A reference book on the main sections of Latin grammar (phonetics, morphology, syntax) is intended for classical philologists, philologists and novelists, students of classical and non-specialized departments of higher educational institutions.
Grammatical information is collected in tables, which allows you to quickly find the necessary data and easily understand the complex history of the language of the ancient Romans.

Initial Romanesque period (IV-VIII centuries).
The formation of Romance languages ​​from folk Latin dates back to the weakening of Rome around the 4th century new era. Provinces are becoming increasingly independent, communication between in different parts empires and The Eternal City less and less constant. Differences accumulate and dialects form. In phonetics, these are all kinds of consequences from the disappearance of longness and shortness of vowels (see Table 15). A forceful stress appears. Stressed and unstressed vowels develop according to different laws (see Table 16i). The changes in combinations that have emerged in folk Latin are significantly increasing (see Table 17i). It was during this era that the foundations for differences in the sound of Romance languages ​​were laid (see Table 18i).

Folk Latin changes continued in the declension system, which led to the complete destruction of the paradigm. From 5 classic Latin declensions with 4 cases in each, there remain barely distinguishable 3 classes that have no cases at all (see Table 19i). Pronouns form articles (ibid. - Table 19i).

In the verb system, the mixing of paradigms continues, the replacement of commonly used classical verbs with colloquial verbs. The number of descriptive forms of different times is increasing (see Table 20i).
This period, covering the 4th-8th centuries AD, ends with the mature Middle Ages - the time of the appearance of writing in Romance languages.

Free download e-book in a convenient format, watch and read:
Download the book Latin in tables, Grammar Reference, Makhlin P.Ya., 2008 - fileskachat.com, fast and free download.

• Latin language, Guide to verbs, Bogatyreva I.I., 2011
• Lingua Latina, Latin Textbook, 36 lessons to complete the course
• Textbook of the Latin language for non-philological humanities faculties of universities, Kozarzhevsky A.Ch., 1981

The following textbooks and books:

• English modal verbs, Directory, Mitroshkina T.V., 2012 - Directory English modal verbs is a practical guide to use modal verbs in modern English. Addressed to students secondary schools, …
• English pronouns, Directory, Mitroshkina T.V., 2012 - The directory presents in a systematic way everything you need to know about the peculiarities of the use of pronouns in modern English. He is … English Dictionaries, Vocabularies
• English articles, Educational reference book, Mitroshkina T.V., 2011 - The English articles reference book contains detailed information about the system English articles. Addressed to students of secondary schools, lyceums and gymnasiums, students and teachers, ... English Dictionaries, Vocabularies
• Non-finite forms of the English verb, Infinitive, Participle, Gerund, Directory, Mitroshkina T.V., 2012 - The Directory contains a detailed description of the rules for the functioning of non-finite forms English verb in modern English. Addressed to those who have mastered the main sections... English Dictionaries, Vocabularies

Nouns denote objects and phenomena.

Genus

Every noun in Latin belongs to one of three genders:

• Male (genus masculinum)
• Female (genus feminum)
• Average (genus neutral)

Animate nouns are classified into gender according to biological sex.

Besides

TO masculine include the names of months, mountains, winds, large rivers, peoples, professions.

TO feminine include the names of countries, cities, islands, precious stones, trees.

TO neuter traditionally include the names of metals, elements, fruits, as well as indeclinable words.

The gender of a noun is indicated in the dictionary; it is indicated by one of three letters: " m "(male)" f "(female)" n " (average).

Number (numerus)

In Latin, nouns can be used in singular or plural.

Singular number (numerus singularis) – to designate one object,

Plural number (numerus pluralis) – to denote many objects.

In dictionary and reference entries, the number of a noun is indicated by two letters: Sg (singular) or Pl (plural).

Case (casus)

A noun can appear in one of six cases:

Nominative case (casus nominativus) - answers the questions: “Who?” “What?”, in a sentence in the nominative case there is a subject or a nominal part of the predicate. Identified by the letter " N "or a combination" Nom ".

