Methods of teaching history in secondary school. Mikhail Studenikin Methods of teaching history in the Russian school of the 19th

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1. The subject of the methodology of teaching history as a science.

2. Communication of methodology with other sciences.

The word "methodology" comes from the ancient Greek word "methodos", which means "way of research", "way of knowing". Its meaning was not always the same, it changed with the development of the methodology itself, with the formation of its scientific foundations.

The initial elements of the methodology of teaching history originated with the introduction of teaching the subject as a response to practical questions about the goals of teaching, about the selection of historical material and methods of its disclosure. Methodology as a science has passed a difficult path of development. Pre-revolutionary methodology developed a rich arsenal of teaching methods, created entire methodological systems that combined individual methods with a common pedagogical idea. We are talking about formal, real and laboratory methods. Soviet methodology has contributed to the development of a scientific system of knowledge about the process of teaching history, about the tasks, ways and means of its improvement; its goal was to educate the builders of communism.

The post-Soviet period set new tasks for the methodology and demanded that scientists, methodologists, and practicing teachers rethink the main provisions of methodological science.

The education system at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. society is not satisfied. The discrepancy between goals and learning outcomes became apparent. It took a reform of the entire education system, including history. Before the teacher with new force the question arose: what and how to teach the child? How to scientifically determine the really necessary and expedient composition and volume of historical knowledge? It is impossible to limit ourselves only to improving the content of education; we must strive to improve the cognitive process, relying on its internal laws.

To date, the question of whether or not the methodology is a science is not relevant. It was solved in principle - the methodology of teaching history has its own subject. This is a scientific discipline that explores the process of teaching history in order to use its patterns to improve the effectiveness of education, upbringing and development of the younger generation. The methodology develops the content, organization and methods of teaching history in accordance with the age characteristics of students.

Teaching history at school is a complex, multifaceted, and not always unambiguous pedagogical phenomenon. Its patterns are revealed on the basis of objective links that exist between education, development and upbringing of students. It is based on the teachings of the students. The methodology studies the educational activities of schoolchildren in connection with the goals and content of teaching history, methods of managing the assimilation of educational material.

History teaching, as already mentioned, is a complex process that includes interrelated and moving components: learning objectives, its content, transferring knowledge and guiding its assimilation, schoolchildren's learning activities, learning outcomes.

Teaching objectives determine the content of learning. In accordance with the goals and content, the optimal organization of teaching and learning is selected. The effectiveness of the organization of the pedagogical process is checked by the results of education, upbringing and development.

Patterns of the process of school teaching history

The components of the learning process are historical categories, they change with the development of society. The goals of history teaching tend to reflect the changes that are taking place in society. A clear definition of learning objectives is one of the conditions for its effectiveness. The definition of goals should take into account the general objectives of teaching history, developing students, their knowledge and skills, ensuring the educational process, etc. Goals must be realistic for the conditions that exist in a particular school.

Content is an essential component of the learning process. The historically determined restructuring of goals also changes the content of education. The development of history, pedagogy and psychology, methodology also affects the content of teaching, its volume and depth. So, in the teaching of history in modern conditions, the civilizational approach prevails instead of the formational one, much attention is paid to historical figures. The teacher teaches children to be able to distinguish between the process of knowing the past and the process of moral assessment of people's actions, etc.

Movement in the learning process is carried out by overcoming internal contradictions. These include conflicts between learning objectives and results already achieved; between optimal and applied in practice methods and means of training.

The process of teaching history aims to develop the individuality of the student, his personal qualities. It ensures the harmonious implementation of all its functions (development, training, education). The concept of nurturing education contains the concept of education, which lays the foundations for independent thinking of students. The unity of education, upbringing, development is achieved only if the work of the students themselves is activated at all stages of the learning process. Education has an educative character also in connection with the formation of value orientations and beliefs of students on the basis of personal understanding of the experience of history, perception of the ideas of humanism, respect for human rights and democratic values, patriotism and mutual understanding between peoples. The correct solution of the educational and upbringing tasks of the school teaching of history is impossible without taking into account the psychological and age characteristics of students at various concentrations.

Thus, the younger schoolchild strives to accumulate historical knowledge, asks the teacher a lot. He is interested in the details of the clothes of knights, valor and courage in campaigns, they immediately start gladiator fights or knightly tournaments during breaks. A high school student strives not so much for the accumulation of historical facts as for their comprehension and generalization; he strives to establish logical connections between historical facts, to reveal patterns, to theoretical generalizations. In the upper grades, the proportion of knowledge that students receive on their own is growing. This is due to the further development of logical thinking. At this age, there is a growing interest in those elements of knowledge that relate to issues of politics, morality, and art. There is a differentiation of the interests of schoolchildren: some are interested in exact disciplines, others in the humanities. Various types of educational institutions: gymnasiums, lyceums, colleges, general education schools - realize this interest. At the same time, one must be able to attract cognitively valuable material, maintaining and developing the interest of schoolchildren.

Thus, in order to solve these problems, it is necessary for the teacher to work systematically on the development of students' historical thinking, on developing their scientific understanding of history. Setting tasks for the teaching of history - educational and educational, determining the content of history courses, outlining ways to transfer knowledge to schoolchildren, it is necessary to count on obtaining certain results: so that students learn historical material and develop their own attitude to historical facts and phenomena. All this is provided by the methodology of teaching history. In defining the objectives of the method of teaching history in schools, one must take into account that they follow from its content and place in the system of pedagogical sciences.

The methodology equips history teachers with content and pedagogical teaching aids, knowledge and skills, necessary means for effective historical education, upbringing and development of students.

In modern conditions, when there is a complex, contradictory process of modernization of school history and social science education, the task is to further improve its structure and content. Among the problems, an important place is occupied by questions of the correlation of facts and theoretical generalizations, the formation of historical images and concepts, and the disclosure of the essence of the historical process.

As already mentioned, the most important task of teaching methodology is the development of students' thinking as one of the goals and one of the conditions for teaching history. The tasks of developing the historical thinking of students, of forming their mental independence, also require appropriate methods, techniques and teaching aids.

One of the tasks is to reveal the methodological conditions for a successful solution in the unity of the main goals of upbringing, education and development in teaching history. By developing a system for teaching history, the methodology solves a number of practical questions: a) what goals (intended results) should and can be set before teaching history?; b) what to teach? (course structure and material selection); c) what learning activities do schoolchildren need?; d) what types of teaching aids and what their methodological construction contributes to the achievement of optimal learning outcomes?; e) how to teach?; f) how to take into account the result of training and use the information received to improve it?; g) what intercourse and interdisciplinary connections are established in training?

Now, when historical education in Russia is gradually becoming student-oriented, pluralistic and diverse, the history teacher is faced with problems not only of a didactic or informational nature. The school independently overcomes the ideological and moral-value vacuum, participates in the search and formation of the goals and priorities of the educational policy. In recent years, the issue of the right of teaching staff and teachers to be creative has been raised, innovative technologies have been developed that cover modern trends and directions in the development of education. In the last years of the 20th century, the question of the place and role of the history teacher in the educational process has been discussed. Many scholars believe that the main problem hindering the reform is the training of teachers. (International Seminar of the Council of Europe, the Ministry of General and Vocational Education of the Russian Federation, the Department of Education of the Government of the Sverdlovsk Region (Sverdlovsk, 1998); International Scientific Conference "The Place and Role of History Teachers at School and Their Training in Universities" (Vilnius, 1998). The discussion that unfolded confirms the idea that the most difficult thing is to destroy the stable stereotypes of thinking and behavior that have developed in conditions of unified education, authoritarian teaching, and directive control.

The methodology of teaching history operates with its own laws, peculiar only to it. These patterns are discovered on the basis of identifying the links that exist between training and its results. And another regularity (which, unfortunately, is completely insufficiently taken into account) is that in the knowledge of its regularities, the methodology cannot be limited only by its own framework. Methodological research, studying the process of teaching history, is based on related sciences, primarily on history, pedagogy and psychology.

History as an academic subject is based on historical science, but this is not a reduced model of it. History as a school subject does not include absolutely all sections of historical science.

The teaching methodology has its own specific tasks: to select the basic data of historical science, to structure the teaching of history in such a way that students receive the most optimal and effective education, upbringing and development through historical content.

Epistemology considers the formation of knowledge not as a one-time act that gives a complete, as it were, photographic reflection of reality. The formation of knowledge is a process that has its stages of strengthening, deepening, etc., and teaching history will be scientifically based and effective only if its entire structure, content and methodology correspond to this objective law of knowledge.

Psychology has established the objective laws of development, the functioning of various manifestations of consciousness, such as remembering and forgetting material. Education will be scientifically grounded if its methodology complies with these laws. In this case, not only the strength of memorization is achieved, but also the successful development of the memory function. History cannot be assimilated by students if the logic of the disclosure of the historical process and the laws of logic are not observed during teaching.

The subject of pedagogy is the study of the essence of the development and formation of a person and the definition on this basis of the theory and methodology of training and education as a specially organized pedagogical process. The teaching of history will not achieve its goal if it does not take into account the achievements of didactics.

Cognitive activity will be inferior if the teaching of history does not correspond to the modern level of historical science and its methodology.

The methodology is designed to highlight and designate, rework, synthesize the entire body of knowledge about the process of cognition and education and discover new patterns - the patterns of teaching history. These are objective, essential, stable links between tasks, content, ways, means of training, education and development, on the one hand, and learning outcomes, on the other.

Methodology as a science arises where there is evidence of links between the patterns of cognition, teaching methods and the positive results achieved, which are manifested through the forms of educational work.

The methodology is faced with the task of studying the regularities of the process of teaching history with the aim of its further improvement and increase in its effectiveness.

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Introduction

1. The subject and objectives of the course "Methods of teaching history"

1.1 The subject of history teaching methodology

1.2 Tasks of the methodology of teaching history as a science and pedagogical disciplines

2. The methodology of school teaching of history as a pedagogical science

2.1 Functions of the methodology for teaching history as a science

2.2 Methods and techniques for teaching history at school

2.3 The connection of the methodology of teaching history with other sciences

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

History is the past of mankind, a centuries-old experience passed down from generation to generation. We get acquainted with history from early childhood in the form of myths and epics, later we study it at school more meaningfully. History is a set of sciences that study the past of human society.

Relevance of the topic. The modern education system is characterized by humanization - an appeal to the personality of the student, and humanitorization - the maximum use of educational, developmental and educational opportunities of humanitarian subjects. The study of history has great educational features, and also contributes to the overall cultural growth of the individual, the formation of systemic knowledge. The study of historical propaedeutics is a new phenomenon in the domestic education system, therefore, theoretical development and accumulation of practical experience are required. Today it has become obvious that it is the humanities that shape the personality, socialize it, i.e. prepare for life in society, develop the ability and ability to master information.

An object research- methods of teaching history at school.

Subjectresearch- subject, tasks of the methodology of teaching history at school.

Target work is to reveal the essence and objectives of the methodology of teaching history.

In accordance with the goal, the following can be distinguished tasks:

1. to consider the tasks of the methodology of teaching history at school;

2. to study the subject of methodology for teaching history as a science;

3. to analyze the connection between the methods of teaching history and other sciences;

4. to characterize modern methods of teaching history.

Source Analysis. In the course of the work, various textbooks on the methodology of teaching history and pedagogy were used, in particular the work:

HER. Vyazemsky, O.Yu. Strelova "Methods of teaching history at school" Vyazemsky E.E., Strelova O.Yu. Methods of teaching history at school. M., 1999. . The authors consider conceptual and methodological approaches to teaching history in modern schools, modern forms of developmental education, and provide a detailed analysis of educational and methodological literature on history;

M.T. Studenikin "Methods of teaching history at school" Studenikin M.T. Methods of teaching history at school. M., 2003. . This work was used to reveal the development of historical education in Soviet Russia, the methods of teaching history in elementary school and its specifics. The textbook contains theoretical and practical materials for this course.

I.V. Berelkovsky, L.S. Pavlov "Methods of teaching history in a secondary school" Berelkovsky I.V., Pavlov L.S. Methods of teaching history in secondary schools. M., 1996. . The manual reveals the actual problems of the methodology of teaching history, the tasks and content of historical education in a modern general education school.

N.V. Savin "Pedagogy" Savin N.V. Pedagogy. M., 1985. . The work contains a description of the main teaching methods at school, disclosed both from a pedagogical and methodological point of view.

The work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, a list of references.

1. The subject and objectives of the course "Methods of teaching history"

1.1 The subject of history teaching methodology

The post-Soviet period set new tasks for the methodology and demanded that scientists, methodologists, and practicing teachers rethink the main provisions of methodological science.

To date, the question of whether or not the methodology is a science is not relevant. It has been resolved in principle - the methodology of teaching history has its own subject. This is a scientific discipline that explores the process of teaching history in order to use its patterns to improve the effectiveness of education, upbringing and development of the younger generation. The methodology develops the content, organization and methods of teaching history in accordance with the age characteristics of students.

History teaching, as already mentioned, is a complex process that includes interrelated and moving components: learning objectives, its content, knowledge transfer and management of their assimilation, schoolchildren's learning activities, learning outcomes.

Thus, the younger schoolchild strives to accumulate historical knowledge, asks the teacher a lot. He is interested in the details of the clothes of knights, valor and courage in campaigns, they immediately start gladiator fights or knightly tournaments during breaks. A high school student strives not so much for the accumulation of historical facts as for their comprehension and generalization; he strives to establish logical connections between historical facts, to reveal patterns, to theoretical generalizations. In the upper grades, the proportion of knowledge that students receive on their own is growing. This is due to the further development of logical thinking. At this age, there is a growing interest in those elements of knowledge that relate to issues of politics, morality, and art. There is a differentiation of interests of schoolchildren: some are interested in exact disciplines, others - in the humanities. Various types of educational institutions: gymnasiums, lyceums, colleges, general education schools - realize this interest. At the same time, one must be able to attract cognitively valuable material, maintaining and developing the interest of schoolchildren.

Being a branch of pedagogical science, enriching its general theory, the methodology of teaching history is directly based on this theory; thus, the unity of the theoretical basis and practical activities in the teaching of history is achieved. Cognitive activity will be inferior if the teaching of history does not correspond to the modern level of historical science and its methodology. Berelkovsky I.V., Pavlov L.S. Methods of teaching history in secondary schools. M., 1996. S. 105.

The methodology is designed to highlight and designate, rework, synthesize the entire body of knowledge about the process of cognition and education and discover new patterns - the patterns of teaching history. These are objective, essential, stable connections between tasks, content, ways, means of training, education and development, on the one hand, and learning outcomes, on the other.

1.2 Tasks of the Methodology of Teaching History as a Science and a Pedagogical Discipline

The methodology equips history teachers with content and pedagogical teaching aids, knowledge and skills, necessary means for effective historical education, upbringing and development of students.

The most important task of teaching methodology is the development of students' thinking as one of the goals and one of the conditions for teaching history. The tasks of developing the historical thinking of students, of forming their mental independence, also require appropriate methods, techniques and teaching aids.

History as an academic subject is based on historical science, but this is not a reduced model of it. History as a school subject does not include absolutely all sections of historical science.

Thus, the methodology explores teaching history, multilateral links between the components of the process of teaching history: learning objectives (intended results) - learning content (selection of material) - teaching (teacher's activity and methodological construction of teaching aids) - schoolchildren's educational activities (perception, thinking , memorization, etc.) - actual learning outcomes (education, upbringing and development of schoolchildren). Research in methodology involves identifying objectively existing connections, theoretical explanation and determination of their practical application to improve the process of teaching history. The methodology is designed to give evidence-based answers to the main practical questions: why teach (learning objectives), what to teach (learning content), how to teach, i.e. how to organize and manage the learning activities of schoolchildren (teaching methods and techniques and teaching aids) how to train history teachers (content of education and teaching methods). Last question partially exit the limits of studying the school process of teaching history. Kodzhaspirova G. M., Kodzhaspirov A. Yu. Dictionary of Pedagogy. M., 2005. P.144. A scientifically substantiated answer to it can be given on the basis of a combined study of history teaching in schools and teacher training in universities; in this work, we do not consider this issue. In addition, the methodology should answer a question that is also essential for improving the teaching of history: how to study the process of teaching this subject at school. The study of the learning process is based on the comparison of learning outcomes with other components of the process.

The methodology is faced with the task of studying the regularities of the process of teaching history with the aim of its further improvement and increase in its effectiveness.

2. The methodology of school teaching of history as a pedagogical science

2.1 Functionsand propertiesmethods of teaching history as a science

There is a figurative definition of methodology as a reliable "bridge from theory to practice." An extremely important function of any science is to express its attitude to experience, to solved and especially unresolved problems of education from the perspective of its own, specific aspect vision. In this sense, any science begins with practice. Studenikin M.T. Methods of teaching history at school. M., 2003. S. 240.

Therefore, the first function of science is descriptive, ascertaining, focused on an objective presentation of the real facts of educational activity accessible to a given science, empirical data of experience, and practice. But the empirical basis of science is not a simple collection of facts, therefore the second most important function of science is diagnostic, contributing to the selective assessment of the facts obtained, their comparison, correlation with criteria, systematization, classification, etc.

The empirical basis of science can claim a certain completeness only if the data of practical experience have received a proper scientific explanation. From this it follows that the third function is explanatory, aimed at discovering cause-and-effect relationships in the phenomena under consideration, at identifying trends and certain patterns in them.

However, it is important not only to describe and explain this or that experience, which has a purely local significance, but also to justify the possibility of using this experience in new conditions, making it the property of more mass practice. The transformation of practical experience and facts into abstract knowledge, capable of seeing the typical, regular and regular in phenomena, leads to the formation of theoretical knowledge, theory. Theoretical knowledge accumulates data from different sciences, so any theory in the field of education is interdisciplinary. (In this regard, remember the general theoretical foundations of methodology and its dangerous connections with other sciences!)

Along with the inductive movement of knowledge (from practice to theory), a deductive flow of ideas and information is possible and extremely necessary, which makes it possible to assimilate data from other sciences and wide international experience in one or another educational theory. In this regard, the fourth function of science plays an important role - prognostic, which makes it possible to foresee the possible consequences of the practical use of concepts, doctrines, and innovative technologies.

In turn, theoretical knowledge can and should be presented in practice not only in the form of strictly scientific texts, but also in the form of methodological knowledge adapted to it. It is wrong to consider that the transformation of scientific knowledge into methodical knowledge is a kind of purely mechanical, routine interpretation, devoid of creativity.

This process is associated with the following functions:

* projective-constructive, with the help of which theoretical projects are translated into real educational structures;

* transformative - translating the parameters of practice, from which scientific research is based, to a higher quality level;

* Criteria-evaluative - dealing with the development of criteria and evaluation of the transformations that have taken place;

* correctional - ensuring the continuous development of educational and pedagogical activities.

The corrective-reflexive function of science, in essence, begins the next, new cycle of movement of the entire system "practice - science - practice", sets the dynamics and vitality for the entire educational process. Savin N.V. Pedagogy. M., 1985. S. 365.

It follows from this that it is deeply erroneous to evaluate methodological knowledge only as auxiliary, intermediate knowledge, necessary only for servicing theory, translating it into the language of practice. The formation of workable methodological knowledge, according to B.S. Gershunsky, “requires the highest scientific qualifications, since a true methodologist is not only a specialist who knows the true and constantly developing needs of practice, but also is able to appreciate the true possibilities of science, is able to “join” scientific proposals with practical demand, make them complementary and mutually enriching” .

