.
Anaphase: centromere division; chromatids move towards the poles.
Telophase: formation of four haploid cells.

Development of the embryo:
A zygote is a fertilized egg with a diploid set of chromosomes.
Blastula is a multicellular embryo with a cavity inside. The shape resembles a ball. Formed as a result of repeated division of the zygote.
The gastrula is a two-layer embryo formed as a result of invagination of the blastula. Formation of two germ layers, ectoderm and endoderm.
Neurula is the stage of formation of internal organs.
Ectoderm: nervous system, sensory organs, integumentary and nervous tissue.
Endoderm: intestines, digestive glands, gills, lungs, thyroid gland.
Mesoderm: notochord, skeleton, muscles, kidneys, circulatory system, connective and muscle tissue.

Genetics.
Mendel's first rule: the rule of uniformity of first-generation hybrids: in monohybrid crossing, first-generation hybrids are uniform in phenotype and genotype. Only dominant traits appear.
Mendel's second law: the law of segregation: during monohybrid crossing of first generation hybrids, the characteristics in the offspring are split in the ratio 1:2:1 - by genotype, 3:1 - by phenotype.
Third z-n Mendel's law of independent inheritance - 9:3:3:1.
Test crossbreeding is the crossing of a test organism with those homozygous for the trait under study in order to determine its genotype.
Law of linked inheritance (Morgan). Linked inheritance is the joint inheritance of genes concentrated on one chromosome; the genes form linkage groups.

Variability.
Modification - changes in the characteristics of an organism under the influence of the environment and not associated with changes in the genotype. Modifications are not inherited, they appear within the limits determined by the reaction norm (human tanning, differences in plant size)
Mutational-hereditary variability, causing changes in the genotype, is inherited (hair color, leaf shape) - genotypic-variability of the genotype; cytoplasmic - variability of plastids and mitochondria.
Genotypic: combinative and mutational (gene, chromosomal, genomic).

Driving forces of evolution.
Hereditary variability is the ability to acquire new characteristics, differences between individuals and transmit them by inheritance.
The struggle for existence is a set of relationships between individuals and various environmental factors.
Natural selection is survival of the fittest.
Genetic drift is a change in the frequency of occurrence of genes in a population over a number of generations under the influence of random factors.
Isolation is the emergence of any barriers that prevent the interbreeding of individuals within a population.

Type criteria.
Morphological - similarity of external and internal structure individuals of the same species.
Physiological - the similarity of the life processes of individuals of the same species.
Biochemical - similarity in composition, structure of proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates.
Genetic - similarity in the number, shape, color of chromosomes.
Geographic - a specific area occupied by a species in nature.
Ecological - a set of environmental factors in which a species exists.

Arogenesis - aromorphosis - is the main path of progressive evolution; it is not adaptive in nature; it raises organisms to a higher level. (bilateral symmetry of the body, warm-bloodedness, pulmonary breathing.
Allogenesis - degeneration - simplification of organization, reduction of some organs.
Allogenesis is idioadaptation - the emergence of partial adaptations to environmental conditions, without changing the level of organization.

Environmental factors.
Abiotic: light, temperature, humidity.
Biotic: the influence of plants on each other, the interaction of animals and plants, the interaction of animals with each other.
Anthropogenic - human impact on plants and animals.

Structure of biocenosis.
Producers - producers. Capable of synthesizing organic matter from inorganic using solar energy (autotrophs - higher plants, algae)
Consumers - consumers. Heterotrophs are organisms that use ready-made organic substances for nutrition. Primary heterotrophs are herbivores, secondary heterotrophs are carnivores.
Reducers - decompose the organic remains of producers and consumers. Detritivores - bacteria, fungi, animals that feed on carrion.

LESSON No. 1

Subject. The educational significance of the school biology course in the system of modern general education for students. The school curriculum in biology, its importance in the work of a teacher. Program structure, its analysis.

Skills that need to be developed. Analyze school curriculum; use the explanatory note of the program; determine and specify the educational, developmental and educational objectives of the school biology course.