Genitive case (casus genetivus) – answers the questions: “Whom?” “What?”, in the sentence in the genitive case there is an inconsistent definition of another noun. Identified by the letter " G " or " Gen ".

Dative case (casus dativus) – answers the questions: “To whom?” “To what?”, in a sentence in the dative case there is an indirect object accompanying the action. Denoted by a capital letter " D "or a combination" Dat ".

Accusative case (casus accusativus) – answers the questions: “Whom?” “What?”, in a sentence in the accusative case there is a direct object to which the action is directed. Denoted by " Ac " or " ACC ".

Separative or deferential case (casus ablativus) - answers the questions: “By whom?” “With what?”, the adverbial case is in the positive case in the sentence. Identified by the letters " Ab " or " Abl ".

Vocative case (casus vocativus) - an address to a person or object, is not a part of the sentence. Identified by the letter " V "or a combination" Voc ".

Declination

Each noun in Latin belongs to one of 5 declensions. Declension is determined by the ending of the genitive singular.

• I declension -ae
• II declension -i
• III declension -is
• IV declension -us
• V declination -ei

There are also differently inflected words “vesper” (II or III), “domus” (II or IV).

They often talk about types of declination and equate them to 5 declensions. Strictly speaking, this is not true. There are significantly more types of declension in the Latin language than there are declensions. It should be noted that in Latin, knowledge of whether a noun belongs to one or another declension gives only an approximate idea of ​​the ending of the word in one case or another. It is the types of declination that give an accurate idea of ​​the endings. The system of declension types in the Latin language is more extensive than the system of declensions, because it takes into account the variability within 5 declinations, which makes it easier to use to solve practical problem- declension of words.

Many textbooks have a very strange attitude towards types of declension. General system There are no types of declension and can be found in different sources different versions, but, as already mentioned, it is customary to talk about 5 declinations or 5 types of declination, and then stipulate that there is, for example, declination IIIa, which is slightly different from declination IIIb.

Here we will not indicate specific type names, because... Different authors call them differently, but we will try to describe the most detailed classification. So:

IN I declension nouns of 2 types:

1. male
2. female

(declension paradigm is the same).

In II declension- 6 types:

1. ending in -us (in N.Sg.) masculine and female,
2. ending in -ius (in N.Sg.) masculine,
3. ending in -ir (in N.Sg.) masculine,
4. ending in -er (in N.Sg.) masculine,
5. ending in -um (in N.Sg.) neuter,
6. ending in -ius (in N.Sg.) neuter.

The declension of all types is different.

A special type of declension is formed by the noun “deus” - god.

In III declension- 6 types:

• 2 consonants:
  1. masculine and feminine,
  2. neuter.
• 2 vowels:
  1. ending in -e, -al, -ar neuter (equisyllabic and equally complex);
  2. equisyllabic ending in -is feminine.
• 2 mixed:
  1. equisyllabic, ending in -es, -is (masculine and feminine);
  2. unequally syllabic with different endings (masculine and feminine).

Almost all types are small, but different.

Separate types of declination form the words “vis” - strength, “bos” - bull, Iuppiter - Jupiter.

IN IV declension- 2 types:

1. ending in -us masculine and feminine,
2. ending in -u neuter.

IN V declension types are not highlighted.

It is somewhat more difficult to determine whether a word belongs to one or another type of declension than to determine the declension itself. Determining the type of declension requires a somewhat more subtle analysis of the word, but over time this becomes a very useful habit.

A separate article will be devoted to types of declination, which is currently (unfortunately) in development.

Dictionary form of the noun

In the dictionary (with the exception of educational dictionaries, which are a separate discussion altogether) the noun is in the nominative singular case. Immediately after, separated by a comma, the ending of the genitive case of the singular is indicated (the same one by which the declension of the noun is determined), but if the basis of the nominative and genitive cases are different, then the whole word can be indicated in second place. Then, separated by a space (usually in italics), the noun belongs to one of 3 genders (m, f or n).

For example:

ramus, i m branch
Nominative - ramus,
Genitive - rami(II declension),
Genus - m- male.

lanx, lancis f bowl
Nominative - lanx
Genitive - lancis(hence, III declension)
Genus - f- female.