In the praxeological (significant for practice) aspect, the essential characteristics of the methodology are manifested in such properties as determinism, mass character, selectivity, effectiveness, processuality, variability and heuristics.

The property of determinism means that the methodology consists of "elementary" operations (procedures) of pedagogical activity, for which the conditions for their implementation are known, as well as an unambiguous sequence for the implementation of these procedures or acts of activity.

One of the properties of the methodology is its mass character. Each separate type of methodology of pedagogical activity, being by its nature an algorithm, is a solution to a typical problem that constantly exists in mass pedagogical practice and is characterized by certain parameters and their combinations.

Various combinations of parameters as initial data that determine the specifics of the pedagogical process form pedagogical tasks, in the solution of which the use of appropriate methods helps. The property of mass character has a methodological and praxeological consequence associated with the concept of selectivity.

The main praxeological property of the methodology is effectiveness. The question of the effectiveness of the methodology is the question of how much the use of the algorithm for constructing pedagogical activity makes it possible to achieve such a quality of its organization, which provides optimal conditions for the formation of a personality.

The processuality of the methodology is ensured by personalization, i.e. pointing to specific possible performers of certain actions.

Pedagogical activity is characterized by a constant desire to search for new, unconventional solutions that correspond to the uniqueness of the moments of pedagogical activity. Hence, the methodological description implies variability, the ability to improvise to a certain extent.

Variability, combined with expediency, makes it possible for the practitioner to understand and realize the principle of selecting the most effective methods of action. The information embedded in methodological knowledge, being transformed in the consciousness of the person who perceives it, begins to produce generalized knowledge, which subsequently makes it possible to independently design the process of organizing activities in varying circumstances. This property can be referred to as heuristic.

Finally, the methodology is designed to be effective. Efficiency is understood as the ability to be directly guided in practice by the proposed model of activity with the expected minimum losses from the influence of external circumstances and subjective factors.

The properties listed here bring the methodology closer to technology, and at the same time distinguish it from technology, as a systemic sequence of methods (in their applied meaning), providing the most accurate, standardized transition from the goal to the planned result.

The methodology of pedagogical activity is by its nature subjective and subjective. Speaking of it, we mean someone who directly constructs, implements, organizes some kind of activity, to whom the instructions about it are addressed. The subjectivity of the methodology is manifested in the fact that each performer brings something of his own to its comprehension and implementation.

In general, we have to state that in the pedagogical sciences and in the very methodology of teaching history, a variety of interpretations of its content and meanings is preserved due to the complex and multi-level nature of the phenomenon itself.

2.2 Methods and techniques for teaching history at school

They are based on the textbook because the textbook is the most important source of knowledge. On the other hand, it is also a learning tool. I will now give you a definition of a textbook, but this definition contains the meaning of what a textbook is. A textbook is a mass educational book that sets out the subject content of education and defines the types of activities intended for compulsory assimilation by students, taking into account their age and other characteristics. Savin N.V. Pedagogy. M., 1985. S. 365.

Tutorial features. The first function is informational, it reveals the content of education. The second function is systematizing, because the textbook systematizes historical knowledge, not just sets out how anyone wants. In a certain system, knowledge is stored in a textbook.

The third function is teaching. Teaches certain fundamentals of historical knowledge. The last one is the most important function. And you can consider these goals equally. One function is equivalent to the second, so this numbering can be removed. All functions are equally important. Yakovleva M.A. History lessons /from work experience/ Elementary school. SPb., 1999. S. 112.

What is the textbook. Consists of text, sections, chapters, paragraphs. Moreover, the paragraphs should be approximately the same length, and the number of paragraphs should correspond to the curriculum for the subject.

When working with the textbook and when analyzing the text, the teacher singles out the main basic knowledge from the entire textbook and for each paragraph separately. This does not mean that everything else can be thrown out of the textbook, no. The rest is additional material that helps to clearly and convincingly reveal basic knowledge. When you, for example, are preparing for exams in some particular period of history. You are reading a thick textbook, you will never remember it all.

You must highlight the main most important events, and first of all remember them, and everything else as an addition to the main one, which is worse remembered and can get confused in the head, and which flies away the next day after the exam. The same is true in high school history.

All the material in the school course cannot be studied in the same detail, because the lesson time is 40 minutes. It remains for about 20 minutes on a new topic. During this time, you will not state 8 pages of text in any way, and even more so, no one will understand you if you tell in detail. It is necessary to choose something important from the material, and additional material can be read at home. The main part of the methodological apparatus of the textbook is questions and assignments for paragraphs.

They are not just given in the textbook, but in order to help students consciously and deeply learn the content of the lesson. And these questions and tasks give the teacher the opportunity to guide the learning activities of students. These tasks can be given at home either orally or in writing. Most importantly, they allow you to learn the material of the lesson. Therefore, those textbooks are considered weak, where the apparatus in the form of tasks and questions is not wide enough or is absent.

Textbook system. As a rule, the primary work with the textbook occurs at the beginning of the study of this course, in a certain class. There is an acquaintance with the textbook, that is, the teacher introduces the students to the textbook. He introduces the table of contents: what paragraphs are there, what topics, what period of history we will study, what is the chronological framework of the textbook. Explains how the textbook is organized, where the reference material is located, where the additional material is. Introduces questions and tasks, with illustrations and maps. First, students look at the pictures. At the lesson, the assignments from the textbook begin to become more complicated.

For example, find the actual material in the textbook. You can write the terms on the board. And the students themselves must find the meaning of these terms in the paragraph. Write questions to the topic in writing, and students should find answers in the textbook.

Students usually write word for word the answer to the question. I need to lower my rating for this. It is necessary to teach them to think independently, to build sentences themselves. It is important to highlight unfamiliar words. Try to find answers in the textbook. And if it doesn’t work out, then contact the teacher. You can invite students to find material that answers the question posed in the lesson, and retell this answer in their own words. After explaining the new material, the teacher offers to read a paragraph in the textbook, and answer that he has not yet told within the framework of this topic.

Students find their own material. The textbook helps to draw conclusions, to derive new judgments based on one or more.

Based on the text of the textbook, students can make reports on a new topic, additionally attract material from scientific and popular science, fiction. Drawing up a plan for studying a new topic, or written answers to questions at the end of a paragraph. True, some teachers abuse it. They don't want to work at the lesson, and at every lesson they ask: make a paragraph plan, answer the questions. It is better to give such tasks when the class behaves badly, the teacher cannot listen. Then you check and rate. Thus, 2 tasks are solved, both educational and teaching.

You need to prove that the plan is very good. The methodology of teaching history is a pedagogical science about the tasks, content and methods of teaching history.

When we talk about the connection of the historical material of the school course with the present, we are not talking about this general ideological orientation of the course, but about specific cases and methods of direct appeal to the facts of the present when studying the events of the historical past.

The solution to this problem cannot be unambiguous for all levels of school history teaching. First of all, let us agree that modernity in the pedagogical plan should be understood not as events of which the teacher was a contemporary, but as phenomena contemporary to the conscious life of the student.

Therefore, when deciding on the appropriateness in each specific case of establishing a connection between the studied past and the present, it is essential that students have knowledge about the compared phenomena of the present. It should be noted that the content of this knowledge does not remain unchanged. The facts and events of our time, which were once well known from radio broadcasts and newspapers to schoolchildren who studied in grades IX-X in 1956-1957, may be unfamiliar to students of the same classes in 1967-1968.

Comparisons with the events of the Great Patriotic War, easily and successfully carried out in the classroom in 1941-1945, would now require lengthy explanations from the teacher about the facts unknown to students born after 1950, i.e., the generation that did not know no war, no post-war hardships. The teacher often forgets this simple circumstance, being surprised at the complete ignorance of schoolchildren about events that seem to him, the teacher, to be generally known. Therefore, the examples of a successful connection with modernity, given in methodological articles and manuals, should be used critically in practical work, taking into account the age data and socio-political experience of students.

However, modernity in the pedagogical sense should not be reduced to current politics or to the events of the last four or five years. By modernity, we mean everything that the student realizes as contemporary, close and familiar events and phenomena of social life.

For example, for a Soviet schoolchild, modernity is not only the first spacewalk and not only the war in Vietnam, but also the socialist system of our country, the existence of the socialist camp and the camp of capitalism, and the aggressive policy of the imperialists, and the UN, and many other phenomena. that arose long before the birth of our seventh graders and tenth graders.

Making a connection with the present on the material of history in grades V-VII, it is necessary to take into account that the social experience of schoolchildren aged 11-13 is still small, ideas about the historical past are very incomplete and inaccurate, and the content of the course of ancient, middle and national history until the end of the XVIII in. far from modern.

It would be a mistake to conclude from this that in grades V-VII this task does not stand before the teacher, or that such a connection can be something accidental. 20 years ago, this may have been the case. But a lot has changed in recent decades. First of all, we cannot ignore the powerful flow of information that accompanies the development of a schoolchild from childhood.

By the age of 10, he already knows a lot about the events of our time from radio and television programs, from magazines and newspapers, from adult conversations, from messages and information at school. Hence, his desire, when studying the distant past, to find out what is happening now in the country under study is more persistent. Getting acquainted with the emergence of parliament and the strengthening of royal power in England, students often ask questions: Who is the king in England now?

And it happens that schoolchildren themselves supplement the material of the textbook about the distant past of the country with fresh reports on current events. So, in connection with the study of medieval India, the conquests of its northern part by Muslim feudal lords in 1965, sixth-graders vied with each other about the hostilities between India and Pakistan and about the peaceful meeting of the two sides in Tashkent. In the fall of 1956, fifth-graders studying the history of ancient Egypt were even more interested in the events connected with the aggression of the European imperialists against the young Egyptian state. And although direct historical links could not be established between these events and ancient Egypt, except for the common territory, nevertheless, the actual events, of which the students turned out to be contemporaries, significantly increased their interest in ancient Egypt. Are the dams built in antiquity still standing today? Do the Egyptians use shadufs now?” - Dozens of similar questions extremely intensified the work in the classroom. Therefore, I. V. Gittis is absolutely right when he asserts that “the method of linking history with modernity not only enlivens classes, but also deepens interest in history. Along with this, it prepares the ground for a better understanding of current life.

It is quite obvious from the above examples that the connection between historical material in grades V-VII and the present is naturally determined, firstly, by the relevance of contemporary events, and secondly, by the degree of interest of schoolchildren in these events. Ignatieva T.V., Propaedeutic history course in elementary school. 1999, p. 101.

But is it possible to consider that the connection with modernity in the lessons of history, due to the indicated circumstances, is of an accidental, spontaneous nature? It seems to us that in solving this issue it is necessary to listen to the observations of one of the oldest Soviet methodologists, prof. V. N. Vernadsky. “The student,” wrote V. N. Vernadsky, “perceiving historical material, in his mind relies to a large extent on life impressions, on the knowledge of modern life.”

Without pretending to completeness and completeness of the coverage of this issue, we believe it is possible to outline the following areas of such work. First of all, we should talk about the systematic work of the teacher in ordering the abundant material relating to both the past and the present, which students receive from the extracurricular sources of information listed above, on correlating this material with certain, at least roughly outlined, chronological milestones.

With regard to the examples given, we will talk about something like this. Yes, the teacher will say, and now in England there is a parliament, there is both the House of Lords and the House of Commons. But over 700 years, the composition of parliament, the procedure for elections, and the role of parliament have changed. Or, in the example of ancient Egypt and the Anglo-French intervention of 1956, the teacher must first of all prevent the possibility of mixing ideas about modern Egypt with ideas about ancient Egypt, emphasize the difference between ancient and modern Egypt (and the people are not the same, and the language is not the same, and writing is different, etc.), a huge gap in time - five thousand years have passed.

Modernity in school history teaching. Working in grades V-VI, we often forget that students of this age are familiar with the most important facts of Russian history from stories on the history of the USSR studied in grade IV, have an idea about the life of serfs and workers, about their oppression by landowners and capitalists, about about what the October Revolution and Soviet power gave the working people of our country, about our social system, about the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, about the equality and friendship of peoples, about the fact that we do not have oppression of man by man.

These ideas create a psychological background against which the student perceives all the material of ancient and medieval history, the basis for the logical operations of comparison and opposition. Analyzing the reasons for the defeat of the uprising of slaves and peasants in ancient Egypt, we, together with schoolchildren, come to the conclusion of the textbook: “The rebels did not destroy the slave system. They did not imagine any other system. The teacher will do the right thing if he helps the students to express these thoughts on their own and thereby realize and formulate conclusions based on the historical ideas they have.

Comparing and contrasting the modern system of our country with the slave-owning and feudal systems studied in the history course in grades V-VII is not only one of the ways to establish a connection between the past and the present, but also an effective method of forming the social position of the younger student, which was mentioned above.

The connection of the material of the history of the ancient world and the Middle Ages with the present is also carried out by showing the cultural heritage of antiquity and the Middle Ages and its significance for modern culture. The textbook of the history of the ancient world in some cases directly provides for such a connection, offering questions and tasks for comparison, comparison, for establishing the facts of the continuity of ancient and modern culture: the Olympic Games, theater, architecture and architectural orders, the Greek alphabet, Roman numerals, triumphal arches and many other elements of ancient culture continue to live in a modified form in the culture of modernity.

Elucidation of the historical significance of the culture of ancient Greece and ancient Rome for modern culture also provides an opportunity to establish diverse links with modernity. Unfortunately, the program and textbook on the history of the Middle Ages do not guide teachers to establish similar links between medieval culture and modern culture, which would have serious educational and educational value.

Cognitively valuable is the explanation of the origin of words, terms, expressions that arose in antiquity or in the Middle Ages and continue to live in the modern language (style, school, class, headlights, school desk, director, democracy, university, red line, see below, red tape , put in a long box, ins and outs, etc.).

Establishing a connection with modernity by clarifying the origin of ancient and medieval beliefs, customs, elements of everyday life that have survived to our time (for example, some religious rites or everyday traditions that originate from the pagan or Christian beliefs of the ancient Slavs, etc.). This is essential in terms of an atheistic upbringing. The use of visual material depicting the current state of cultural monuments of the ancient world and the Middle Ages.

Considering a photograph showing the ruins of the Acropolis against the background of modern Athens or the ruins of the Forum among modern Roman buildings is also one of the methods of entering the present. It would be a mistake to consider the questions often asked by students as idle curiosity: What about the Reims Cathedral now? The destruction of the Parthenon, the destruction and burning of the Library of Alexandria, the destruction of the Church of the Tithes - these facts provide a reason to show students what irreparable damage wars and religious fanaticism cause to the treasures of human culture.

Although the content of the history course in grades V-VII is far from the present, many events and heroes of the past have been preserved in the memory of the people and are a matter of pride and deep reverence by our contemporaries. So, talking about the Hussite wars, the teacher will not forget to note that the Czech people remember and honor their heroes Jan Hus and Jan Zizka. These are some of the ways to establish a connection between historical material and the present in the course of V-VII classes. Dairy N.G. Modern requirements for the history lesson. M., 1978. S. 254.

Significantly wider opportunities and a more insistent need to link the historical past with the present are present in the teaching of history in the upper grades, starting from the 8th grade, where the new history and the history of the USSR in the 19th century are studied. Firstly, the very content of the history course in high school is closely related to topical issues of our time. The material of the revolutionary movement in Russia and socialist construction in the USSR is directly connected with the present. It is quite natural to expound in the light of modern times the history of the capitalist countries of the era of imperialism. Naturally, the teacher, when presenting historical material, will also turn to the facts of our time in order to reveal even more clearly those trends and phenomena that, perhaps, were only outlined at the end of the 19th century.

Thus, the content of the history course in high school requires a much broader connection with the present. Secondly, the historical knowledge of older students is much richer and deeper, their ideas about the historical perspective are much more accurate and meaningful than that of younger students. This enables the teacher to turn to comparisons with the present much more often, in violation of the historical sequence.

Thirdly, older students are incomparably better than their younger comrades, aware of the events of our time. It would be a mistake to think that students in grades 9-10 and the most developed eighth graders know about contemporary social and political life only what is taught to them in class. They are interested in international events, listen to radio information, read newspapers and magazines, watch newsreels, study materials of current politics in extracurricular activities and in the order of Komsomol studies.

When comparing historical phenomena with modernity in high school, in some cases there is no need to give a detailed description of a modern phenomenon, which would distract from the main topic of the lesson, turning it into a parallel study of two historical phenomena from different eras, and would interfere with the assimilation of program material. The teacher only needs to refer to the facts of the present that are familiar to students.

In the practice of teaching, the following ways of linking historical material with the present have been outlined. The simplest form of linking history with the present is a brief factual reference about contemporary phenomena, which the teacher gives to students when studying past events.

This kind of connection with modernity is often incidental. But it inevitably follows from the students' interests in the present, from their questions to the teacher.

Which party is in power now? Who is the current leader of the American Federation of Labor? What is its attitude to questions of war and peace? It is unlikely that the teacher would be right to dismiss such questions on the grounds that they lead beyond the chronological framework of the time being studied. Obviously, for brief answers to all such questions, there is no need to describe the evolution of the American Federation of Labor over the past decades, in this case it is quite acceptable to violate the chronological framework with a brief reference from the present.

One of the methods of establishing a connection with modernity is the comparison, comparison and opposition of historical and modern phenomena. It is justified in cases where students are at least in general familiar with contemporary events, otherwise the comparison will turn into a parallel study of two phenomena belonging to different eras, which can lead to a distortion of the historical perspective.

In the upper grades, where students have sufficient material for comparisons of this kind, comparisons and contrasts that reveal the advantages of the Soviet system are of exceptional educational and educational significance.

A valuable educational and upbringing form of connection between historical material and modernity is the disclosure of the significance of the studied historical fact for modernity.

When studying the Soviet period in the history of our country, it is very important to show students the significance of the experience of building socialism in the USSR for the countries of the socialist camp, for the activities of fraternal communist and workers' parties.

Are such measures available to capitalist states? Who owns our land? How do we plan to increase the number of state-owned enterprises? The connection of educational material with modernity is also justified when we are dealing with a phenomenon of the past, which has been further developed in modern life and has acquired significant significance for us: often the true meaning of a historical phenomenon is revealed to students only when the teacher briefly draws before them perspective of its development, its role in our days.

But it is appropriate only in the case when the facts of the present, to which the teacher refers, are at least in general terms known to the students. Otherwise, a long explanation of modern phenomena will be required, which will distract from the main topic of the lesson and prevent its deep study. One of the forms of connection of historical material with the present is the assessment of the historical fact by our public in the light of the present.

This greatly updates the presentation. Speaking about F. Ushakov, P. Nakhimov, A. Suvorov, M. Kutuzov, the teacher will prepare material on the establishment of military orders by the Soviet government and emphasize those wordings of the statute, from which it is clear which features of their military leadership are especially valued by us. Ignatieva T.V., Propaedeutic history course in elementary school. 1999, p. 101.

The most significant form of connection between educational material and modernity is the turn of the entire lesson material to topical issues of modernity. This does not mean that the selection and coverage of lesson material should be biased, and that historical facts should be adapted to the tasks of current politics.