Brief Explanation

The school biology course is studied in grades 7 - 11 of secondary schools. Training is carried out on the basis of the systematic and consistent development of basic biological concepts, assimilation of leading ideas, theories, scientific facts, forming the basis for practical training schoolchildren, the formation of their scientific worldview.

The leading ideas of the school biology course: the evolution of the organic world, the multi-level organization of living nature, the relationship of structure and function in biological systems, the integrity and self-regulation of biological systems, the connection between theory and practice. These ideas determine the content, structure of the school biology course (Table 1), and the sequence of development of basic concepts.

Table 1

Structure of a school biology course

Section title Class Number of hours per week

Natural science (propaedeutic section) 5 1

Plants, Grinders, Mushrooms 6 2

Animals 7 2

Person 8-9 2

General biology 10-11 1

Schools use a variety of alternative programs. For example, an integrated program in natural history. Considering that basic education is provided by a nine-year school, a school biology course can be structured according to the following model:

1. Natural history - 5th grade, 2 hours per week.

2. Plants, Grinders, Mushrooms - 6th grade, 2 hours.

3. Animals - 7th grade, 2 hours.

4. Man and his health - 8th grade, 2 hours.

5. General biology and ecology - 9th grade, 2 hours.

In the subject teaching system of a secondary school, a school biology course solves a number of problems: educational, developmental, educational.

Educational objectives include the formation of a system of biological concepts defined by the school curriculum, special and general educational skills. Special skills include those aimed at working with natural objects or their images: the ability to observe in the lap of nature, in a corner of wildlife; enjoy visual means visibility; care of plants and animals; production of microslides, use of optical instruments and laboratory equipment; identification of plants and animals, etc.

General educational skills include: the ability to use a blackboard, notebook, work with a textbook, on-screen aids, tabular material, etc.

The developmental tasks of a school biology course are associated with the formation and development of schoolchildren’s personal qualities in the process of studying the subject: memory training, development of skills necessary for carrying out such mental operations as analysis, synthesis, comparison, juxtaposition, identification of the main, secondary, generalization, conclusions, etc. .

Educational tasks include the implementation of the education of environmental, aesthetic, sanitary and hygienic, labor, physical and other personality qualities in the process of studying biology.

Educational tasks are solved on the basis of the systematic and gradual development of basic biological concepts among schoolchildren. Teachers of the secondary school program assist in educational and educational activities.

The program formulates the tasks and goals of training, reveals the content of the topic, indicates some forms, methods and teaching techniques, and determines the approximate number of hours required to study the topic. The program includes the structure of knowledge and skills, as well as the topics of laboratory work, practical classes and excursions, interdisciplinary connections, etc. A biology teacher must have professional knowledge of the content of the program, all structural elements and be able to use the program when planning the teaching and educational process in biology.

Read the short explanation and prepare answers to the following questions:

« 1. What are the leading ideas of biology as a science that form the basis of the school biology course? What is the structure of a school biology course? What are educational, developmental and educational tasks? What are the characteristics of special skills and abilities? Give examples.

2. Study the explanatory note to the biology program for a secondary school, determine the content of the program and its structural elements.

3. Using the example of the section “Plants...”, study each structural element of the program, focusing on the content, determine its place and role in the practical work of a biology teacher.

4. Using the explanatory note of the biology program, familiarize yourself with the goals and objectives of the subject. Highlight educational, developmental, educational tasks in them, make a short note of them in a notebook.

III. Part-time work

1. Using the program, make a selection of literature on general issues and individual methods of biology, create a card index on the topic.

2. Based on content explanatory note programs in biology, determine the educational, developmental and educational objectives of the section “Plants...”

3. Study section I of the manual and a brief explanation of lesson 2.

IV. Literature: 3, 26, 27.

LESSON 2

Subject. School textbooks in biology, their structure.

Skills that need to be developed. Identify the structural elements of biology textbooks and analyze them.