Noun endings in declension

Latin grammar

Latin, like Russian, is predominantly synthetic. This means that grammatical categories are expressed by inflection (declension, conjugation), and not by function words.

There are 6 cases in Latin:

Nominative (nominative, nominativus)

Genitive (genitive, genitivus)

Dative (dative, dativus)

Accusative (accusative, accusativus)

Negative (ablative, ablativus)

Vocative (vocativus)

Three genders, as in Russian:

Male (genus masculinum)

Female (genus feminum)

Average (genus neutral)

Divided into 5 declensions.

Latin verbs have 6 tense forms, 3 moods, 2 voices, 2 numbers and 3 persons.

Latin verb tenses:

Present tense (praesens)

Imperfect past tense

Past perfect tense (perfectum)

Plusquamperfect, or antecedent (plusquamperfectum)

Future tense, or future first (futurum primum)

Pre-future tense, or future second (futurum secundum)

Moods:

Indicative (modus indicativus)

Imperative (modus imperativus)

Subjunctive (modus conjunctivus)

Active

passive

singular (singularis)

Plural (pluralis)

First (persona prima)

Second (persona secunda)

Third (persona tertia)

In the Latin language there are nouns (lat. Nomen Substantivum), numerals and pronouns, declined according to cases, persons, numbers and genders; adjectives, except those listed, modified by degrees of comparison; verbs conjugated according to tenses and voices; supin - verbal noun; adverbs and prepositions.

Latin and science

The Latin language is also of great general educational importance, as it helps to better and more deeply analyze the Russian language, into which many Latin roots have passed, creating a number of new words, for example: communism, presidium, consultation, quorum, university, etc.

The Latin language included many Greek words that have survived to this day, mainly in medical names - anatomical, therapeutic, pharmacological, etc. Greek terms, while maintaining their basis, were Latinized and gradually received international recognition and distribution, for example: arteria - artery, aorta - aorta, etc.

For more than one and a half thousand years, Latin was the language of culture and writing, the only language science and philosophy in Western Europe. The foundations of scientific terminology for almost all disciplines were laid in Latin. Even after national languages ​​gradually replaced Latin from scientific literature, it remained for a long time as the main one in certain branches of knowledge.

This unity of terminology, which underlies the modern scientific terminology of a number of sciences, facilitates the understanding and communication of people in the field of science, the translation of scientific literature from one language to another, and the Latin language has not lost this meaning to this day. The preservation of scientific Latin terminology attaches particular importance to the study of the Latin language, as necessary in practical work, and not just as one of the languages ancient cultures. Therefore, although Latin and Greek are usually called “dead”, for medical workers these are living languages ​​necessary for everyday work.

In Russia the Latin language for a long time was the language of science. In Moscow, at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, the first scientific institution in Russia, all sciences were studied in Latin. Many scientific works of M. V. Lomonosov, as well as some works of N. I. Pirogov, M. Ya. Mudrov and other Russian scientists were written in this language.

Latin in biology can be considered as an independent language scientific language, derived from the Latin language of the Renaissance, but enriched with many words borrowed from Greek and other languages. In addition, many Latin words are used in biological texts in a new, special sense. The grammar in the Latin biological language is noticeably simplified. The alphabet has been supplemented: unlike classical Latin, the letters “j”, “u”, “w” are used.

Modern Codes of Biological Nomenclature require that the scientific names of living organisms be Latin in form, that is, they must be written in the Latin alphabet and obey the rules of Latin grammar, regardless of the language from which they are borrowed.

Published by decision of the editorial and publishing council of the Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical University

Reviewers: Dr. historical sciences, prof. V.M. Strogetsky Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor. A.V. Makhlayuk

Scientific editor: Doctor of Historical Sciences, prof. EAT. Molev

Khazina A.V., Sofronova L.V., Domanina S.A. GRAMMATICA LATINA. ARS MINOR. Tutorial. Nizhny Novgorod: NGPU Publishing House, 2000. - 155 p.