History should neither be improved nor worsened. The teaching of historical material must be scientifically objective. The highest form of scientific objectivity in the approach to historical material is partisanship, i.e., the teacher's ability to scientifically correctly reveal those historical tendencies that in the past were only in their infancy and were further developed. Thus, in the 10th grade, at the lesson devoted to the question of socialist industrialization and the 14th Party Congress, the teacher in his presentation will reveal the significance of industrialization as a line that solved the internal problems of building socialism in one country, and as a policy of great international significance. Saplina E.V. History in elementary school. M., 2008. S. 279.

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§ 1. Educational and educational tasks of teaching history
At the present stage of the development of Soviet society, the tasks of equipping students with sound knowledge and shaping their communist worldview and communist morality have assumed particular importance. And for this it is necessary to improve the educational work of the school in every possible way, improve the educational process, and increase the educational significance of lessons and extracurricular activities. In accordance with the decisions of the 23rd CPSU Congress in the field of education and communist upbringing of youth, the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers developed a number of measures to further improve the work of the Soviet secondary school. The Decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On measures to further improve the work of the secondary general education school", published on November 19, 1966, is a specific plan for the implementation of the directives of the XXIII Congress of the CPSU. The resolution states that the main tasks of the school are to give students a solid knowledge of the fundamentals of science, to form in them a high communist consciousness, and to prepare them for life. The school must equip students with an understanding of the laws of social development, educate schoolchildren on the revolutionary and labor traditions of the Soviet people; to develop in them a high sense of Soviet patriotism; to instill readiness for the defense of the socialist homeland; to educate students in the spirit of solidarity with all peoples fighting for freedom and national independence; fight against the penetration of bourgeois ideology into the minds of students, against manifestations of alien morality.
Revealing to students the history of mankind's movement towards communism, the school history course occupies a leading place in shaping the communist worldview among students. Education is inextricably linked with education. Bearing this in mind, however, we must distinguish between the specific educational, cognitive tasks of teaching history at school and equally specific educational tasks. Without such a distinction, neither theoretical substantiation nor practical implementation of the unity of teaching and upbringing in the teaching of history is possible: any unity presupposes difference.
What are the educational tasks of the school history course, the solution of which is directed towards the main, most important goal of teaching history - the formation of a communist worldview on the basis of historical material?
Above all, we must equip students with a sound knowledge of history. It means that:
1) when studying history, schoolchildren must firmly master the most important concrete historical facts that characterize the historical process as a whole and various aspects of social life at successive stages of historical development. It would be a mistake to assume that from the course of history students should learn only the conclusions and general ideas obtained as a result of the analysis and generalization of historical facts. No, the basic historical facts must also be firmly mastered: they themselves are of great educational significance.
V. I. Lenin emphasized that it is not enough “to master the communist slogans, the conclusions of communist science, without having mastered the amount of knowledge that communism itself is a consequence of.” In a letter to M. N. Pokrovsky, V. I. Lenin pointed out that students stories must know the facts so that there is no superficiality. Addressing the youth, V. I. Lenin spoke of the need to enrich the mind with “knowledge of all the facts, without which there can be no modern educated person.” “We do not need cramming, but we need to develop and improve the memory of every student with the knowledge of basic facts, because communism will turn into a void, turn into an empty sign, a communist will only be a simple braggart if all the knowledge received is not processed in his mind” 2.
Enriching and improving the memory of students with knowledge of basic historical facts is one of the most important tasks of teaching history at school. The student should know how primitive people lived, where and how the most ancient slave-owning states arose, how the courageous Greeks fought defending their native country from the invasion of the hordes of Xerxes, how a free community Slav and a free Frank were turned into serfs, what is the Mongol-Tatar yoke and how it fell. He must know what the Jacobins were able to do in 1793 and what the Paris Commune was able to accomplish; know the peasant wars of the 17th and 18th centuries, the heroes of December 14, 1825, and the tragic path of the Narodnaya Volya. He should be familiar with the images of the first revolutionary workers and the biography of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. He must know the course of the October uprising and the victory of the Red Army over the combined forces of the White Guards and interventionists, because without knowledge of these and many other historical facts, the schoolchild's ideas about his native country and the whole world will turn out to be poor, vague, his level of public consciousness will be low, and social emotions - undeveloped.
2) The assimilation of historical facts presupposes the creation in students of a system of concrete historical ideas (i.e., images and pictures of the past), reflecting the main phenomena of the historical past in their connection and development. So, in the course of the history of the ancient world in the 5th grade, we strive to create in students a system of ideas about the labor of slaves (slaves on shadufs, on the construction of dams and pyramids, slaves in the mines of Attica, on the estate of a Roman slave owner), about the position of slaves and their oppression by slave owners, about the struggle of slaves (pictures of the uprising of slaves in Rome, the image of Spartacus), etc. Assimilation of this system of ideas is one of the most important educational results of the study of ancient history and the basis for students' understanding of the characteristics of the slave system, its development and collapse.
3) Assimilation by students of the most important historical concepts, their understanding of the laws of social development, mastering - with sufficient depth for their age - a scientific, Marxist understanding of history, in particular, an understanding of the role of the masses and prominent figures in the historical process, the role of the CPSU as a leading, guiding and guiding force Soviet society.
4) Mastering by students the ability to apply knowledge of history, use it when studying new historical material, as well as in social work, in life, the ability to understand past and present events.
5) Developing the skills and abilities of independent work with historical material, the ability to work with a text (textbook, historical document, popular science book, political brochure, newspaper), with a map and illustration, the ability to draw up plans, notes, theses, keep a record of lectures, the ability to coherently and reasonably present historical material, to make messages and reports on a socio-historical topic.
Along with educational tasks and in inseparable unity with them, educational tasks are carried out in the teaching of history. The most important of them:
1) education of students in the spirit of Soviet patriotism, love and devotion to their native people, the Communist Party, the Soviet government, readiness to defend the socialist Motherland, military-patriotic education in teaching history;
2) education of schoolchildren in the spirit of fraternal unity of the peoples of the Soviet Union, in the spirit of friendship with the working people of the socialist countries, in the spirit of solidarity with the peoples fighting for their independence, in the spirit of proletarian internationalism;
3) education of schoolchildren on the revolutionary, combat and labor traditions of the Soviet people;
4) the formation of strong convictions in the inevitable death of capitalism and the victory of communism, the cultivation of devotion to the cause of building communism;
5) the formation of high communist ideals and the education of the moral qualities of a Soviet person - the builder of communism, including, in particular, a communist attitude to work and deep respect for the working people;
6) the formation of a communist attitude to the phenomena of social life, a resolute struggle against the penetration of elements of bourgeois ideology into the minds of students, with manifestations of alien morality;
7) atheistic education of students and the formation of scientific and atheistic convictions;
8) aesthetic education.
The named educational and upbringing tasks, solved in the teaching of history in schools, are inseparable unity. At the heart of the educational work carried out in the teaching of history is the transfer of knowledge. To love your native country and your people, you need to know their historical past. In order to sympathize with the struggle of the oppressed against the oppressors, one must know the condition of the oppressed and the conditions of oppression. To nurture feelings of friendship and respect for other peoples, one must be familiar with their history, their traditions and culture. To be convinced of the inevitable death of capitalism, of the justice and progressivity of the cause of communism, it is necessary to understand the laws of human development and to know the main stages of this development.
The study of the history of material production, the disclosure of its significance in the life of society, the acquaintance with the representatives of the working people, with the heroes of socialist production serves the task of instilling in students a communist attitude towards work and deep respect for the working people. The study of the liberation struggle of the working masses, the history of the revolutionary movement and the heroic path traveled by the CPSU opens up wide opportunities for educating the high moral qualities and social ideals of the Soviet people: courage and courage, honesty and truthfulness, high discipline and a sense of responsibility, revolutionary optimism, the ability to sacrifice personal interests for the sake of the team, the ability not to be afraid of difficulties. Atheistic education in the teaching of history is carried out by acquainting students with the origin of religion, the role of the church as an instrument of class oppression, with the facts of the cruel struggle of religion against science and its best representatives, that is, on the basis of scientific and educational material. In the same way, aesthetic education is carried out on the basis of the students' assimilation of knowledge from the history of culture. The basis of the communist worldview is scientific knowledge.
But communist education in the teaching of history is carried out not only on the basis of the assimilation by students of historical facts, concepts, patterns, and theoretical generalizations. The emotional and figurative side of the studied historical material is of great educational importance. At history lessons, students have vivid pictures of the past, exciting scenes, images of fighters and heroes. Historical material affects all aspects of the student's personality: mind, feeling, will.
The unity of teaching and upbringing in the teaching of history does not consist in the establishment of artificial links between these aspects of the teaching and upbringing process. This unity lies in the very essence of the work of the Soviet history teacher and pervades all of his daily work with students. Let us consider in more detail how this unity manifests itself and how it is implemented concretely.
1. On the general pedagogical plane, the unity of teaching and upbringing lies primarily in the fact that the formation of the communist worldview of students is at the same time the educational and upbringing task of the Soviet school in general and the teaching of history in particular. The communist worldview presupposes not only a system of knowledge about the world, views on the surrounding world, but also an effective, transformative attitude towards it, a certain system of behavior. The communist worldview determines the views, feelings, and behavior of Soviet people.
2. The unity of teaching and upbringing in the teaching of history lies, further, in the fact that the program historical material to be assimilated has not only cognitive, but also educational value. And above all, specific historical facts have an educational and educational value. They can delight and inspire, outrage and cause hatred, influence behavior and serve as an example, define ideals. This emotional and moral richness of the historical image is of exceptional importance in the teaching of history in schools. But in order to realize this cognitive and educational significance of a historical fact, it is necessary, firstly, to make a correct selection of factual material, i.e., corresponding to the modern level of historical science and the tasks of the school history course, and "secondly, so that the facts themselves were presented to students in a lively, concrete form.
The educational and educational significance of a concrete historical fact is not limited to the question of the formation of historical ideas. It also has another side. The teacher sometimes meets with the indifferent attitude of individual students to historical material. The presented historical facts do not touch them to the core, they are perceived by them only as educational material, as book information that has no connection with their vital interests. Especially often such an attitude is established to the facts of the distant past. It is quite obvious that in these cases the educational and upbringing value of the historical material is sharply reduced.
Experience shows that it is possible to evoke in students an active, personal attitude to a historical fact only by revealing, in the course of studying this fact, those aspects of it that are to some extent connected with the interests, thoughts, aspirations and experiences of students. This can be achieved, in particular, by revealing the specific vital significance of a historical fact, its practical influence on the life and fate of the people of the era under study. Thus, the students' conception of economic crises under capitalism will be purely verbal if the teacher, speaking, for example, about the crisis of 1857 in England, confines himself to mentioning that unemployment has increased sevenfold compared to 1853: this will tell nothing to the mind, nor the hearts of the students. No Let him open the first volume of Capital and read to the class an excerpt from a report by a correspondent of one of the bourgeois newspapers on the situation of the unemployed:
“... The door on which we knocked was opened by a middle-aged woman, who, without saying a word, led us into a small back room, where her whole family sat silently, fixing her eyes on the rapidly dying fire. Such desolation, such hopelessness could be seen on the faces of these people and in their small room, that I would not like to see such a scene again. “They didn’t earn anything, sir,” said the woman, pointing to her children, “nothing for 26 weeks, and all our money went out” ...
Let the teacher not consider the few minutes that he spends on communicating this material as wasted for the fulfillment of the curriculum: Soviet schoolchildren should have an idea of such material. Only on the basis of living, concrete ideas about the life facts of the past is it possible to convincingly contrast our social pride in the socialist motherland, hatred for the enemies of the working people. In other words, the way in which historical material is presented and the methods used to concretize it largely determine the student's attitude to the historical past being studied. So questions of methodology are inextricably intertwined with the question of the ideological and educational significance of educational material. A concrete fact has a much greater power of emotional and moral impact than general propositions and abstract formulations. A general phrase about the cruel exploitation of slaves in ancient Rome will not arouse strong emotions in students, while two or three details that reveal the inhumanity of slavery will arouse in them indignation and deep sympathy for the oppressed. The special educational role of historical material is based on the fact that any historical fact in one way or another relates to the sphere of human activity, to their struggle, their relationships, aspirations, goals, hopes, views and destinies. But in order for a historical fact to teach and educate, it is necessary to present it in such a way that in the minds of schoolchildren this correlation of a historical fact with the concrete life and activity of people is reflected at least by some particle or side. Impersonal, abstract, dried-up historical material presented out of connection with the living activity of people does not educate. And he doesn't teach much...
This does not mean that we should abandon the generalized form of presentation, the conceptual side of the presentation. But the concepts, generalizations, and conclusions in the teaching of history in schools must contain (both logically and psychologically) "the richness of the concrete" and, in the final analysis, be based on full-blooded historical facts. The concretization of a historical fact in the teaching of history is no less essential in achieving the unity of instruction and education than leading students to certain scientific conclusions and generalizations; it serves as a necessary condition for the persuasiveness and naturalness of these conclusions.
3. The system of living historical ideas created on the basis of specific factual material also has not only cognitive, but also educational significance. Pictures and images of the past, perceived by students in history lessons in the Soviet school, have a certain ideological
orientation. They are party. Let us recall how much attention is paid in the school history course to pictures of labor, the liberation struggle of the oppressed, the images of people's leaders and heroes, revolutionaries, martyrs of science.
4. The historical concepts formed by students in the school course, as will be shown below,1 also have not only cognitive, but also educational content, an ideological orientation. They are scientific and partisan.
5. The disclosure in the school course of historical ties and patterns of development of society serves not only the scientific understanding of the historical process by students, i.e. educational tasks, but also the formation of convictions, the education of confidence in the victory of communism, hatred for the exploitative system, love for the socialist Motherland, Soviet patriotism.
This is how the unity of teaching and upbringing is realized in the very content of the school history course.
The educational, ideological content of the history course is revealed and reaches the consciousness of the student through a system of methods, techniques, teaching aids. As shown below2, the very methods and techniques of presenting historical material help to reveal the ideological and educational content of historical material, to realize both the educational and educational significance of a historical fact. Already in the simple story of the teacher, the historical material is so selected and arranged in such a sequence that it is scientifically correct and at the same time most convincingly conveys to the students the essence and features of this event; in the story, our assessments, our attitude to the fact are felt, key points are prepared for correct conclusions and generalizations. The history teacher's story has an ideologically directed, educative character, the description and characterization given by him to historical phenomena are partisan.
But the methods used by the history teacher represent only one side of the learning process - education. We are talking about the education of the feelings of the student, the views of the student, the moral foundations of his personality. And this cannot be achieved without the active work of the intellect and the emotional sphere of the personality of the student himself.
The concept of nurturing education contains the concept of education, which lays the foundations for independent thinking of students. The unity of instruction and upbringing is achieved only if the work of the students themselves is activated at all levels of the process of instruction and assimilation.
The correct solution of the educational and upbringing tasks of the school teaching of history is impossible without taking into account the age characteristics of students in grades IV-VI (children), grades VI-VII (teenagers) and grades VIII-X (boys).
Let us dwell on some features of communist education in teaching history to students of different ages.
A student of grades V-VI is characterized by an insatiable thirst for factual information, a keen interest in historical fact as such. He listens with enthusiasm and asks the teacher with passion about the structure of the shaduf and the treasures of the tomb of Tutankhamun, about the mechanism of the catapult and the weapons of the Roman legionnaire, about the victories of Hannibal and the fate of Richard the Lionheart, etc.
Listening to the story of the teacher, the younger student mentally participates in the events that the teacher tells about, together with the heroes of the past, he shows courage in campaigns, valor in battles. After the lessons, he starts a game with his peers that reproduces the events that he met in the lesson: he fights at Thermopylae, liberates Orleans. This imaginary complicity and these games have an important educational value: there is an exercise in the heroic. Biographical material for a schoolboy of this age is directed mainly by its active side. He is attracted by a feat, and a historical figure becomes his concrete ideal. “I want to be like Spartak,” says the fifth grader. These features of children's perception and imagination will be taken into account by the teacher. For example, when talking about the events of the military past, he will emphasize the heroic side, omit naturalistic details that could traumatize the student's imagination, contribute to the development of cruelty and other negative traits.
The older student strives not so much for the accumulation of historical facts as for their comprehension and generalization. In history lessons, he will be fascinated not only by a vivid narration of events, but to an even greater extent by establishing links between historical facts, revealing patterns, and theoretical generalizations. In the story about the defeat of Denikin, he will be more interested in the general plan of the operation than in individual battle episodes; in studying the movement of the Decembrists, he will be attracted by questions of their ideology, an analysis of the reasons for their defeat, and not by the question of which guns were used to shoot the square on Senate Square.
Senior schoolchildren, Soviet boys and girls, cannot but be interested in the inner world of the heroes of the past and present, especially the Komsomol heroes of the Civil and Great Patriotic Wars and socialist construction who are close to them in age. For them, not only the very fact of the feat is important, but also the way in which their beloved hero came to the feat. In the upper grades, therefore, not only a story about a heroic deed is needed, but at least the briefest sketch of the inner development of the hero's personality, in particular, when it comes to young contemporary heroes. Such an approach of the hero to the student, showing his living face enhances the educational impact of the studied historical material.
In grades VIII-X, the teacher deals with students whose volume of knowledge is much greater than that of students in grades V-VI. At an older age, the share of knowledge acquired independently and the ability for independent mental work also increase significantly. This is due to the further development of the logical thinking of older students. In adolescence (15-17 years old) there is a sharp increase in interest in those elements of school knowledge that are directly related to the problems of worldview - to issues of politics, morality, art, and theoretical issues. It is in the upper grades that the task of mastering the Marxist understanding of history and the formation of a communist worldview by students arises to its fullest. At the same time, at an older age, the differentiation of schoolchildren's interests is much more noticeable: some students are passionate about physics and mathematics, others - literature and geography, and still others - the problems of Darwinism. It is necessary to be able to attract cognitively valuable historical material, supporting and developing the socio-political interests of older students, satisfying their needs for analysis and generalization and helping to form their worldview in order to make history at school one of the favorite subjects for most students.
The main goal of ideological and educational work in the history lesson is the formation of a communist worldview. But it is a mistake to believe that communist education in the teaching of history in schools begins with the assimilation by children of the theoretical propositions of Marxism, with the conscious assimilation of the theory of scientific communism.
It would be unjustified to speak of the existence of a system of Marxist views on social life and the history of mankind among students in grades IV-VI, i.e., children aged 10-12. We can talk about the assimilation by them of only some of the simplest elements of Marxist teaching, elementary ideas about the various forms of the social system, about different classes, about the struggle of the oppressed against the oppressors, about the role of state power, about just and unjust wars, about the significance of people's labor activity, about the role masses of the people, about the leading role of the Communist Party (based on the history of the USSR in the 4th grade and extracurricular activities in the 5th-6th grades). But the assimilation of these ideas and concepts by no means exhausts communist education in the teaching of history in grades IV-VI. The fact is that as a result of consistent, systematic and ideologically directed educational and upbringing work in the teaching of history, students of this age form a certain social position - the position of a Soviet schoolchild, a pioneer, a certain attitude is formed towards the historical facts being studied, certain moral ideals are formed, certain , stable complexes of emotions in relation to various phenomena of social life: love for the Motherland, sympathy for the oppressed working people, hatred for the oppressors, slave owners, feudal lords, enemies of the working people, etc.
This social position is formed in children of this age not only as a result of the teacher's explanations, i.e., the impact on the intellect, but often under the influence of the emotional coloring in which historical facts are presented, i.e., as a result of the influence on the feeling and imagination of the student.
This very definite, albeit childishly conscious, social position of the Soviet schoolchild, the totality of his ideals (to be like Spartak, like Giordano Bruno, etc.) and moral attitudes, brought up on historical material, constitute the psychological basis of the communist worldview that has developed among teenage students by the time they move to grades VII-VIII.
The uncomplicatedness of the historical material and the associated contrasting definiteness of the class characteristics of the struggling groups and historical characters, the unlimited trust of children in the word of the teacher make this educational work in history lessons in grades IV-VI relatively uncomplicated, and the very position of the student is very stable, although it often uncritically coexists with various survivals inspired by the street or the family.
The matter of ideological upbringing becomes much more difficult with the transition of students to the upper grades. The process of forming a worldview in adolescence and youth proceeds spasmodically, contradictorily and is often accompanied by hypertrophy of immature youthful criticism, which casts doubt on everything that meets on the way. During this critical period, many young men and women are impressionable, with excessive enthusiasm tend to follow one-sided, straightforward conclusions, in some cases falling under the influence of views alien to us. Often, the isolation inherent in this age greatly complicates educational work. At the same time, it is at this age - some students from the 8th grade, others even from the 7th grade - develop an interest in politics and morality, a desire for self-education, for the formation of their views, their worldview.
The teacher-educator needs not only to rebuild the methodology of educational work in relation to the older age, but also to change the very approach to students, the level and nature of their relationship with the class, immediately freeing themselves from the usual ideas about their students as children. If this restructuring is not carried out in a timely manner, there may be a loss of contact with students, and sometimes a conflict that is difficult to overcome. The wrong line of behavior of the teacher, his attempts to act by the power of the indisputable teacher's "authority", his disdain for the personality of the older student, the infringement of youthful pride allowed by him can lead to extremely undesirable distortions in the development of the student's personality.
During this critical period, the personality of the teacher, especially the one who teaches socio-political, humanitarian subjects - literature, social science, history, becomes extremely important, decisive in the moral and political development of the student.
And above all - the teacher's knowledge, his broad outlook, erudition, awareness in a wide area of cultural and political life. Already in the 7th grade, schoolchildren are able to appreciate and unusually appreciate a knowledgeable teacher, respect him, trust his assessments, his statements about events and phenomena in public life.
But knowledge alone does not yet decide the success of educating older students. Of exceptional importance are the conviction, sincerity, adherence to principles, justice, directness and truthfulness of the teacher, the partisanship of his views and actions. Finally - respect for the views, statements, doubts of students, a sincere desire to help them understand and find the right solution, the ability, without imposing their judgments, to direct them along the right path.
In these special conditions of educational work with older schoolchildren, the first task of the history teacher is to strengthen, substantiate, reinforce the social position that we formed in the schoolchild at the previous stage of teaching history. The point is that this social position of the teenage pioneer, which is a set of ideals, moral attitudes, stable complexes of emotions, as a result of purposeful ideological influence, is transformed into a harmonious communist worldview, the basis of which is a system of knowledge. It is a matter of developing the theoretical basis of the communist worldview on the basis of the psychological foundation created in early and middle age (which was mentioned above). Inextricably linked with the formation of the scientific foundations of the communist worldview, the system of moral concepts and principles, as well as aesthetic tastes and views, receive a deeper substantiation and development.
The study of history plays a leading role in shaping the theoretical foundations of the communist worldview.
The decisive and fundamental thing in the work of a high school history teacher is to help students not only understand the basic problems and patterns of modern historical development, but to realize their place, their moral duty in the struggle for the victory of communism over capitalism, for the cause of the working people against the world of exploiters.
The main program material on which these tasks are solved is, first of all, the history of the struggle of the exploited against the exploiters. It is important to reveal the aims of this liberation struggle, to show its justice. Of great importance in ideological education is the study of the dramatic moments of the class struggle - revolutions, uprisings. On this material, if it is presented concretely, it is easy to show the heroism of the struggling masses, the bright figures of the rank-and-file fighters and leaders of the people, the cruelty and treachery of the exploiters.
Remarkable examples of the heroic deeds of communists and Komsomol members, workers and peasants in the struggle against the White Guards and interventionists during the civil war, against the fascist invaders during the Great Patriotic War play an important role in shaping the socio-political position of the senior student.
It is also of great educational importance to familiarize students with the various forms of exploitation of man by man. The teacher pays special attention to revealing the essence of capitalist exploitation.
In shaping the political position of young people, one of the decisive issues is the question of war and peace. This program material is revealed to students in terms of the most acute moral and political problems of the struggle for peace, democracy and socialism. At the same time, it is important that these questions be posed to students not only as material that should be learned for the next lesson, but also as generalizations, ideas, very interesting, very important, directly related to the issues of our time, to the practical activities of Soviet youth, young builders. communism.
Finally, of great importance is the skilful opposition of the world of socialism to the world of capitalism, the concrete demonstration of the advantages of socialism over capitalism in all spheres of social life—the economy, the political system, and culture.
It must be emphasized that in senior school age the ideological and educational impact of this material on the formation of the socio-political position of schoolchildren, their deep conviction in the rightness of the cause of communism, receives a solid foundation only if the teacher systematically works on the development of historical thinking of students, on the development of: they have a Marxist understanding of history.
In solving these problems, the methods of teaching history are also important, which are also modified according to the characteristics of the older age. Educational work on history is structured in the upper grades in such a way as to provide more opportunities for posing, analyzing and mastering the theoretical issues of the course.
Of particular importance are generalizing lessons, lessons in the analysis of historical documents, lessons devoted to the study of the works of the founders of Marxism-Leninism accessible to students, the study and critical analysis of socio-political theories, for example, the views of the French enlighteners, the political projects of the Decembrists, the teachings of the utopian socialists, populists.
Much more attention is paid to the formation in students of the skills and abilities of independent work with a historical document, a political article, a brochure, a newspaper, and most importantly, the ability to understand socio-political issues. In the upper grades, such forms of independent work as student reports, theoretical conferences, and seminars are being used. And most importantly, the formation of views, beliefs, worldview is possible only through independent thinking of students. Views and ideals cannot be learned from a textbook - they are developed in the process of independent thinking. The task of the history teacher is to provide material, food for this independent work and guide it. Therefore, the problem of methods of teaching history is also of paramount importance in the upper grades, since it is a matter of shaping the worldview, the ideological and moral character of young students, and the tasks of communist education at that stage of school history education when these tasks are decisive and leading in the teaching of history.