I. Brief explanation

In the educational process in biology, a school textbook is one of the most important teaching aids, which determines the amount of knowledge necessary for mandatory mastery and the sequence of formation of skills.

A textbook is an educational book that contains a systematic presentation of a certain amount of knowledge, reflecting the current level of achievements in science and production, intended for mandatory learning by students.

Biology textbooks have their own structure, that is, they consist of separate structural components. What is a structural component?

A structural component is a necessary element of a school textbook, which has a certain form, carries out an active functional load only by its inherent means and is in close relationship with other elements of this textbook.

According to this definition, all structural components of biology textbooks are combined into two large sections: 1) text; 2) extra-textual components. They, in turn, are divided into three subsections, in accordance with the functional load, which. carries a component that belongs to them (Table 2).

table 2

Structural components of a biology textbook

Texts; Extra-text component

Basic, additional, explanatory, apparatus for organizing assimilation, illustrations, apparatus for orientation

Text. Depending on the content and use in educational process distinguished: basic, additional and explanatory. Each has its own characteristics.

The main text of the textbook reflects the system of basic concepts of the course (general biology, special, simple and complex). Depending on the method of revealing the essence of concepts, the main text is descriptive or mixed.

Additional text - an appeal to students, documented textbook materials and materials for additional study.

The explanatory text contains auxiliary elements: notes and explanations, dictionaries, alphabets, etc.

Extra-textual components consist of an apparatus for organizing assimilation, illustrations, and an apparatus for orientation. The apparatus for organizing assimilation includes questions, tasks, tables, indexes, bibliographic, subject), answers.

Illustrations include drawings (scientific and applied, technical, instructional drawings, maps, diagrams, plans, diagrams, photographs, combined illustrations, photomontages, photo diagrams, reproductions. The orientation apparatus includes an introduction, a preface, a table of contents, headings and highlighting (font and color), orientation symbols, and a footer.

Extra-textual components contain important information that helps students use the textbook. Thus, the title page - the first page of the textbook - introduces students to the names of the authors, its title, year and place of publication. According to these data, the book can be easily found in the library.

The purpose of the preface is to facilitate understanding of the main text and reveal the intent of the textbook. Often in the preface, authors reveal the objectives of the book, describe the features of font selections (names of sections, topics, paragraphs, terms, etc.), and explain conventions. The content reflects overall plan textbook, main headings, correlation of various parts.

The footer is the line above the text of the page. The names of large headings are usually given on the left side, and smaller ones on the right side. The footer makes it easier to use the book and helps you quickly find the material you need.

II. Tasks for independent work

1. Using this brief explanation, prepare answers to the following questions: How is a textbook different from another book? What structural components are highlighted in biology textbooks? For what purpose is the orientation apparatus included in the school textbook on biology? What is the importance of illustrations in a school textbook? What is the function of the apparatus for organizing the assimilation of material?

2. Familiarize yourself with the contents of the textbook:. Find the indicated structural elements in it. , .

3. Describe the textbook “Biology” according to the following plan: a) evaluate the texts of the textbook; b) characterize the apparatus for organizing learning, find out the relationship between questions and tasks, productive and reproductive questions; c) analyze the orientation apparatus; d) evaluate the illustrative apparatus, note the number of illustrations, their size, clarity, correspondence to nature, etc.

Analyze the school textbooks “Biology” (grades 6, 7 and 8) and “General Biology” (grades 10-11), using the given plan (the task is given in groups: per group of students - analysis of one textbook). Write down the analysis.

III. Extracurricular work

1. Read and take notes on the article “Independent work of students with educational book"(E. P. Brunovt, A. E. Bogoyavlenskaya, E. T. Brovkina and others. Independent work students in biology. Teacher's manual. - M.: Education, 1984).

2. Tasks for groups: p. 16-18 (all groups), p. 40-47 (all), p. 73-83 (And group), p. 101-106 (II group), p. 127-145 (III group).

3. Study the summary of Lesson 3.

IV. Literature: 5, 26, 36, 45, 62.