The manual is intended for first-year students of philological and historical faculties of non-linguistic universities. The nature of the manual and the structure of the material make it possible to use it in senior classes of gymnasiums, lyceums and schools with a humanitarian profile.

© Khazina A.V., Sofronova L.V., Domanina S.A.

© Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical University, 2003

Preface

Study Guide - Grammatica Latina. Ars minor – is the result of the collective work of members of the department general history Nizhny Novgorod Pedagogical University. It is intended for first-year humanities students at non-linguistic universities, and can also be used in senior classes of gymnasiums, lyceums and schools with a humanitarian profile.

The authors of the manual sought, based on many years of experience in teaching Latin at universities and schools, to give students and schoolchildren a relatively short, convenient and intelligible guide to the elementary course of the Latin language, following the principle - breviter et compendium (short and clear). That's why initial course limited to the morphology of the Latin language.

The manual consists of three parts. The practical part is equipped with a sufficient number of exercises that will help students master Latin grammar. Texts are offered for translation, mainly of historical and mythological content, which demonstrate not only the phenomena of Latin grammar, but also introduce the history and culture of the ancient world. Some texts and exercises can be used for tests and independent work. Theoretical part The manual provides a brief and systematic presentation of the basics of Latin grammar. The third part contains a Latin-Russian dictionary.

When preparing the manual, the following textbooks were used: Zaitsev A.I., Korykhalova T.P. and others. Latin language. L., 1974; Vinnichuk L. Latin language. M., 1980; tutorial: Podosinov A.V., Shaveleva N.I. Lingua Latina. Introduction to the Latin language and ancient culture. Parts I-III. M., 1994.

INTRODUCTIO HISTORICA

Latin (Lingua Latina) is the language of the ancient inhabitants of Latium, a small region in the middle part of the Apennine Peninsula, located along the lower reaches of the Tiber, along the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea. The inhabitants of Latium were called Latins (Latini). Over time, the Latins expanded their possessions, annexing neighboring Italic tribes, and their main city became Rome (Roma), according to legend, founded by Romulus in 753. BC. It was Rome, thanks to its expansionist policy, that conquered all of Italy, and then the entire Mediterranean, and became the capital of the Roman Empire. When Roman decrees were announced, their first phrase sounded like this: “to the city and to the world” (urbi et orbi). And although the power and political influence of the Romans spread far beyond Latium, and their language became the language of the entire Roman Empire, it was still called Latin.

The oldest monuments of the Latin language that have survived to our time date back to the 6th century. BC. In 1871, in the ancient city of Praeneste, somewhat east of Rome, a gold clasp with the inscription (Praeneste fibula) was found. And in 1899, during excavations of the Roman forum (square), in the so-called “tomb of Romulus”, part of a sacral (sacred) inscription on a black stone was discovered, containing only a few understandable words.

The history of the literary Latin language begins only in 240 BC, when the Greek Andronicus translated the Odyssey into Latin and staged the first tragedy and comedy in Latin in Rome - adaptations of Greek works. This period of language development, which lasted until the 1st century. BC, is usually called archaic. From this time, the works of the Roman comedian Titus Maccius Plautus (c. 250-184 BC) have reached us. Plautus's comedies are full of words and phrases characteristic of colloquial Latin.

I century BC. known in the history of language as the century classical Latin. Behind

perfection of grammar, elegance poetic forms, the variety of genres it was called “golden Latin”. The legacy of this period is the beautifully shaped works of the orator Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC), politician and the historian Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BC), the poets Publius Virgil Maron (70-19 BC) and Quintus Horace Flaccus (65-8 BC) .

Literary language of the 1st century. AD, called “Silver Latin,” was overloaded with stylistic and rhetorical effects and differed from the pure, transparent classical Latin. The philosopher Seneca (4 BC-65 AD), the poet Martial (40 - 104 AD), the historian Tacitus (55-120 AD) wrote in “Silver Latin”. .e.).

Regardless of the development and changes that occurred in the Latin language, the speech of the educated segments of the population, the elegant speech of sermo urbanus (urban speech) differed from colloquial speech Not educated people, sermo vulgaris (ordinary, village speech).