§ 2. Structure and content of the history course
The guiding document in the work of a history teacher is the state program. It determines the content of the school history course, its problems, depth and system of presentation of the material. By studying the program and an explanatory note to it, the teacher begins his preparation for teaching history.
The program provides not only the content of the history course and the time allotted for the study of one or another section in accordance with the curriculum and the grid of hours, but also the arrangement of the material by year of study, i.e., the structure of the school history course, the general plan for its construction.
In the development of historical education in our country and abroad, various principles for constructing a school history course were put forward at different times.
The most common at the beginning of the 20th century. there was a deon centric way of arranging the historical material studied at school. With this method, the study of history at school is carried out in two or three successive stages, or concentrations, each of which covers the entire (or almost the entire) course, but at each subsequent stage - with greater detail and with greater depth, in accordance with the older age of the students. .
An example of complete and consistent concentrism is the structure of the history course in the schools of the GDR until 1960, when eight years of education was universal and compulsory in the republic. In grades V-VIII of the eight-year basic school (“grundshule”), an elementary course was studied, and in grades IX-XII of the “higher” school (“oberschule”), a systematic course of history was studied. They were built like this. In the 5th grade, schoolchildren were introduced to the most important phenomena from the life of a primitive and slave-owning society in the form of entertaining stories, integral paintings and popular essays, on such topics, for example: “How the mammoth was hunted”, “The village of the ancient Germans”,. “On the slave market”, “Rebellious slaves fight for freedom” (Spartacus), etc.1. In the 6th grade, the history of the Middle Ages was studied in a very accessible form, mainly the history of medieval Germany, with the inclusion of the most important events in world history (the crusades, geographical discoveries). And in this course, with a more systematic presentation of the material, all conclusions and generalizations were made on the basis of specific pictures and descriptions. In the 7th grade they studied modern history, including the most important facts from the history of Russia after 1861, and in the 8th grade - the latest history from the Great October Revolution and the revolution in Germany to the defeat of fascism and the formation of the GDR.
In the "oberschul" in the ninth grade, a systematic, in-depth course of ancient history was studied, covering the complex phenomena of the economy, class struggle and culture, in the tenth grade - an equally serious course in the history of the Middle Ages, in the eleventh grade - modern and in the twelfth grade - recent history before 1947 and a special course in Modern Studies (Gegenwartskunde).
The above example makes it possible to draw conclusions about the advantages of using the concentric principle in teaching history.
1) Young people who have received an incomplete secondary education bring to life, although an elementary, but complete, integral idea of the historical development of mankind from ancient times to the present, including the historical path of their native country and their people.
2) The teaching of history in each of the centers, both in terms of the selection of material and methods of teaching, can be consistent with the age characteristics and capabilities of the student, his interests, which ensures a significantly greater educational and educational result. Thus, the principle of concentrism is justified psychologically and pedagogically.
3) All sections of history, both its most ancient and its most recent periods, are assimilated in each of the concentrations with the same or almost the same degree of depth.
4) The assimilation of historical material by students is greatly facilitated, since the degree of its complexity corresponds to age. The inevitable re-study of some (important) historical events contributes to their stronger consolidation.
The advantages of concentricism seemed so convincing, and the pedagogical requirement to build the teaching of history taking into account the age of students, was so obvious that this principle received in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. broad support from leading educators.
To a large extent, the influence of these concepts explains the introduction in the pre-revolutionary Russian school of the late 19th century. pro-pedeutic, i.e., preliminary, preparatory course of history in city schools and the first two classes of the gymnasium and real schools. And since it was necessary to start familiarizing children with the historical past with something closer and more accessible to children, such a propaedeutic course could, of course, be a course in national history.
The development of such a course was a step forward, since the Russian school until the middle of the 19th century. inclusive did not know the elementary, propaedeutic course. Textbooks for the first grades of gymnasiums and district schools, the so-called "short outlines" or "guidelines for initial study", did not differ in any specifics in terms of the selection of content and method of presentation in relation to the age of the students. They were an abbreviated presentation of the material contained in the "systematic" courses for senior classes: the same list of reigns, reigns, names and dates, only shorter.
One of the best textbooks for an elementary course was M. Ostrogorsky's Textbook of Russian History, which appeared in 1891 and went through 27 editions. True, it was difficult for students, but still it was a rather successful attempt to create an elementary course, paid great attention to the education of schoolchildren of concrete ideas about the past, devoted a lot of space to everyday material, contained a large number of illustrations, questions and assignments for students to work independently. In addition to the introduction of a propaedeutic course in Russian history in the primary grades, the main course of history in secondary schools in Russia and in most foreign countries at the beginning of the 20th century. built concentrically. However, the use of concentricity also met with a number of difficulties. First of all, it was found that the advantages of the concentric construction of the school history course are realized only under the following indispensable conditions:
a) with a correct, reasonable determination of the volume, specifics of the content and form of presentation of historical material in each of the concentres in accordance with the age characteristics of students and the tasks of school history education at each age stage. The content of the historical material for the junior concentr is by no means a reduced copy, a fragment of a systematic course for the senior classes; each center has its own specifics in the selection of content and methods of its presentation;
b) provided that there is a sufficient gap in time between the relevant sections of the concentrically constructed course - for example, between the study of the elementary course of ancient history and the study of the systematic course, at least three to four years passed, as provided for by the curriculum described above in the schools of the GDR;
c) if there is sufficient time for the deployment of each of the concentres - at least three to four years; therefore, even with a 10-12-year-old education, it is not advisable to introduce more than two concentres;
d) in the presence of textbooks, the content and methodological side of which are in accordance with the characteristics of a given concentration, and complete continuity between textbooks intended for successive concentrations.
What should be guided by when determining the content and nature of the history course for each of the concentres? Various concepts have been put forward on this issue at different times.
So, in the XIX century. German teachers and methodologists put forward the theory of "three steps", according to which the study of history at school in three concentrations was considered as the structure most consistent with the patterns of student development (Dreistufengesetz). One of the early representatives of this doctrine, based on the conclusions of Herbartian pedagogy, Kol-
1 See: M. Ostrogorsky. Textbook of Russian history. Elementary course, 1915.
Raush, argued that, based on the characteristics of childhood, adolescence and youth, the course of history in the first concentration should be biographical in nature, in the second - ethnographic, that is, to acquaint with the history of peoples, and in the third - to reveal a picture of the development of mankind. Other, later representatives of this trend insisted on the need for a simple description of historical events to children, disclosure of the main cause-and-effect relationships between historical facts at the second concentration, and leading older students to philosophical sociological generalizations. The rational core of these pedagogical theories lies in the requirement to take into account the age characteristics of students in teaching history and, accordingly, the specifics of the selection and coverage of program material. Their depravity is in absolutization, mechanical separation and opposition of the features of successive age levels, in oblivion of the dialectical unity of the development of the student's personality, the unity of the cognitive and educative aspects of the educational process, the unity of living ideas and general historical concepts. The experience of teaching history in the Soviet, and not only in the Soviet, school shows that a young schoolchild (grades IV-V) is able to assimilate not only the external course of events, but in an elementary form and causal relationships and the essence of social relations (between the classes of oppressors and oppressed); on the other hand, the teaching of history in high school requires not only analysis, but also a colorful presentation of facts, not only the deepening of concepts, but also the enrichment of specific ideas underlying them, not only the disclosure of general patterns, but also familiarization with instructive biographies.
The "three steps" theory has often been used to justify reactionary policies in the field of school history education. This was the program that operated at the beginning of the 20th century. in the pre-revolutionary Russian school, in particular, the program introduced by the Ministry of Education in 1913. According to this program, national history was studied in three concentrations (elementary course - in grades I-II, systematic - in grades IV-VI and additional - in grades VII-VIII) , and the general history is in two concentrations. This program is marked by a tendency to reduce the middle concentration exclusively to a presentation of the external course of events and to biographical material, relating the study of questions of socio-political life and culture to an older age; however, the content of the program of the third concentre was so overloaded that it left no room for any serious study of these issues. The flaw in the structure of the school course in the 1913 program was that the concentric sections of the course of the same name were as close as possible. For example, the first concentric course of new history ended in the first half of the year in the sixth grade, and six months later, in the seventh grade, the re-study of the same new history began. The inadmissibility of such a convergence of concentrations was noted by the advanced pre-revolutionary methodology: a repeated course, almost directly adjacent to what has already been studied, is perceived by students as a rehash of the old, as a result of which interest in the subject is lost, its cognitive and educational value decreases for adolescence, which is characterized by increased intellectual interests, searches new horizons of science K Representatives of the advanced pre-revolutionary methodology in Russia spoke out against such concentrism in the planning of the school history course.
In contrast to the concentric principle, methodological thought put forward the so-called linear method of constructing a course. In the pre-revolutionary methodology, it was sometimes called the chronologically progressive method. In this case, the successive stages of the history of mankind from antiquity to modern times are studied throughout the entire school course once. According to this principle, a school course in history was built for 25 years on the basis of a decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR and the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of May 16, 1934: in grades V-VI, ancient history was studied, in grades VI-VII - the Middle Ages and the Constitution of the USSR; in grades VIII-X - the history of the USSR from ancient times to the present day and modern history (in the second half of the year in grades VIII and IX).
The advantages of linear construction were seen mainly in the fact that it corresponded to the structure of historical science, consistently revealing the historical change in socio-economic formations. Psychological and pedagogical considerations did not play a leading role in substantiating this construction.
It must be emphasized that the arrangement of program material and its distribution by years of study, established in the Soviet school in 1934-1959, was extremely consistent, clear and fully consistent with scientific periodization. In grades V-VII, on the material of antiquity and the Middle Ages, students got acquainted with the primitive communal, slave-owning, feudal system and the emergence of capitalism. Having finished the general history of the 17th century, in the 8th grade they studied the primitive communal system, the most ancient slave-owning states, the emergence and development of feudalism in our country until the end of the 17th century, having the opportunity to rely on the knowledge gained from the course of general history, deepening their knowledge and assimilating a more conscious understanding of the patterns of historical development in these eras. In the second half of the year in the 8th grade, schoolchildren, using the material of the first period of modern history (1648-1870), got acquainted with the main features of capitalism and the laws of its development during the period of its victory and assertion. Thus, students of the 8th grade throughout the year traced successively four socio-economic formations, replacing one another, studying in detail two of them: the formation and development of feudalism (based on the history of the USSR) and capitalism (based on modern history).
In the ninth grade, students (in the first half of the year) unfolded a picture of the decomposition of the feudal-serfdom system in Russia in the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries. and the development of capitalism until the end of the 19th century; here the material on the main features of pre-monopoly capitalism was summarized. In the second half of the year, in the course of the new history of the second period (1871 -1918), students got acquainted with the decline and decay of capitalism, with its last stage - imperialism. Thus, twice during the school year, ninth-grade students faced a more complex problem - the decline and disintegration of the old social system.
In the 10th grade, the course began with the history of Russia in the era of imperialism, the history of three revolutions, the victory of socialism in the USSR, and ended with a course in modern history. leading problems was coordinated with the course of world history, facilitating the disclosure of the general laws of the historical process and the features of the development of our country.
It can be concluded that, provided that the historical material is correctly distributed over the years of study, linear construction has a number of advantages. The following are usually indicated:
a) with a linear structure, the arrangement of the material is most natural and corresponds in general terms to the actual course of the historical process;
b) moving from class to class, students completing a full school course receive a complete picture of the historical development of mankind from ancient times to the present day;
1 Recent history was not actually studied at school due to the lack of textbooks.
c) saving of study time is achieved, since the implementation of the linear principle makes it possible to avoid repetitions that are inevitable with the concentric construction of the course;
d) finally, the study in each subsequent class of all new material maintains the interest of students in the subject.
However, along with the advantages of linear construction, its disadvantages were also indicated in the methodological literature.
First of all, with the linear structure of the school course, the history of the ancient world and the history of the Middle Ages, studied in the lower grades, naturally, cannot be mastered with the same depth and seriousness as the history of later eras, studied in the upper grades. The history courses taught in grades V-VI and partly in grades VII, if we take into account the age possibilities of students, should be of an elementary nature with such a structure, and, consequently, a number of essential facts and problems of ancient and middle history will fall out of the secondary education curriculum. Unevenness in the degree of depth and detail of the study of various sections of the school history course with a linear structure is inevitable.
Attempts to fill this gap, to enrich and deepen the content of ancient and middle history courses, bringing them closer in character to systematic courses, inevitably lead to overloading younger students with an unbearable abundance of material and questions inaccessible to their understanding. Such an overload marked the teaching of history, especially in the 5th-6th grades of the Soviet school in the 30-50s. The second circumstance, which significantly reduces the advantages of linear construction, is that the consistent study of the historical process as a whole, that is, from ancient times to the present, with a linear structure stretches for 6-7 years (in the Soviet school from V to X class), which constitutes a significant and qualitatively heterogeneous period in the mental, moral and psychophysiological development of a schoolchild, who over the years turns from a child into a young man. Under these conditions, it can hardly be argued that the unity and consistency of the historical process, provided by the school curriculum in a linear construction, are adequately reflected in the mind of the student on the threshold of graduation from school. Experience and conversations with schoolchildren show that by the ninth-tenth grades, students retain very vague and fragmentary ideas about the history of ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome. In this regard, with the linear construction of the course, the problem of consolidating the most important historical facts is extremely acute, since their repeated, more in-depth study, carried out with a concentric structure, disappears with a single study of them.
Finally, a significant drawback of the linear structure is that students who have not completed the full course of the secondary
schools do not receive knowledge on the most important, final sections of the program, leading to an understanding of modernity. The last shortcoming was especially felt in the Soviet school in the 1940s and early 1950s, when most of the youth finished their schooling in the seventh grade, i.e., studying the history of the Middle Ages, without receiving any systematic knowledge of the history of their native country.
Among the serious shortcomings in the content and structure of the school course in these years is the lack of a special course in modern history, as well as the fact that the course of the Soviet Constitution, introduced in the 7th grade, was studied by schoolchildren who were not yet familiar with the history of the Soviet period in the history of the USSR, i. e. out of touch with the course of history and without appropriate reliance on historical material.
The listed shortcomings and contradictions of the structure of the school history course adopted in the 30s: overload with educational material in grades V-VI, the absence of an elementary course of national history in the seven-year school, the isolation of the study of the Constitution of the USSR from the course of history - especially affected during the Great Patriotic War, when the tasks of patriotic education of youth persistently demanded the introduction of a course in national history into the curriculum of an incomplete secondary school.
And when, after the war, the age level of schoolchildren was lowered by one year, the overloaded and overly complicated content of the courses of ancient and middle history in grades V-VI clearly became unbearable for children of eleven and twelve years of age. The next step was the question of the need to restructure the school history course.
This restructuring coincided with the approval of the Law on Compulsory Eight Years of Education and with the decision to implement schooling in two stages: a) in the eight-year school and
b) in IX-XI classes.
Adopted in 1959 under the project of the Institute of Teaching Methods of the APN of the RSFSR, the new structure of the school history course provided for: the study in grades V and VI of elementary courses in the history of the ancient world and the Middle Ages, in grades VII-VIII - an elementary course in the history of the USSR with the most important information from the new and modern history, as well as the Constitution of the USSR (in the VIII grade), and in the senior, IX-XI classes - systematic courses in the history of the USSR, modern and recent history, and in the graduating class - a course in the basics of political knowledge (social science). In general, this structure, called by its authors "linear-stepped", was a combination of the principle of concentrism in the construction of two courses in the history of the USSR - elementary and systematic - with a stepped construction of the material of general history: systematic
courses of modern and contemporary history. This structure eliminated the main shortcomings of the previous linear construction in that part that concerned the compulsory eight-year school.
The introduction of elementary courses in grades V-VIII and the publication of appropriate elementary textbooks for grades V-VIII eliminated the overload of students in these grades, opened up opportunities for a wider use of active methods and the organization of independent work in history lessons. Familiarization of students graduating from an eight-year school with the history of the Motherland up to the present and with the main facts of recent history (the formation of the socialist system, the collapse of the colonial system of imperialism, the struggle for peace in capitalist countries) gave students a picture of the world today and led them to the most important problems of our time . As part of the eight-year school, students received an idea of the main stages of human history from ancient times to the present day, albeit in an elementary form. The study of the Constitution of the USSR in the VIII grade received a solid foundation in the content of the course of the history of the USSR in the post-October period.
The ideological-educational and upbringing tasks of teaching history in the most complex and most responsible area of school history education - in the upper grades - were solved less satisfactorily within the framework of this "linear-stepped" structure.
To begin with, the well-known requirements for the concentric arrangement of historical material were violated:
a) a sufficiently thoughtful selection of the content and appropriate methods of presenting the program historical material in each of the concentres was not carried out. This applies to courses in the history of the USSR, in particular in the 19th and 20th centuries, and to material on modern and especially recent history, some of the issues of which were presented in textbooks for grades X-XI more concretely, more exciting, and more intelligibly than in a textbook for grades VIII.
b) the two main concentrations in the study of national history - the elementary course, which ended in the 8th grade, and the systematic course, which began in the 9th grade - were unacceptably close to each other with all the undesirable consequences ensuing from this, described above;
c) even under the condition of a three-year period allotted in the IX-XI grade for the study of systematic courses, they turned out to be so overloaded, and their passage was so intense that the possibilities of thoughtful analysis and generalization of historical facts, their solid and systematic, were reduced.
1 This refers to the textbook acad. I. I. Mints on the history of the USSR with elements of modern history.
repetitions and the ideological and educational results of such a hasty and therefore inevitably superficial study were reduced.
When the Soviet school returned to a ten-year term of study, there was no question of any special concentration within two years (grades IX-X). The resolution of the party and the government "On changing the order of teaching history at school" dated May 14, 1965 provides for "a consistent, one-time presentation of the historical process." However, this does not mean a complete return to the former linear structure of the school history course, which determined the order of studying historical material in 1934-1958.
First of all, in the 5th and 6th grades, the elementary nature of the courses on the history of the ancient world and the Middle Ages is preserved, and, consequently, the volume and content of the programs and history textbooks for these grades are determined taking into account the age capabilities of the students and, in general, do not suffer from overload.
A significant achievement compared with the structure of 1934-1958. is the introduction in grades IX-X of a systematic course of modern history in the amount of 70 hours. Its content has an important ideological and educational value and leads students to an understanding of the main problems of our time.
The completion and generalization of the material of the school history course is the study of the social science course in the X grade (70 hours). It is called upon, relying on the knowledge gained in the study of the humanities and natural-mathematical disciplines, to contribute to the formation of a dialectical-materialistic worldview in students.
Let us compare the number of hours allocated for the study of various periods of history according to the program of 1934-1940. and according to the 1966 program

If the program 1934-1940. the bulk of the study hours (64%) were devoted to the study of earlier periods of history, the current program devotes almost half of the time to the study of periods close to modern times. The time for studying the history of the ancient world, the Middle Ages (by more than 40%) and modern history (by more than a third) has been sharply reduced. On the other hand, the share of national history has grown, the study of which begins in the 7th grade (from ancient times to the end of the 18th century). In the VIII grade, the first period of modern history (1640-1870) and the history of the USSR in the 19th century are studied. Thus, within the framework of the compulsory eight-year school, students receive more or less systematic knowledge of the history of the Motherland before 1895 and the history of foreign countries before 1870.
A significant drawback of the modern structure of the school history course is that students graduate from an eight-year school without having studied the most important stages in the history of the Motherland - the proletarian stage of the revolutionary movement in Russia, the glorious path of the Leninist party, the Great October Revolution and civil war, the victory of socialism , the heroic epic of the Great Patriotic War. Experience has shown that conversations about our social and state system, introduced in the eighth grade, not related to the content of the history course (the conversation about the revolution of 1905. was conducted simultaneously with the study of the English revolution of the 17th century), did not fill this gap to any extent . True, this shortcoming in the structure of the course, apparently, is not so acute in our time, when a significant part of the youth, having completed the 8th grade, enters the 9th grade, and, obviously, will be of less and less importance as we move to a universal ten-year education.
The currently accepted structure of the school history course also suffers from other shortcomings. The distribution of historical material by years of study does not always correspond to scientific periodization. Such an arbitrary dissection of the material takes place in the study of the history of the USSR in the 7th grade, where the course was brought up to 1801, as a result of which the study of the process of decomposition of the feudal system and the development of capitalist relations in Russia was interrupted for more than half a year, resuming in the second half of the year already in the 8th grade. .
The very course of the history of Russia in the XVIII century. is not coordinated with the course of modern history: a number of important issues (Radishchev’s ideas, the reactionary domestic and foreign policy of tsarism, Russia’s participation in coalitions against France) do not receive proper comprehension, since students in the 7th grade do not yet know the relevant events of modern history.
1 Since 1966, discussions about the social and state structure of the USSR have been excluded from the program.
An equally undesirable gap occurs in the course of modern history, a small part of which (17 hours) is assigned to the IX class, and the rest of the material - to the X class. Almost the entire prehistory of the Second World War, in particular the domestic and foreign policy of German fascism, the fascist rebellion of 1936 in Spain and the national revolutionary war of the Spanish people, the aggression of Japanese imperialism in China, the question of a united anti-fascist front, the 7th Congress of the Comintern are studied in the IX class, and the German-Italian intervention in Spain, the capture of Ethiopia by Italy, the struggle of the USSR for collective security are included in the topic "Growing military danger and the unleashing of the Second World War" and are studied in class X. The location of the program material in the 9th-10th years of study is also extremely unfortunate. In the ninth grade, students twice during one academic year move from studying general (new) history to domestic and again to general (recent). Such transitions, which are also associated with chronological "leaps", create additional difficulties for mastering the overall picture of a complex historical process and ideas about the chronological sequence of events.