In the 5th century AD The Roman Empire fell, Rome was conquered and destroyed, and new nations and states began to form in place of the former Roman provinces. And on the basis of Latin, various Romance languages ​​arose: Italian, Portuguese, Catalan, Provençal, French, Moldavian, etc.

But Latin did not disappear. During the Middle Ages, Latin was not only written, but also spoken: it was a colloquial and literary language, uniting educated people of that time. Figures of the Renaissance (XIV-XVI centuries) sought to return to language classical antiquity, the language of Cicero. Thomas More in England, Erasmus of Rotterdam in Holland, Giordano Bruno in Italy, Nicolaus Copernicus in Poland wrote in Latin. By the 17th century Latin is being replaced by national languages, retaining the functions of the international language of science. I. Newton, C. Linnaeus, M.V. published their works in Latin. Lomonosov and many others.

The humanistic tradition of reviving the Latin language continues to live today. In countries Western Europe and Latin

America, there are magazines that publish works of contemporary Latin authors in various prose and poetic genres. That's why young man, receiving in high school and a university with a liberal arts education, one cannot do without knowledge of the Latin language, thanks to which outstanding historical, philosophical, and literary masterpieces of world culture were created.

For time passes, but the Latin language remains.

LESSON 1 Latin alphabet. Rules of pronunciation, reading and stress.

In the Latin alphabet (as it developed in modern times)

NB! Examples are given by the teacher during the lesson

Notes:

1. The letter k occurs only in a few words: Kalendae [kalend] kalends; Kaeso [kaeso] proper name; Karthago [kartago] Carthage. These words can also be spelled: Calendae, Caeso, Carthago.

2. The letters v and j were introduced into the alphabet in the 16th century. In classical Latin they were replaced by the letters u and i. Therefore, you can find different spellings of the same words, for example: iam, jam.

3. The letters y and z were used only in words of Greek origin.

4. C capital letter proper names, geographical names, names of peoples and adjectives derived from them are written.

Vowel sounds and diphthongs

The vowel sounds a, e, i, o, u, y are long and short. Brevity

In cases where two vowels must be pronounced separately, a sign of longitude [ - ], or brevity, or two dots is placed above the second one: aеr [aer] - air, poēma [poem] - poem, coēmo [coemo] - buying up.

All diphthongs are long.

Consonants

S is read as Russian beforee, i, y, ae, oe, as Russian in other cases, i.e. before, o, u, before all consonants and at the end of the word: Cicero [tsicero] - Cicero, Ciprus [tsiprus] - Cyprus, caelum [celum] - sky, сoeptum [tseptum] - beginning. Color [color] - color, credo [creed] - I believe, cantus [cantus] - singing.

ngu is pronounced like Russian English: lingua [lingua] - language.qu is pronounced kakkv: aqua [aqua] - water.

su is pronounced like ссв before vowels in some words: suavis [svavis] - pleasant, but: suus [suus] - yours.

s between vowels is pronounced kakz: rosa [rose] – rose.ch is read kakh: schola [schola] – school

ph reads kakf: philosophus [philosophus] – philosopherth reads kakt: theatrum [theatrum] – theater

rh reads like: Rhenum [renum] – Rhine

ti is read as kakti in the position before the vowels: ratio [ration] - reason in the combinationsti, xti, tti is read as kakti: bestia [bestia] - beast.

Syllable division

The syllable division goes:

1. Between two vowels: de-us.

2. Between a vowel (diphthong) and a single consonant: lu-pus, cau-sa.

3. Between two consonants: fruc-tus, sanc-tus.

4. Before two consonants, if the second of them r, l: tem-plum, pa-tri-a.

Longitude and shortness of syllables

A syllable is long if:

1) contains a diphthong: cau-sa;

2) contains a long vowel sound: lū-na, fortū-na;

3) is closed syllable, i.e. a vowel is followed by a group of consonants or letters x иz: ma-gis-ter.