§ 3. The connection of the historical material of the school course with the present. Linking history learning to life
The connection of the historical past with the present in the school history course is one of the means of updating the educational material, bringing it closer to the interests and life aspirations of schoolchildren, one of the ways that connects teaching history with life. Skillfully carried out connection of the past with the present helps to create in students more accurate and correct ideas about historical phenomena and about the present, the formation of historical and political concepts. Such a connection is necessary and justified to the extent that it serves the students' assimilation of the Marxist understanding of history and their education in the spirit of communism.
All kinds of superficial analogies between the phenomena of the past and the present, entailing a violation of the historical perspective, and an ahistorical approach to the facts being studied (for example, analogies between the Greco-Persian wars and the struggle of the Vietnamese people against the aggression of the American imperialists, etc.) do not help, but interfere with the understanding of both the past and the present.
Avoiding such superficial analogies and arbitrary excursions into modernity, the teacher refers to it only in cases where such a connection is psychologically natural, natural.
clearly arises from the interests of students in the events of our time, is methodologically justified, that is, it follows from the content of the historical material itself and is methodically justified, that is, it helps a deeper knowledge of the past and the present, a more successful solution of educational and educational problems.
The problem of the connection between the historical past and the present in the school history course was the subject of discussion on the pages of the journal Teaching History at School in 1948-1949. It opened with an article by V. N. Vernadsky "Modernity in the teaching of history at school" (1948, No. 1), which evoked a lively response from teachers and methodologists (see articles by A. I. Strazhev, V. G. Kartsov, M. I. Kruglyak and others in No. 2 and No. 4 for 1948). The results of the discussion were summed up in an editorial (see No. 2, 1949), the main points of which were further developed in the leading article "History and Modernity in the Teaching of History" (No. 5, 1956).
The discussion played a positive role by criticizing the simplistic tendencies in resolving this issue, the methods of arbitrary, mechanical linking the past with the present. It should be noted, however, that during the discussion and in some provisions of the article summing up the discussion, there was a confusion of two questions: the general question of party membership and the ideological orientation of the teaching of history and the particular question of the connection between history and modernity.
A common connection with modernity is established in one form or another when studying the entire course material, since the teaching of history at school is based on the principle of the partisanship of historical science. The illumination of all the events of the past from the point of view of the progressive tasks of mankind at every stage of history, from the point of view of the struggle of the working people for their emancipation, constitutes that inner connection with the ideas and tasks of our time, which permeates the entire teaching of history. Our teaching is party-like both in covering the uprising of Spartacus and in the story of the events of the Great Patriotic War - equally in the 5th and 10th grades.
But when we talk about the connection of the historical material of the school course with the present, we are not talking about this general ideological orientation of the course, but about specific cases and methods of direct appeal to the facts of the present when studying the events of the historical past. The solution to this problem cannot be unambiguous for all levels of school history teaching.
First of all, let us agree that modernity in the pedagogical plan should be understood not as events of which the teacher was a contemporary, but as phenomena contemporary to the conscious life of the student. Therefore, when deciding on the appropriateness in each specific case of establishing a connection between the studied past and the present, it is essential that students have knowledge about the compared phenomena of the present. It should be noted that the content of this knowledge does not remain unchanged. The facts and events of our time, which were once well known from radio broadcasts and newspapers to schoolchildren who studied in grades IX-X in 1956-1957, may be unfamiliar to students of the same grades in 1967-1968. Comparisons with the events of the Great Patriotic War, easily and successfully carried out in the classroom in 1941-1945, would now require lengthy explanations from the teacher about the facts unknown to students born after 1950, i.e., a generation that did not know any war, nor post-war hardships. The teacher often forgets this simple circumstance, being surprised at the complete ignorance of schoolchildren about events that seem to him, the teacher, to be generally known. Therefore, the examples of a successful connection with modernity, given in methodological articles and manuals, should be used critically in practical work, taking into account the age data and socio-political experience of students.
However, modernity in the pedagogical sense should not be reduced to current politics or to the events of the last four or five years. By modernity, we mean everything that the student realizes as contemporary, close and familiar events and phenomena of social life. For example, for a Soviet schoolchild of our time, modernity is not only the first spacewalk and not only the war in Vietnam, but also the socialist system of our country, the existence of a socialist camp and a capitalist camp, and the aggressive policy of the imperialists, and the UN, and many others. phenomena that arose long before the birth of our seventh graders and tenth graders.
Making a connection with the present on the material of history in grades V-VII, it must be taken into account that the social experience of schoolchildren aged 11-13 is still small, ideas about the historical past are very incomplete and inaccurate, and the content of the course of ancient, middle and domestic history (until the end of the 18th century .) is far from modern. On this basis, the methodological literature emphasized that “the younger the class, the more risky comparisons” with modernity, “the less historical knowledge students have, the more inaccessible is the logical operation of comparing phenomena of different eras”1. In the manuals on the methodology of teaching history in grades V-VII by N. V. Andreevskaya and V. N. Vernadsky (1947) and N. V. Andreevskaya (1958), the question of the connection between the studied material and modernity is not covered. It would be a mistake to conclude from this that in grades V-VII this task does not stand before the teacher, or that such a connection can be something accidental. 20 years ago, this may have been the case. But a lot has changed in recent decades. First of all, we cannot ignore the powerful flow of information that accompanies the development of the Soviet schoolchild from childhood. By the age of 10, he already knows a lot about the events of our time from radio and television programs, from pioneer magazines and newspapers, from adult conversations, from reports and political information at school.
Hence, his desire, when studying the distant past, to find out what is happening now in the country under study is more persistent. Getting acquainted with the emergence of parliament and the strengthening of royal power in England, students often ask questions: how is the English parliament now organized? Who is the king in England now? So the elemental interests of students push the teacher to a kind of "exit to the present" in the form of a brief note about the current fate of historical phenomena that arose in the distant past. And it happens that schoolchildren themselves supplement the material of the textbook about the distant past of the country with fresh reports on current events. So, in connection with the study of medieval India, the conquests of its northern part by Muslim feudal lords in 1965, sixth-graders vied with each other about the hostilities between India and Pakistan and about the peaceful meeting of the two sides in Tashkent. In the fall of 1956, fifth-graders studying the history of ancient Egypt were even more interested in the events connected with the aggression of the European imperialists against the young Egyptian state. And although direct historical links could not be established between these events and ancient Egypt, except for the common territory, nevertheless, the actual events, of which the students turned out to be contemporaries, significantly increased their interest in ancient Egypt. “Was there a Suez Canal at that time? Are the dams built in antiquity still standing today? Do the Egyptians use shadufs now?” - Dozens of similar questions extremely intensified the work in the classroom. Therefore, I. V. Gittis is absolutely right when he asserts that “the method of linking history with modernity not only enlivens classes, but also deepens interest in history. Along with this, it prepares the ground for a better understanding of current life. In the past, students begin to feel real life, and in the present to see "history", or rather, what will go down in history.
It is quite obvious from the above examples that the connection between historical material in grades V-VII and the present is naturally determined, firstly, by the relevance of contemporary events, and secondly, by the degree of interest of schoolchildren in these events. But is it possible to consider that the connection with modernity in the lessons of history, due to the indicated circumstances, is of an accidental, spontaneous nature?
It seems to us that in solving this issue it is necessary to listen to the observations of one of the oldest Soviet methodologists, prof. V. N. Vernadsky. “The student,” wrote V. N. Vernadsky, “perceiving historical material, in his mind relies to a large extent on life impressions, on the knowledge of modern life.” And if you do not carry out thoughtful work to compare the phenomena of the past with the present, then "this process of introducing certain elements of ideas about the present into knowledge about the past will proceed without the teacher's control", and this can lead not only to the modernization of the past in the mind of the student, but also to randomness of students' temporal ideas. What is the “thought-out system” for establishing a connection between the historical material studied in grades V-VII and the present? Without pretending to completeness and completeness of the coverage of this issue, we believe it is possible to outline the following areas of such work.
1. First of all, we should talk about the systematic work of the teacher in ordering the abundant material related to both the past and the present, which students receive from the above extracurricular sources of information, on correlating this material with certain, at least roughly outlined, chronological milestones . With regard to the examples given, we will talk about something like this. Yes, the teacher will say, and now in England there is a parliament, there is both the House of Lords and the House of Commons. But over 700 years, the composition of parliament, the procedure for elections, and the role of parliament have changed. Or, in the example of ancient Egypt and the Anglo-French intervention of 1956, the teacher must first of all prevent the possibility of mixing ideas about modern Egypt with ideas about ancient Egypt, emphasize the difference between ancient and modern Egypt (both the people are not the same, and the language is not the same, and writing is different, etc.), a huge gap in time - five thousand years have passed In other words, linking the past with the present, the teacher must, in this and in similar cases, take care, first of all, of identifying not the similarities, but the differences between the phenomena of different eras , allowing students to feel the variability, non-identity, specificity of historical phenomena of a particular era.
1 V. N. Vernadsky. Modernity in school history teaching. "Teaching History at School", 1948, No. 1, p. 48,
2. Working in grades V-VI, we often forget that students of this age are familiar with the most important facts of Russian history from stories on the history of the USSR studied in grade IV, have an idea about the life of serfs and workers, about their oppression by landowners and capitalists, about what the October Revolution and Soviet power gave the working people of our country, about our social system, about the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, about the equality and friendship of peoples, about the fact that we do not have oppression of man by man. These ideas create a psychological background against which the Soviet schoolchild perceives all the material of ancient and medieval history, the basis for the logical operations of comparison and opposition.
Analyzing the reasons for the defeat of the uprising of slaves and peasants in ancient Egypt, we, together with schoolchildren, come to the conclusion of the textbook: “The rebels did not destroy the slave system. They didn’t imagine any other system.” A. This wording presupposes the unspoken part, which is contained to one degree or another in the students’ ideas: slaves and peasants did not yet know that there could be such a system in which all land, draft animals and implements labour, canals and reservoirs belong in common to the working people, in which there is no oppression and everyone works. The teacher will do the right thing if he helps the students to express these thoughts on their own and thereby realize and formulate conclusions based on the historical ideas they have.
Comparing and contrasting the modern socialist system of our country with the slave-owning and feudal systems studied in the course of history in grades V-VII is not only one of the ways to establish a connection between the past and the present, but also an effective method of forming the social position of the younger student, which was mentioned above.
3. The connection of the material of the history of the ancient world and the Middle Ages with the present is also carried out by showing the cultural heritage of antiquity and the Middle Ages and its significance for modern culture. The textbook of the history of the ancient world in some cases directly provides for such a connection, offering questions and tasks for comparison, comparison, for establishing the facts of the continuity of ancient and modern culture: “How does the writing of ancient Egypt differ from our writing?” (to § 13), “What of the creations of the Indian people in antiquity do we use to this day?” (to § 19), etc.
Such connections are even more widely established when studying the topics “The heyday of the culture of ancient Greece in the 5th-4th centuries BC. e., Life and Culture of Rome at the Beginning of the Empire. The Olympic Games, theater, architecture and architectural orders, the Greek alphabet, Roman numerals, triumphal arches and many other elements of ancient culture continue to live in a modified form in the culture of our time. Elucidation of the historical significance of the culture of ancient Greece and ancient Rome for modern culture also provides an opportunity to establish diverse links with modernity. Unfortunately, the program and history textbook of the middle Eeks do not orientate teachers towards establishing such links between medieval culture and modern culture, which would be of great educational and upbringing significance.
4. Cognitively valuable is the explanation of the origin of words, terms, expressions that arose in antiquity or in the Middle Ages and continue to live in the modern language (style, school, class, headlights, school desk, director, democracy, university, red line, see below , red tape, put in a long box, ins and outs, etc.). If a student knows that the Roman word "terms" and the modern "thermometer" have a common root, and remembers the meaning of this root, he will easily learn the meaning of many modern scientific and technical terms and easily explain why republican France assigned the name "thermidor" to one from the summer months.
5. Establishing a connection with modernity by clarifying the origin of ancient and medieval beliefs, customs, elements of everyday life that have survived to our time (for example, some religious rites or everyday traditions that originate from the pagan or Christian beliefs of the ancient Slavs, etc.). This is essential in terms of an atheistic upbringing.
6. The use of visual material depicting the current state of cultural monuments of the ancient world and the Middle Ages. Considering a photograph depicting the ruins of the Acropolis against the background of modern Athens or the ruins of the Forum among modern Roman buildings is also one of the methods of entering the present. It would be a mistake to consider the questions often asked by students as idle curiosity: “And now the Sphinx has been preserved? And what about the Reims Cathedral now? The question of the preservation and fate of historical monuments has not only an educational, but also an educational side. The destruction of the Parthenon, the destruction and burning of the Library of Alexandria, the destruction of the Church of the Tithes - these facts give reason to show students what irreparable damage wars and religious fanaticism cause to the treasures of human culture.
7. Although the content of the history course in grades V-VII is far from the present, many events and heroes of the past are preserved in the memory of the people and serve as a source of pride and deep reverence by our contemporaries. So, talking about the Hussite wars, the teacher will not forget to note that the Czech people remember and honor their heroes Jan Hus and Jan Zizka.
These are some of the ways to establish a connection between historical material and the present in the course of grades V-VII. Significantly wider opportunities and a more insistent need to link the historical past with the present are present in the teaching of history in the upper grades, starting from the 8th grade, where the new history and the history of the USSR in the 19th century are studied.
Three circumstances determine the features of solving this problem in grades VIII-X.
Firstly, the very content of the history course in high school is closely related to topical issues of our time. In grades VIII-IX, studying history, students enter the circle of those phenomena that live in our time: some - as phenomena of capitalism doomed to death, others - as the forces of victorious communism. The material of the revolutionary movement in Russia and socialist construction in the USSR is directly connected with the present. It is quite natural to present the history of the capitalist countries of the era of imperialism in the light of modernity: we acquaint students with the beginning of the decline and decay of capitalism, the final stage of which is taking place before our eyes. Naturally, the teacher, when presenting historical material, will also turn to the facts of our time in order to reveal even more clearly those trends and phenomena that, perhaps, were only outlined at the end of the 19th century. Thus, the content of the history course in high school requires a much broader connection with the present.
Secondly, the historical knowledge of older students is much richer and deeper, their ideas about the historical perspective are much more accurate and meaningful than that of younger students. This enables the teacher to turn to comparisons with the present much more often, in violation of the historical sequence.
Thirdly, older students are incomparably better than their younger comrades, aware of the events of our time. It would be a mistake to think that students in grades 9-10 (and the most advanced eighth graders) know about contemporary social and political life only what is taught to them in class. They are interested in international events, listen to radio information, read newspapers and magazines, watch newsreels, study materials of current politics in extracurricular activities and in the order of Komsomol studies. When comparing historical phenomena with modernity in high school, in some cases there is no need to give a detailed description of a modern phenomenon, which would distract from the main topic of the lesson, turning it into a parallel study of two historical phenomena from different eras, and would interfere with the assimilation of program material. The teacher only needs to refer to the facts of the present that are familiar to students.
In the practice of teaching, the following ways of linking historical material with the present have been outlined.
1. The simplest form of linking history with modernity is a brief factual note about modern phenomena, which the teacher gives to students when studying past events. This kind of connection with modernity is often incidental. But it inevitably follows from the students' interests in the present, from their questions to the teacher. So, in connection with the study in the ninth grade of US history at the end of the 19th century. the teacher may be asked questions: what parties exist in the United States at the present time? Which party is in power now? Who is the current leader of the American Federation of Labor? What is its attitude to questions of war and peace? And so on. It is hardly right for a teacher to dismiss such questions on the grounds that they lead beyond the chronological framework of the time being studied. Obviously, for brief answers to all such questions, there is no need to describe the evolution of the American Federation of Labor over the past decades, in this case it is quite acceptable to violate the chronological framework with a brief reference from the present.
2. One of the methods for establishing a connection with modernity is the comparison, comparison and opposition of historical and modern phenomena. It is justified in cases where students are at least in general familiar with contemporary events, otherwise the comparison will turn into a parallel study of two phenomena belonging to different eras, which can lead to a distortion of the historical perspective. In the upper grades, where students have sufficient material for comparisons of this kind, comparisons and contrasts that reveal the advantages of the Soviet system are of exceptional educational and educational significance.
3. A valuable educational and upbringing form of connection between historical material and modernity is the disclosure of the significance of the historical fact being studied for modernity. The teacher reveals the world-historical significance of the Great October Revolution not only on the basis of the material of the past, but also on the facts of
temporality: the growth of the forces of democracy and socialism throughout the world, the scope of the liberation movement in the colonies and the collapse of the colonial system of imperialism. When studying the Soviet period in the history of our country, it is very important to show students the significance of the experience of building socialism in the USSR for the countries of the socialist camp, for the activities of fraternal communist and workers' parties.
4- One of the methods for convincingly comparing the studied historical material with the present is to demonstrate the power of scientific foresight, which is given by the theory of Marxism-Leninism.
So, studying in the 8th grade the "Manifesto of the Communist Party", in particular the end of the second chapter, where the program of events of the proletariat that has come to power is outlined, the teacher will raise the questions: what facts from the life of our country can be cited as confirmation of the predictions of K. Marx and F. Engels ? Are such measures available to capitalist states? Who owns our land? How do we plan to increase the number of state-owned enterprises? Etc.
5. The connection of educational material with modernity is also justified in the case when we are dealing with a phenomenon of the past, which has been further developed in modern life and has acquired significant significance for us: often the true meaning of a historical phenomenon is revealed to students only when the teacher briefly draws before them is the prospect of its development, its role in our days.
Thus, speaking of the Soviets of Workers' Deputies in 1905, the teacher will note the further development of the Soviets as the political form of the socialist state. Such a method of "going out into modernity" is justified pedagogically and substantiated by the objective development of the phenomenon under study. But it is appropriate only in the case when the facts of the present, to which the teacher refers, are at least in general terms known to the students. Otherwise, a long explanation of modern phenomena will be required, which will distract from the main topic of the lesson and prevent its deep study.
6. One of the forms of connection of historical material with the present is the assessment of the historical fact by our public in the light of the present. This greatly updates the presentation. Speaking about F. Ushakov, P. Nakhimov, A. Suvorov, M. Kutuzov, the teacher will prepare material on the establishment of military orders by the Soviet government and emphasize those wordings of the statute, from which it is clear which features of their military leadership are especially valued by us.
7. The most significant form of connection between educational material and modernity is the turn of all lesson material to topical issues of modernity.
This does not mean that the selection and coverage of lesson material should be biased, and that historical facts should be adapted to the tasks of current politics. History should neither be improved nor worsened. The teaching of historical material must be scientifically objective. The highest form of scientific objectivity in the approach to historical material is partisanship, i.e., the teacher’s ability to scientifically correct, in the light of Marxist-Leninist historical science and the tasks of the struggle for communism, to reveal those historical trends that in the past were only emerging and were further developed.
Thus, in the 10th grade, at the lesson devoted to the question of socialist industrialization and the 14th Party Congress, the teacher in his presentation will reveal the significance of industrialization as a line that solved the internal problems of building socialism in one country, and as a policy of great international significance. Recalling the facts of the technical and economic assistance provided by the Soviet Union in industrialization to the socialist countries and the young independent countries of Asia and Africa that escaped from colonial slavery, known to students from the newspapers, the teacher will reveal in the light of modernity the tremendous historical significance of the decisions adopted by the Fourteenth Party Congress more than forty years ago. Thus, the organic connection of the educational material with modernity will be achieved not through random excursions into modernity, but will follow from the content of the very topic of the lesson, set out by the teacher in the light of the historical decisions of the CPSU and modern data. This material, skillfully used by the teacher, will give the lesson a sharp political sound and special relevance.
In the article by A. I. Strazhev1 and in the editorials on this issue2, as one of the methods of linking history with the present, it is strongly recommended to draw from the past “lessons of history” that help to understand the present. We are talking about such comparisons when we turn from the present to the past, when the facts of the past and the "lessons" of the past should help students understand the issues of the present. As examples of this kind of connection, V. I. Lenin used the lessons of the past in solving the burning issues of our time: the lessons of the Paris Commune during the preparation of the October Revolution, the lessons from the history of Prussia during the Tilsit Peace when solving the issue of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, etc.
The teacher, of course, will explain to the students the lessons of the revolution of 1848 and the Commune of 1871, he will also tell how these lessons were used by V. I. Lenin in preparing the October armed uprising. But is such a method of drawing on material from previously studied sections of the history course for a deeper understanding of the newly studied historical material a form of connection between history and modernity? For V. I. Lenin, the question of the Brest Peace was a burning issue of our time. For students of grade X, this is one of the instructive historical facts of half a century ago.
Let us dwell briefly on the connection between the teaching of history and life, with practice. At different stages of the development of the Soviet school, this connection was understood in different ways and carried out in different ways. Let us try, relying on the modern practice of the Soviet school, to outline the main lines of connection between the teaching of history and life.
1. First of all, this connection must be ensured by the very content of school curricula and history textbooks. The course of history in the Soviet school is brought up to the present - up to the latest events in the USSR and abroad. The entire course of history in the senior classes, with its internal content, is, as it were, turned to the present. The main thread of the leading themes of new history, beginning with the English and French bourgeois revolutions and ending with the Paris Commune and the era of imperialism, is the idea of opposing the bourgeois and socialist revolutions, the idea of the decline and inevitable collapse of capitalism. The leading problems of the course of the history of the USSR in grades VIII-X are the history of three generations of Russian revolutionaries, the history of three revolutions, the victory and establishment of socialism, the struggle for communism. Thus, the connection between learning and life in grades VIII-X is carried out primarily as a general orientation of the content of the course and the content of our work with students in order to lead them to an understanding of the most important problems of modern life.
However, it should be emphasized that this orientation of the content of the history course in grades VIII-X to life is carried out not only in the fact that the material of the recent history of foreign countries and the history of our country over the past 50 years directly rests on modernity.
Of course, the study of the latest periods in the history of mankind and the present is the center of gravity, the key and final point of the entire school history course in its present form. But shouldn't the content of our work in the courses of ancient and middle history be connected with life? In solving this problem, two conditions are essential: a) selection of the material of these courses with a long-range view, i.e., with a long-term consideration of its educational and educational value for Soviet youth entering into life, taking into account the need for this material for understanding modernity, and b) the presence of continuity in the selection of material between the content of textbooks (and programs) for all consecutive sections of the school course. These two conditions seem to us to be the most important in solving the general problem of revising the content of school history education.
Let us illustrate with a small particular example the need for such selection and continuity in order to connect the teaching of history with life. In the textbook of the history of the ancient world, F. P. Korovkin, a little material is given on castes in ancient India (§ 19). In scientific terms, this is not entirely correct: the caste system is more characteristic of feudal, medieval India. But this is not the main thing: the textbook of the history of the Middle Ages by E. V. Agibalova and G. M. Donskoy does not even mention castes. In the textbook of modern history by A.V. Efimov, castes are mentioned in India in the 16th century. out of touch with the events of the 19th century. and with an explanation of the reasons for the defeat of the rebellious sepoys. There is nothing about castes in a modern history manual. Isn't the problem of overcoming caste survivals in modern India? Thus, as a result of the lack of continuity in this particular case, the material on castes in ancient India, which, through its subsequent development in the course of middle and modern history, could be turned to modern life, remains in the minds of students in the course of all further education as a single fact, " rarity”, a bizarre phenomenon of the distant past, which has nothing to do with life.
2. The connection between the teaching of history and life is carried out by involving local history material in the lessons and studying it in extracurricular activities. In the practice of the Soviet school in recent years, such areas of local history work have been developed that directly introduce students into the sphere of our social relations. We are talking about the study by students (mainly of the senior classes) of the history and activities of the local industrial enterprise, the local collective farm, the history of their school and the school Komsomol organization, etc.1.
The study of the history of an industrial enterprise or collective farm, combined with the feasible participation of schoolchildren in the social life of the production team, is one of the effective means of educating students in the spirit of the labor and revolutionary traditions of our working class, the collective farm peasantry, the Komsomol, in the spirit of devotion to the ideas of communism, our glorious Communist Party.
3. By linking learning with life, the teacher will strive to ensure that, where possible, historical material serves to understand the present, and is turned to the life practice of young people. The teacher will explain and tell about the emergence of many phenomena, traditions, institutions that surround the student and to which he must now approach consciously. It seems to us absolutely necessary to involve the younger generation in what inspired and excited the advanced youth of the older generations.
4. We also understand the connection between the teaching of history and life as the connection between the content of a school course and the life of a schoolchild of pioneer or Komsomol age, with his interests and demands, with the range of his impressions, with the activities of his pioneer and Komsomol organizations. This is done, in particular, by including youth material, heroic material, biographies and images of remarkable people in the teacher's presentation. The teacher will tell about the feat of young Barr, and about the young heroes of the Sevastopol defense, about the heroine of the Obukhov defense Marfa Yakovleva, about the participation of teenagers in the Moscow uprising of 1905, about working youth in the first detachments of the Red Army, about Komsomol members on the fronts of the civil war, on the construction sites of socialism, about the participation of youth and Komsomol members in the Great Patriotic War, about the young heroes of the underground and partisan struggle behind enemy lines - about the Young Guards, schoolchildren of the underground "Partisan Iskra" in the Nikolaev region, about the "Young Avengers" near Vitebsk, about the partisan detachment "Komsomolets of Karelia", about the patronage of the Komsomol over the restoration of destroyed cities, about the heroic movement to the virgin lands, about the five orders of the Komsomol, about the role of youth in the construction of communism, in the exploration of outer space and scientific discoveries today.
The teacher would make a big mistake if he considered the above-mentioned material only an entertaining, additional element, introduced "above the program." No, it is one of the most important links in the program of the ideological and moral formation of the student in history lessons.
The heroic material of our modernity, the military and revolutionary past, the history of the Komsomol, the life and work of the old Bolsheviks can become the topic of pioneer gatherings and Komsomol meetings, the content of circle and other extracurricular work, the subject of research by young pathfinders and young historians.
5. The connection of teaching history with life, with practice is carried out through the participation of schoolchildren, mainly of Komsomol age, in such forms of social work where they can apply their knowledge and skills acquired in the lessons of history and social science: a) the work of high school students with pioneers and Octobrists of their school, b) participation in ideological and political, cultural and educational work among parents and the population, and c) participation in public work during election campaigns.
The political and educational work of high school students is one of the effective means of their communist upbringing, the formation of communist convictions and worldview. At the same time, in the course of this work, the skills acquired in teaching history and necessary for participation in the labor and socio-political life of Soviet society are improved and developed: the ability to work with a book, political brochure, newspaper, draw up a plan and notes, tables and diagrams , the ability to prepare a message, make a report, conduct a conversation on a socio-political topic2.
Students of a number of schools carry out scientific-atheistic propaganda not only among younger schoolchildren, but also among the population, in local clubs3. Many alumni participate in election campaigns.
6. The connection between the teaching of history and life, with practice, is also carried out in terms of preparing students for practical participation in labor activity. Given the specifics of the subject, we can talk about the formation of schoolchildren's labor ideals in the lessons of history and social science, a communist attitude to work, educating the need to work and familiarizing young people with the labor traditions of Soviet society, hometown, factory.

SECTION II.
METHODS OF TEACHING HISTORY IN THE SOVIET SCHOOL

We will attend the lesson "Discovery of America by Columbus" in the VI class. Here we will hear a vivid description by the teacher of the country of the Incas and the capital of the Aztecs, a fascinating story about the voyage of the caravels of Columbus, a conversation about the significance of his discovery. We will see the work of students on a wall map, a picture and illustrations in a textbook or other visual aids. Under the guidance of the teacher, the document and individual paragraphs of the textbook are read, analysis and generalization of what has been read and heard in the lesson. The teacher explains difficult questions, gives excerpts from fiction. Schoolchildren write down new terms, names, dates in a history notebook.
Let's move on to ninth grade. Here is a school lecture combined with a conversation. Under the guidance of a teacher, students keep a concise record of its content, read and parse the text of the document, excerpts from the works of V. I. Lenin, from the Program of the CPSU, given in the textbook. On the wall is a map, on the blackboard is a schematic plan and diagram, according to which the conversation unfolds.
At a history lesson in any class, the living word of the teacher sounds, visual aids are used, work is carried out with the text of a textbook, a historical document, the works of the classics of Marxism-Leninism or other written sources.
These are the main methods of teaching history at school. A particularly important place among them is occupied by the methods of oral communication of historical material.

Chapter II. METHODS OF ORAL COMMUNICATION OF HISTORICAL MATERIAL

“The art of a class story is not often found in teachers, not because it is a rare gift of nature, but because a gifted person needs to work hard to develop the ability of a completely pedagogical story”
K. D. Ushinsky

The spoken word of the teacher plays a leading role in teaching history not only in primary but also in high school. It organizes, directs both the perception and comprehension of visual, documentary and other educational material used in the lesson. We do not just show a map or a picture, we tell a story based on it, we give explanations. We read, analyze, comment on a historical document, formulate conclusions. Before we give independent work on the textbook, on the map, we preliminarily explain the material, pose a question, and formulate a cognitive task.
The oral word in the history lesson performs primarily a narrative and descriptive function - to recreate the historical past in a holistic picture. The oral word of the teacher helps to create vivid images of people, pictures of events. The living word is figurative.
But this does not exhaust its role: armed with a wealth of intonations, the power of logical stress, liveliness of argumentation, oral speech helps to more fully convey to students the demonstrative power of human thought. The presentation of historical material by the teacher is an excellent means of teaching students to think. The oral word leads students from pictures and images of the past to conclusions, concepts, to an understanding of the laws of the historical process, gives them examples of analysis and generalization of historical material. This is the logical function of oral presentation in teaching history. It is inextricably linked with its narrative and descriptive function. But the leading point is the logical one: the goal of teaching history is to give students a scientific understanding of historical phenomena.
Both in the figurative and in the logical function of the living word in the teaching of history lies its educational value. Inextricably linked with the personality of the teacher, with his moral and political image, the living word serves as a means of creating images of the past, by no means neutral, not indifferent to students, but always ideologically directed, distinguished by a high emotional and ethical mood: these are images of a heroic or difficult past, images of oppressors or fighters for freedom, pictures of forced labor or revolutionary uprisings. It is the teacher's living word that is most capable of revealing and conveying to students the moral force of those ideas that are so rich in the school history course; the living word of a teacher in a history lesson is one of the strongest means of moral influence on a student's personality.
Finally, we must not forget about the strength of the impression left by the living word in the mind of the student: the students remember well the bright story of the teacher; sometimes the sound of the teacher's voice and the persuasiveness of his intonations remain in their memory for many years.
The ability to tell and explain is extremely important for a history teacher. Everyone can master this art. To do this, you need to know the basic requirements for the oral presentation of historical material and its main methods, systematically work on improving your speech, developing a teacher's language - accurate and clear, strong and figurative.

§ 4. The question of methods of oral presentation in history lessons
In the methodology of teaching history, until recently, there was no convincing, scientific justification for the classification of methods of oral presentation, the necessary clarity and certainty in distinguishing between the concepts related to this, in the use of appropriate terms.
In the manual N. V. Andreevskaya and V. N. Vernadsky “Methods of teaching history in a seven-year school” (Uchpedgiz, 1947, pp. 133 et seq.), all types of oral presentation of historical material are united by the concept of “story”. The authors distinguish between descriptive, narrative and business stories; the explanation is characterized as a kind of "business presentation".
In "Essays on the methods of teaching history" by M. A. Zinoviev (Publishing House of the APN of the RSFSR, 1955), the only method of oral presentation is indicated - the teacher's story. A school lecture is seen as a kind of storytelling in high school. In essence, the author reduces all methods of oral presentation to a story, and in high school - to a lecture. A number of manuals did not reflect the diversity of methods of presentation that takes place in the practice of teaching history in the Soviet school. It is not surprising that a novice teacher often believes that the question of how to present historical material is not of significant importance, and builds his presentation in the form of a lecture. Meanwhile, what is called a school lecture is permissible only in the upper grades, and even there it is far from being the predominant form of conducting lessons. In the same way, the story is only one of the methods of presentation in the history lesson. Therefore, neither the concept of "dis-
skaz”, and even more so the concept of “lecture” cannot be recognized as a concept embracing all the methods of oral presentation of historical material in school.
In a later edition of the methodology (“Essays on the methodology of history. V-VII grades”, 1958), N. V. Andreevskaya makes an attempt to justify a slightly different classification, putting forward two main methods of presenting historical material: a story and a lecture. Narration, description, explanation, the author still considers the constituent elements or varieties of the story, distinguishing between a narrative story, a descriptive story and an explanation story (?). N. V. Andreevskaya sees the difference between a story and a lecture in that the lecture is a presentation of a system of knowledge, and although the story also sets out the material, this presentation “implies special attention and active intervention, direct management of the process of listening and assimilation”, the use of a number of techniques , "creating the ability to listen and acquire knowledge." Among these techniques, the author names the combination of a monologue with a conversation, the use of additional material illustrating the content of the story, the graphic design of individual moments of the content, etc. (p. 115). The main feature of the story, according to N. V. Andreevskaya, is that when presenting any material, with any preparedness of the class, “the story always aims not only to communicate, but also to organize the knowledge of students” (ibid.).
But aren't these same signs characteristic of a school lecture? Doesn't the lecture presentation of a knowledge system refer to the organization of knowledge? The school lecture also involves "directly guiding the listening and learning process" (and the students' notes); it includes elements of a conversation (opens with an introductory conversation and ends with a concluding conversation). As for the additional illustrative material and graphic design, firstly, they are also used during the lecture, and secondly, they do not refer to oral presentation techniques, but to visual teaching methods and, therefore, cannot serve in a scientifically based classification. features that characterize a particular method of presentation. Graphic clarity may or may not accompany any method of presentation. The statement that “one of the most characteristic features of a story is the combination of a conversation with a teacher’s monologue” is based on the same mixture of various didactic concepts: a story is one of the forms of storytelling, one of the methods of presenting historical material, and a conversation is not a method of presenting something new for students of the material, but in a way that stimulates the mental processing (discussion, analysis, etc.) of the material already known to the students. In the classroom, very often one method of presentation is intertwined with another: description with explanation, story with description, lecture presentation includes narration (this is just typical for a lecture on history). The task of methodology as a science is not to mix all these methods of presenting and processing historical material, but to isolate them in their pure form and to study their nature. The classification of methods of oral presentation proposed by N. V. Andreevskaya seems to us unconvincing and insufficiently substantiated scientifically.
The classification of methods of oral presentation proposed by V. G. Karpov in “Essays on the methods of teaching the history of the USSR in grades VIII-X” (Uchpedgiz, 1955) reflects more the diversity of educational work in the classroom. V. G. Kartsov distinguishes two main forms of oral communication of knowledge: a story and a conversation, “In high school,” writes V. G. Kartsov, “a teacher’s story is sometimes called a school lecture.” A school lecture has various forms depending on the content and nature of the material being presented: narrative and descriptive, which has the task of figuratively reconstructing the past, a form of reasoning, the task of which is to explain complex historical concepts, and a concise, concise presentation (reporting secondary, although necessary, information). Narrative (most often narrative-descriptive) story is concrete, dynamic, affects feelings and imagination more strongly. The task of a narrative and descriptive story is to communicate the main historical events, the purpose of the conversation and explanation is to analyze complex historical concepts. Conversation and clarification affect mainly the mind. As a result, V. G. Kartsov distinguishes between such methods of oral communication of knowledge: narrative and descriptive story, explanation, conversation, summary.
Nevertheless, V. G. Karpov does not clearly distinguish between such concepts as a story and a lecture, a story and a description, a conversation and an explanation, while each of the listed methods of oral presentation is qualitatively unique and has a special didactic nature. V. G. Kartsov limits the tasks of the story by reporting factual material, the course of historical events, and figurative reconstruction of past phenomena. This reflects, characteristic for the concept of V. G. Karpov, a certain separation of the process of formation of figurative representations from the development of historical thinking. The story, in the understanding of V. G. Karpov, is devoid of logical functions.
We encounter a similar error in an interesting article by Dr. Bernhard Stohr “A lecture or a teacher's story?” in the German monthly "Geschichte in der Schule" (1955, no. 4). B. Shtor distinguishes two main types of oral communication of knowledge: presentation and discussion (conversation, analysis, etc.). The first has three forms: a lecture (Vortrag) with a predominance
I eat rational elements, a message (Bericht) with a predominance of factual content and a story (Erzahlung) with emotional overtones.
Two derivatives follow from these three basic methods of presentation. Thus, a message about an event, a phenomenon, a person can be turned into a visual description with the help of appropriate methods of concretization. In the description, the rational and objective components prevail over the emotional. Strengthen the latter, and you will get a vivid image of historical phenomena, which, according to B. Shtor, is of the greatest value from the point of view of the educational tasks of school history teaching. From these general provisions, as well as from the examples given in the article, it is clear that the methods of oral presentation of historical material differ, according to B. Shtor, in essence, in the quantitative predominance of one or another component. The difference between a description and a message, an image from a description, according to B. Shtor, is mainly in greater or lesser detail and “pictures” of presentation.
It should be noted that in the methodological literature of the German Democratic Republic we come across a far-reaching differentiation of concepts that characterize various methods of oral presentation, with attempts to clearly distinguish them and classify them. This is typical for B. Shtor, F. Donat (see "Geschichte in der Schule", 1956, No. 4) and others. However, the desire to connect the rational and emotional moments with certain methods of presentation seems unjustified to us: the unity of figurative-emotional and logically rational components characterizes all methods of educational presentation in history lessons. And not in the quantitative predominance of the first or second element lies the basis for the difference between these methods.
It is a mistake to think that in the course of a story, only the creation of images of the past by schoolchildren takes place, and all work on the formation of historical concepts is carried out entirely only in the course of analysis, generalization, and explanation. As will be shown below, the educational story in the lessons of history is not only an "exciting" story, it serves not only the tasks of figuratively recreating the events of the past. He leads students to an explanation of historical phenomena, to isolating concepts, the contours of which have already been outlined in the story. If this were not the case, then there would be an abyss between the formation of living historical ideas and the formation of historical thinking.
The difficulty of classifying the methods of oral presentation of historical material is explained by the fact that in reality, in a history lesson, these methods are often closely intertwined. Even in the lower grades, the teacher's story often includes elements of description, explanation, analysis and generalization, conclusions and evaluation. It is not surprising that all these methods at first glance represent
as integral elements of the story, as its varieties: “descriptive story”, “business story turning into explanation”, “lecture story”, etc.
But the methodology, since it is a science, is called upon to analyze this complex phenomenon, called "presentation" or "story", highlighting and subjecting to consideration all its components in a pure form, to determine the place and significance of each of them in the educational work on the subject. Without such a division, a scientific classification of the methods of oral presentation of historical material is impossible. And this is of great practical importance for the teacher. The ability to express to a large extent depends on how clearly we distinguish the main methods of presentation, understand their specifics and know how to apply them most appropriately.
The classification of methods of oral presentation should be built on the basis of their educational nature, from their characteristics as teaching aids that help solve certain educational and educational problems.
What methods of oral presentation does the teacher use in history lessons? The first thing to be noted is the predominance of narrative in the presentation of the history teacher. This is determined by the nature of the program historical material and constitutes the same feature of the lessons of history as the predominance of description - the lessons of geography, the predominance of reasoning - the lessons of geometry. A variety of narration is the most accessible method of presentation for schoolchildren - a story.