AND The exception is the cases when the vowel is followed by qu, or the second consonant will be h, l, r. Such a syllable is considered short: re-lĭ-qui, sto-mă-chus, lo-cŭ-ples, ar-bĭ-tror.

A syllable is short if:

1) contains a short vowel sound: fe-mĭ-na;

2) is an open syllable followed by a vowel: ra-ti-o.

Accent

Syllables in Latin are counted from the end of the word.

The stress is placed on the second syllable from the end if it is long: amáre; if the second syllable is short, the stress is placed on the third syllable from the end:

íncola, scríbĭmus.

It should be remembered that in Latin the stress is never placed on the last syllable.

Exercises

Read the words below using reading and stress rules. Translate.

Recitate! (read aloud).

Rector, decanus, professor, magister, Sicilia, Massilia, Rhodănus, Rhenus, Sequăna, Londinium, Vindobona, Athēnae, Lugdūnum, Mediolānum, Lutēcia Parīsiōrum, Tacĭtus, Juppĭter, Rōmŭlus, Mārcus Tullius Cicĕro, Ptolemaeus, Capitōlium, Graecia, Aegyptus, Spartacus , Hannibal.

Actor, scaena, circus, schola, universĭtas, medicus, aqua, fortūna, res publĭca Polōnia, lingua Graeca.

Consul, praetor, quaestor, aedīlis, tribunus, cēnsor, dictātor, imperātor,

Mēnsis Mārtius, Aprīlis, Maius, Jūnius, Quīntīlis, Sextīlis, September, October, November, December, Jānuārius, Februārius.

P.S. Find modern meaning geographical names and months of the year.

LESSON 2

Verb system, present indicative mood active voice verbs I-II conjugations

(Praesens indicativi activi)

Translate:

Laboro. Bene laborāmus. Amo. Aras. Delectat. Educāmus. Laudant. Narra. Orāte. Ornatis. Putātis. Servat. Vitupĕrant. Ama, spera, tolĕra. Cur pugnātis? Non orat. Nolite vituperāre. Noli male laborāre. Valēte. Augeo. Habes. Nocet. Parēmus. Praebent. Tace. Noli dormīre. Sedent et tacent. Leniunt. Venītis. Punītis. Scitis. Non debes ridēre. Debet parēre. Debēmus docēre et edučāre. Noctu dormīmus. Cur tacētis? Non munītis, sed delētis. Saepe venis. Debeo punīre. Noli terrere. Non reperītis.

Exercises

1. Form according to shape 1st l. units infinitive of the following verbs: amo 1, clamo 1, debeo 2, erro 1, doceo 2, habeo 2, labōro 1, moveo 2, monstro 1, studeo 2, curo 1, video 2.

2. Form according to the infinitive form 1st l. units and 2nd l. plural

the following verbs: portāre, sedēre, valēre, sperāre, mutāre, respondēre, florēre.

3. Determine by the form of the infinitive what type of conjugation each of the following verbs belongs to; write its basis and 1st l.

units present tense (amāre – 1; amā-; amo): clamāre, debēre, errāre, laudāre, tenēre, vidēre, movēre, docēre.

4. Translate into Latin: I am working. You decorate. He tells. We bring it. You are guarding. They are fighting. We do not like. They think. You hope. Think and work. Always hope. Don't praise. Do not ask. If you love, you hope. Look and think. They sing well. I have. You deliver. I like him. We know. Do not sleep. Why are you always laughing? Obey. We can't see at night. We come often. You must not harm. They should not destroy, but strengthen. I'm silent. If you work, you have. Come.

LESSON 3

Praesens indicativi activi of verbs III-IV conjugations

Translate:

Ago. Credis. Defendit. Discĭmus. Discĭtis. Legunt. Ludĭmus. Quaere! Scribĭtis. Audi et tace. Vincunt. Quid legis? Quis scribit? Male discit. Ita docēre debes, ut putas. Si quaeris, reperis. Quomŏdo vales? Crede, ama, spera. Dum vivo, spero. Si dicis, putāre debes. Quis quaerit, repĕrit. Discite, dum vivitis.