§ 5. Methods of oral presentation. Narrative and reporting of historical events
A story is a plot narrative about historical events or processes, about specific actions of the masses and historical figures, for example, a story about the storming of Jerusalem by the Crusaders, a story about the course of the June 1848 uprising in Paris, a story about the death of S. Lazo.
The story always has a certain plot, a plot, which is often dramatic. Colorfulness and fascination, liveliness and concreteness make the story the most intelligible method of presentation.
Is every story a story? No. The text of the textbook and the presentation of the material by the teacher in the history lesson often take on the character of a concise message.
In methodological literature, therefore, two types of narration are distinguished: the so-called "artistic story" and "business presentation". It is better to reject the last term:
any educational presentation serves the cause, not fun. They often try to substantiate the difference between these types of narration by contrasting the concretizing side of the narration with its logical side.
Meanwhile, in a good story about historical events, brightness and colorfulness are united with logic, passion is combined with richness and depth of thought. The exposition of historical events in the works of the classics of Marxism serves as an example of such unity for us.
What is the difference between a condensed narrative and a short story? Let's try to establish this difference on the example of the story of the Chesme battle of 1770.
Compressed message:
“In the summer of 1770, near the Chesme Bay (on the coast of Asia Minor, against the island of Chios), the Russian squadron of Admiral Spiridov attacked the Turkish fleet, which was more than twice as large in number of ships and guns. After several hours of naval battle, the Turkish fleet could not stand it and hurried to take refuge in the Chesme Bay. The next day, the Turkish fleet was destroyed."
Story:
“On June 24, 1770, at dawn, the Russian squadron entered the strait near the island of Chios, and the united Turkish fleet was in front of it. He stood in a crescent in two lines along the coast near the small Turkish fortress of Chesma.
The Russians had only 13 ships and 17 small vessels, while the Turks had twice as many: 22 ships and 50 small vessels. The Turks were stronger and the power of their artillery. At the first moment, the commander of the Russian squadron was horrified.
But the Russian sailors surpassed the Turks in their fighting spirit and military skill. They dared to attack what seemed to be the strongest enemy. Taking advantage of a fair wind, the Russians approached the Turkish squadron. Cannons roared. The Russian ship "Evstafiy" grappled with the Turkish admiral's ship. The Russians rushed to board, and desperate hand-to-hand combat began to boil. Suddenly, a Turkish ship lights up. His burning mast collapses onto the deck of the Eustathius. The hook chamber, where shells and gunpowder were stored, was open. Burning brands fly there. There is a deafening explosion, and both ships - Russian and Turkish take off into the air. Frightened Turks in a panic cut anchor ropes and go to Chesme Bay.
On the advice of the Russian admirals, it was decided: to break into the bay and destroy the Turkish fleet using fire ships. This was the name of small ships loaded with combustible and explosive substances and intended to set fire to enemy ships. This technique was considered unreliable: the wind could easily carry the firewalls to the side. But in the Chesme harbor this means promised complete success: the Turkish fleet was in great cramped quarters.
A quiet southern night has come. At midnight, the silhouettes of Russian ships appeared at the entrance to the bay. Suddenly, they open fire with incendiary bombs. The guns of the entire Russian squadron rumble. At the height of the battle, three rockets soar into the sky. This is a signal to the firewalls. But two of them are carried aside by the current, the third grappled with the already burning enemy ship ...
Only the commander of the fourth firewall, Lieutenant Ilyin, approached the Turkish ship, stuck his side against it, set fire to his firewall in front of the Turks. Only then, with danger to their lives, the crew of the fireship, without any haste, left their ship already engulfed in fire in boats.
A burning Turkish ship takes off into the air. The fire spreads to other ships. Explosions follow one after another. Soon the entire Turkish fleet is burning like a huge fire. A bright glow illuminates a terrible picture: the water in the bay is covered with ash, shipwrecks. By morning, the entire Turkish fleet was destroyed. The Russian admiral reported: “The Turkish fleet was attacked, defeated, broken, burned, let into the sky, sunk and turned into ashes, and left a terrible disgrace in that place, and they themselves began to dominate the entire Archipelago” 1.
So, in the first case, we have a compressed message, in the second, if we exclude the elements of the explanation about the firewalls, it is a story.
At first glance, the difference between them lies in the degree of detail. However, the abundance of details, for example, the inclusion of the names of all the ships that took part in the battle, indicating the number of guns, the number of teams, the names of the commanders, the details of individual maneuvers, will not turn a compressed message into a story. It will remain a meager list of facts. The difference in the degree of emotionality is not decisive either. A dry statement of fact can shock listeners more than an "artistic" story designed for their feelings.
1 From a letter from Admiral Spiridov (see: S. M. Solovyov, History of Russia since ancient times, vol. 28, p. 663).
The difference between a condensed message and a story is not quantitative, not in the abundance of details or emotional moments, but qualitative. In the form of a concise narrative - and this is his educational task - we only inform students about the historical event: "On July 6, 1415, Jan Hus was burned at the stake." That is why, to designate this form of narration, we proposed 1 instead of the terms "business presentation", "concise presentation", the term "compressed message"; it more accurately reflects the features and didactic nature of this method of oral presentation. In the story, we give a picture of the event. The story, in contrast to the compressed message, as the main didactic task has in mind the creation in students of specific ideas about the event.
The story doesn't have to be long. It can be extremely short. Its liveliness and visibility are achieved not by the abundance of details, but by their brightness, not by the expansion of the factual material, but by special methods of concretizing it2. There are few concretizing details in the teacher's story. But they must reveal the originality of the historical phenomenon, its essence, contain everything necessary for its understanding.
There is no need to saturate the story in a history lesson with hyperbole, “poetic” turns of speech, like: “blood flowed like a river”, “damask swords rang, sharp spears broke, valiant heads fell”. Such "colorful places", making the presentation pretentious and sugary, do not concretize the presentation in any way and do not give anything for understanding the specifics of the events being described.
It is better if the mosaic of the educational story is large: few facts, but the most striking, typical, and significant. There are very few facts in the above story about the Chesme battle. The situation is briefly given: the unexpectedness of the meeting of squadrons, the balance of forces, the battle order of the Turkish flotilla. In the battle of June 24, one episode was noted: the battle and the death of two ships. From the events of the night battle, an episode with Ilyin's fireship and a picture of the death of the Turkish fleet are given. However, from this short story, students get an idea about the features of naval battles of the 18th century, about the originality of this battle, and specific material for conclusions. Students will easily indicate the reasons for the victory at Chesma: the fearlessness of Russian sailors and officers (an example of the feat of the detachment of Lieutenant Ilyin), skillful command (courageous design, taking into account the situation, the use of technical means).
Thus, in the educational story, key points have been prepared for subsequent analysis and generalization.
In the above example, there is another distinctive feature of the story: historical events are revealed in it by showing the specific actions of its participants. These people are seized by certain feelings, strive for certain goals, overcome difficulties and dangers, die or win. Schoolchildren follow the unfolding of events with interest, rejoice at the victories and grieve at the failures of the heroes. This is the emotional impact of the story.
The story about the Battle of Chesma contains emotional moments: both the setting and the rapid development of events, and their denouement, are dramatic. The Russians were horrified when they saw the mighty Turkish fleet, but decided to attack it; desperate boarding battle; the Turks retreat in panic; the fearless feat of Lieutenant Ilyin and his team; the death of the entire fleet of the Turks. The ending of the story is also emotional - energetic lines from a letter from Admiral Spiridov.
Decisive in building a lively and visual narrative is the selection of vivid factual material. Where can you find such material? To do this, the teacher will turn to books for reading on the history of the ancient East, Greece, Rome, the Middle Ages, modern times, memoirs, a scientific monograph, a popular science book, a journal article. So, the teacher will find specific material for the story about the liberation struggle of the Ukrainian people in 1648-1654, in particular about the victories at Zhovti Vody, near Korsun, on Pilyavka, in the monograph by N. I. Kostomarov "Bogdan Khmelnitsky" (chapters 1, 3 and 4). Kostomarov is a wonderful storyteller. The wealth of vivid episodic material for use in the teacher's story is distinguished by the monographs of the Soviet historian E. V. Tarle.
A story in a history lesson is not always possible to build on the material of one, even if very valuable, source. Often the teacher is forced to look for specific material in historical documents of a narrative nature, in works of fiction. The teacher builds a story about the Poltava battle on the basis of one of the monographs about the Northern War, but he will include excerpts from the report about the Poltava battle and, of course, the wonderful lines of A. S. Pushkin (“Poltava”) in his narration.
The works of the classics of Marxism are guiding for the teacher in the coverage and analysis of program material. But, in addition, the teacher directly uses in his story that vivid narrative material that is so rich in the historical works of K. Marx, F. Engels and V. I. Lenin: after all, these works set out the most significant, most typical facts that reveal the essence of the historical phenomena. So, in a story about the Moscow armed uprising in 1905, the teacher will cite factual material from V.I. others
The story gives a picture of events. But the degree of pictoriality varies. The special clarity and brightness of the image make the story artistic. Every good teacher's story in a history lesson is to a certain extent visual and picturesque. Therefore, the term "artistic story" does not mean a special kind of story, but only a higher degree of its picturesqueness. In the above story about the Chesme battle, there are elements of a fictional story. But sometimes the concreteness and figurativeness of the teacher's narration are so enhanced that the artistic story approaches, to a greater or lesser extent, a living depiction of the historical past. In a live image, an artistic story is combined with a picturesque description of the historical environment in which the event took place, the appearance, clothing, weapons of the life of people of that time. A living image, as it were, recreates a picture of the past, being, in the words of V. G. Kartsov, a figurative reconstruction of the past.
A special liveliness in the depiction of historical events is inherent in works of fiction - historical stories, novels, etc. That is why the teacher most often borrows material and colors for a vivid depiction of the past from works of historical fiction and literary monuments of the era being studied. For example, for a live depiction of the events of 1905, we turn to essays by contemporary writers - M. Gorky, A. Serafimovich1, Skitalets and others.
Let us give an example of a live image of Smolny in the October days of 1917. The recollections of contemporaries and participants in the armed uprising in Petrograd from the book “Memoirs of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin” (vol. 1, Gos-politizdat, 1956, pp. 540-555) will serve as material for us. In addition, we use material from the "History of the Civil War in the USSR" (vol. II, pp. 223-280), from John Reed's notes "Ten Days That Shook the World" 2.
We group the material according to the following plan: 1) the square in front of the Smolny; 2) the corridors of the Smolny; 3) in the Military Revolutionary Committee.
“The center of the uprising - Smolny is buzzing like a huge beehive. Its entire façade is lit up with lights. Through the gloom and darkness of the deserted streets, detachments of armed workers come here from all parts of the city. Among them are young people and the elderly. Many today took a rifle in their hands for the first time. In the forefront are the Bolshevik workers.
Bonfires are burning in the square in front of the building. Groups of Red Guards and soldiers are talking anxiously. Saddled horses stand ready, motorcycles, cars, several armored cars are placed in rows; their motors are up and running. Guns are brought up with a heavy roar. Here, howling like a siren, a huge gray armored car crawled out of the gate, a red flag above its turret. From somewhere, over the rooftops, the sounds of a quick gunfight are heard. At the entrance to the Smolny machine guns covered with tarpaulins; wriggling like snakes, cartridge belts hang down. Patrols check passes.
In the echoing vaulted corridors of the Smolny, the clatter of feet and the clang of weapons. Machine guns are being driven with a roar, people are walking in a continuous stream. Workers in black jackets, fur hats, caps, hats. Sailors, hung with grenades, Mauser, machine-gun belts, soldiers in gray overcoats and hats. Let's go up to the third floor. Here, in three rooms where the cool ladies of the aristocratic Smolny Institute so recently lived, the Military Revolutionary Committee is feverishly working.
The rooms of the Military Revolutionary Committee are crowded and noisy. Doors are slamming every now and then. Soldiers appear with news of the mood in the regiments. Connected Red Guards run in and out with hasty orders. From all sides they demand clarifications and instructions. Dozens of hands reach out for mandates and directives.
And in the very back room, in clouds of tobacco smoke, under the shade of an electric bulb, several people were bending over the map. Here, the thin, bearded Podvoisky is working out the details of the plan for the uprising, brilliantly outlined by Lenin. Unshaven, pale from sleepless nights Antonov-Ovseenko. All the threads of the armed uprising converge in this room, reports come in: such and such a factory sent so many armed workers, such and such a regiment refused to support Kerensky ... Field telephones buzz incessantly, typewriters crackle incessantly. This is dictated by orders of great importance. They are signed with a pencil right there, on the move, and a young worker or sailor is already rushing into the dark night to the outskirts of the city.
With the arrival of Lenin, this work assumed an extraordinary pace and scope. Vladimir Ilyich summons the Red Guards, representatives of the Zaiods and military units. Gives precise, comprehensive instructions, requires their immediate implementation.
... Soon after the arrival of Lenin, a group of motorcycles rushed from the gates of Smolny: messengers of the uprising rushed to the capital's districts "
Artistic storytelling and live imagery in history lessons play an important role in creating concrete images of the past in students. But to present all the historical material in the form of an artistic story, and even more so in the form of a living image of the past, would be inappropriate. Firstly, the application of these methods of presentation takes time, and the time in the lesson is limited. And most importantly, to solve a number of important educational and ideological tasks of the lesson, we need not only a story or a live image, but also other methods of presentation: a concise message, description, explanation. The presentation of the entire content of the lesson in an artistic form would create a one-sidedness of the educational process, referring only to the feeling and imagination of the student and not requiring serious rough work from him. The opinion sometimes expressed that the teacher should present the material in the history lesson mainly in the form of an exciting story, supposedly having a special educational value, seems to us erroneous. The educational value of a history lesson lies primarily in the ideological content of the material being presented, and for its disclosure, the teacher requires not only an exciting story, but also a clear description of the facts, a concise message, analysis and explanation. The presentation of historical material mainly in the form of an exciting story would inevitably give the presentation the features of artificiality, stiltedness. And this would drastically reduce the educational effect of the lesson.
In what cases is a story (including a live image) necessary as a method of presenting historical material?
Firstly, when presenting major historical events, the study of which has an important educational and educational value and should leave a deep and vivid imprint in the minds of students. This is a story about the battle of Salamis, the uprising of Spartacus, the circumnavigation of Magellan, the fall of the Bastille, the uprising of the Decembrists, the June days of 1848 in Paris, Bloody Sunday, the defense of Presnya, the storming of Winter, the death of V. I. Lenin, the heroic defense of Stalingrad and etc.
Secondly, the story is used in cases where it is necessary to create in students meaningful and accurate ideas about a new historical phenomenon for them. For example, it is not necessary to give a colorful account of all the major battles during the Punic Wars. We will tell about the Battle of Cannae to create? schoolchildren have a concrete idea of the wars of that time. This will allow us to confine ourselves to a concise account of the battle of Zama and other military actions of the Romans. In the same way, there is no need to colorfully depict (all the peasant unrest of the second half of the 19th century in Russia, which the textbook mentions. We will talk about the events in the village
Abyss. In order to give students an idea of the peculiarities of the class struggle of the Western European proletariat at various stages of the labor movement, it is enough to give a few but vivid pictures of the uprising of the Silesian weavers, the meeting and demonstration of the Chartists, the June uprising of the Paris workers in 1848, the strike of the London dockers in 1889, etc. e. With regard to other strikes or rallies, the teacher will confine himself to a concise report and a brief mention of the most important individual features of the event: students already have ideas about a strike, rally, demonstration.
Thirdly, we need a story not only to create in students a vivid idea of historical events, but also to lead to certain conclusions and generalizations. The practice of teaching history at school and the data of the pedagogical experiment show that the possibilities of organizing and the success of active mental work of students of primary and secondary school age are largely determined not only by the content, but also by the nature of the material proposed by the student and the method of its presentation. Historical material presented in a specific plot form, even in high school, is the subject of more active discussion than the same material presented in an abstract, schematic form.
The plot narrative about events and people activates the independent thinking of students, especially in grades V-VII, giving them simple and specific factual material in the most accessible form as food for analysis, reflection and conclusions.
Fourthly, in the practice of teaching, the story is used not only as a method of presenting narrative, event-related material, but also as a way of explaining complex historical phenomena, revealing their essence and patterns, characterizing social relations, as a technique that facilitates the formation of concepts and provides material for active mental students' activities. In practice, there have been two ways of using the story to solve these problems.
The first way is that, when analyzing a complex historical phenomenon, the teacher explains it with the help of an example, an episode, which is presented in the form of a plot. Explaining, for example, the essence of the American foreign policy of "bayonet and dollar", it is useful as a concrete example to briefly tell the story of the enslavement of one of the countries of Central America.
But another method is also possible: replacing the description of a faceless historical process with a plot narrative, an artistic story built on specific facts, in which the essence of this process is embodied. Thus, the question of the seizure of land by noble Franks and the explanation of the formula "there is no land without a lord" can be stated in the form of a plot story. The variant of such a story we proposed 1 was accepted with some changes by the authors of the textbook on the history of the Middle Ages2.
Instead of a dry explanation by the teacher himself or reading from the textbook of the paragraph “What prevented the development of trade in the Middle Ages” (§ 19), it is more expedient to build an entertaining story about the trip of a medieval merchant by sea to Venice, from there along Lombardy to the Alpine passes to the Rhine Valley, to tell about the attack of sea pirates , robber knights, about the difficulties of the path, about numerous duties, and invite the students themselves to formulate what prevented medieval trade.
In the same form, one can show (on the fate of one farmer) the transformation of a smerd into a purchase, a purchase into a serf. In high school, with the help of a short plot story about the emergence of a joint-stock company, the activities of a group of founders, the issue of shares, the first meeting of shareholders and the election of the board, one can reveal and explain the most difficult questions about the features of joint-stock companies, the sale and purchase of shares, the merging of monopoly banking and industrial capital. In the same way, material on the three stages of the development of capitalism in Russian industry can be presented to students not in an abstract form, but in the form of a live story about one of the centers of the Russian textile industry.
“Not far from Moscow, in the Vladimir province, there are the estates of Count Sheremetev: the village of Ivanovo and others. Here, for a long time, back in the 17th century, peasants wove canvases. At the end of the XVIII century. cotton production is also developing. In their serf village of Ivanovo, in the huts, the peasants started manual machines, bought paper yarn, wove calico. Many such lamps appeared in the villages of Sheremetev. There are three or four camps in the room, the whole family is at work. But Sheremetev takes from such "industrial" peasants not 5-6, but 15-20 rubles due from the tax. What kind of form is this? Peasant handicrafts. By the end of the XVIII century. out of the handicraft peasants, very rich people have moved out, those who are more sneaky, who strive to press their brother peasant and know how to deceive anyone in trade. Such people no longer have three or four camps, but thirty - forty, and some have hundreds of camps. And behind the camps are their own fellow villagers from the village of Ivanovo, from the neighboring merchant settlement of Voznesenskoye. They work freelance. And the village of Ivanovo has grown: the huts are brick, the barns are strong, the machines are no longer in the small rooms, but in long barns. What's this? - Kulak, capitalist manufactory, which grew out of peasant handicrafts
At such manufactories in the village of Ivanovo, by 1825, the “peasant” Gracheva had nine hundred mills, the “peasant” Gorelin had a thousand. every transaction.
Thus, new, capitalist relations matured inside the serf estate - a capitalist owner and a hired worker grew up, although both, in their social and legal status, remained serfs of the count. But over the brick buildings of the kulak manufactories in the 60s of the XIX century. black chimneys rose high, the steam engine chuffed, mechanical self-spinning wheels and machine tools started to work. A Russian capitalist factory was born The village grew, became a city, the center of the Russian paper-weaving industry - on the land of Count Sheremetev.
Lenin's formula, revealed on living material, in this case was for the students a meaningful generalization of concrete reality.
The teacher's story in the senior grades, in addition to the greater complexity of the content, differs from the story in the history lessons in grades V-VII. Its duration noticeably increases: instead of 10-15 minutes, it often takes up a significant part of the lesson (up to 30 minutes). A story as a plot narrative is more often combined with other, more complex forms of presentation: with analysis, characterization, theoretical generalizations, sometimes approaching a lecture presentation; in high school, the story in many cases serves to explain complex theoretical issues, leading students to serious conclusions and generalizations.

§ 6. Description and characteristics, explanation and reasoning in history lessons. School lecture
Along with the narration of events in the history lesson, there is a description of historical phenomena. We call a description a consistent presentation of the signs or features of a historical phenomenon, its essential features, its structure, its state, and finally, its appearance. Unlike a story, there is no plot in the description, but there is a specific object, the signs of which we communicate to students. So, the teacher gives a description of the geographical situation where historical events took place (the Nile Valley, the nature of Greece, the Kulikovo Field), economic complexes (fortified estates, manufactories), architectural structures (the Acropolis of Athens, the feudal castle, the Moscow Kremlin under Ivan III), government (devices of the Moscow Orders), tools of labor, weapons (weapons of the Mongols, tools of the Neolithic), the appearance and clothing of people of the studied era.
There are two types of description used in history lessons. It is possible to give a description of the appearance of Moscow in the 17th century. with its narrow streets, wooden towers, estates of boyars, strong huts of merchants, Red Square, where the Great Bargaining is located, with battlements of the Kremlin, with gilded domes of churches. Such a description has the task of giving a picture of Moscow. This is a picture description.
But, describing Moscow in the 17th century, the teacher can focus the attention of students on its concentric location and the characteristics of its main parts - the Kremlin, Kitay-Gorod, Earthen City, craft settlements, on the construction of its fortifications (Kremlin walls, towers with three tiers of cannons at the bottom, middle and upper battle), on the defensive role of the ring of monasteries surrounding it. Such a description does not go by recreating a complete picture, but by analyzing the object under study and can be called analytical.
The study of a number of objects requires a predominantly pictorial description, for example: Russia after the Mongol invasion, Russian and Mongolian troops in the morning on the Kulikovo field2, the streets of Paris in the July days of 1830, etc. A pictorial description in combination with a vivid artistic story, as we know, gives a vivid image of the past.
On the other hand, the study of objects of technology, weapons (the device of a battering ram, a siege tower) or the state structure, organization of administration, troops, etc., requires a predominantly analytical description. In a number of cases, the analytical description of the internal structure of the phenomenon under study (the social system, management, the structure of a technical object) approaches an explanation.
Very often the same descriptive material, depending on the methods of its presentation, can in one case lie
1 Here is the picture of Russia painted by N.M. Karamzin (“History of the Russian State”, ed. 5, book 1, p. 1G8): “Where cities and villages bloomed, only heaps of ashes and corpses tormented by predatory animals remained and birds ... Only occasionally people appeared who managed to hide in the forests and went out to mourn the death of the fatherland.
2 “At six o'clock in the afternoon they saw the Russian Mamaev horde descending from the hill. It moved like a cloud through the steppes; those behind put spears on the shoulders of those in front. Their clothes were dark. The Russian troops, on the other hand, marched smartly. Many banners swayed from a quiet wind, like clouds: the armor of the warriors shone like a dawn in a clear time, and the spruce men on their helmets burned with fire. “The army flaunted innumerable numbers: Russian horses were strong and fast, they were armed with short swords and long sabers: the sun played on the points of spears, in shields painted with red paint.” (See: N. Kostomarov. Battle of Kulikovo.)
in the basis of the analytical, in the other - picturesque description. For example, based on the images that adorn the artistic monuments of the Scythian burial mounds1, the teacher gives an idea of the appearance, clothing and weapons of the Scythians either in the form of an analytical or in the form of a picture description, even in the form of a short, complete diyamika of the story2.
In high school, pure picture description rarely takes place in history lessons. Students of this age have a fairly significant range of figurative ideas about the past, gleaned from fiction, films, works of historical painting, museum expositions, and illustrated publications. The pictorial description here is most often combined with the analytical one.
Both pictorial and analytical description must first of all be scientifically correct. This means that in the description that we give to students, the essential features of the described phenomenon, its essential connections with other phenomena, are singled out and emphasized; this means, furthermore, that the description correctly reflects the objective contradictions of historical reality. In most cases, the description reveals an assessment based on a scientific analysis of socio-historical phenomena.
Of course, the picture description should be specific, colorful, and to some extent emotional. But it is not this that determines the main educative meaning of the description, but its ideological orientation. Let's explain this with an example.
In the pre-revolutionary school, a colorful description of historical phenomena was either of an objectivist nature, obscuring the contradictions of historical reality, or served to admire the past, to idealize it. Let us give such a description of a medieval castle in one of the pre-revolutionary textbooks by K. A. Ivanov (ed. 1908) and compare it with the description in the Soviet textbook by E. V. Agibalova and G. M. Donskoy for the VI grade (ed. 1967). ).

KOHETS FRAGMEHTA BOOKS

Methods of teaching history as a science and subject. The subject and objectives of the methodology of teaching history, methods of scientific research used in methodological science.

The methodology of teaching history is a pedagogical science about the tasks, content and methods of teaching history. Explores the patterns of teaching history in order to improve its efficiency and quality.

The subject of the methodology is history as a school discipline, the process of teaching history.

The main components are learning objectives, content and structure.

Gives answers to the questions of what to teach, why to teach and how to teach. Tasks: scientific and methodological organization of the educational process, organization of the student's educational activities, learning outcomes.

Objectives: students to master the basics of knowledge about the historical process of the development of society from ancient times to the present day. Development of the ability to comprehend the events and phenomena of reality on the basis of historical knowledge, the formation of value orientations and beliefs of students based on the ideas of humanism, the experience of history, patriotism, the development of interest and respect for the history and culture of other peoples.

The tasks are to determine the content and structure of historical education, which are enshrined in standards and programs and, on the basis of them, are set out in textbooks (selection of basic facts, terms, concepts).

Scientific and methodological organization of the learning process (forms, methods, teaching methods, means of teaching and learning).

Development of cognitive abilities of students (they develop in the process of teaching history, learn to understand, assimilate and apply historical knowledge).

Methods of historical knowledge

Historical-genetic method. Gnoseological essence and logical nature. Functions of the historical-genetic method in historical research. Character traits. Descriptiveness, factography and empiricism. Experience of application in concrete historical research.

Historical-comparative method. Understanding historical development as a recurring, internally conditioned, natural process. Cognitive value and possibilities of comparison as a method of scientific knowledge. Analogy as the logical basis of the historical-comparative method. The use of the historical-comparative method in the practice of concrete historical research. The role of the historical-comparative method in the formation of historical concepts.

Historical-typological method. The relationship of the individual, particular, general and universal in the historical process as an ontological basis of the historical-typological method. Typologization as a method of scientific knowledge and essential analysis. Experience in the application of the historical-typological method in historical research in domestic and foreign historiography.

Historical-system method. The systemic nature of the historical process. Causal and functional connections in the socio-historical process. Variants of determinism in social systems. Experience in the application of the historical-system method in concrete historical research.

Education paradigm

Education - carried out in educational institutions or independently, the process of mastering the system of knowledge, human culture as a whole, the process of development and formation of the individual, as well as the result of this process - a certain level of mastery of culture (education), personal development in the context of culture.

The paradigm of education is the initial conceptual scheme, a model for posing problems and solving them, research methods that have prevailed over a certain historical period in the scientific community.

Methodology [gr. methodike] - in the sense we are interested in, this is “a branch of pedagogical science that studies the patterns of teaching a particular subject”

Scientific status of methods of teaching history. Object and subject of scientific research

Among some scientists and university teachers of history there is a skeptical attitude towards the methodology as a scientific theory. However, those who have devoted their lives to it do not doubt its scientific status and the special sphere of its functioning.

The object of study of the methodology is the learning process, and the subject is the internal patterns of interaction of the main factors in the process of teaching history as a subject.

In the first lecture, when characterizing the structure of school history education as a system, these factors were already named. The genesis of their content and interaction is described in detail in our textbook, and the steadily recurring connections that unite the main factors of the educational process into an organic and "living complex" are presented in Scheme 1.

Scheme 1 The main factors and patterns of the process of teaching history

In connection with the question of the object and subject of methodology as a science, let's draw the attention of course participants to questions that are of fundamental importance in modern society:

The aims of teaching history or the aims of history education;

History learning outcomes or history education outcomes.

Without delving into a comparative analysis of the concepts and the processes of teaching and education behind them6, we note that terminological difficulties with the leading concepts of general pedagogy and private methods require readers and users of teaching aids, in particular, in history, to always clearly define the methodological position of their authors and self-determine in the object, goals and functions of the methodology.

Methodological foundations of the methodology of teaching history

The question of the scientific status of the methods of teaching history, as well as the methods of other subjects, was at the center of active pedagogical discussions in the 1950s and 1980s. last century. Then it was attributed to the number of both historical (A.I. Strazhev) and pedagogical (P.V. Gora, S.A. Yezhov and others) disciplines. The second point of view dominates in the modern pedagogical community, but when discussions about history as an academic subject periodically arise, it seems that far from all specialists have decided on the scientific status of the methodology for teaching history.

In close connection with the question of the scientific nature of the methodology of a particular academic subject, the question of its methodology is being resolved. So, for example, A.I. Strazhev, considering the methodology of teaching history both historical and pedagogical science, argued that it is guided by dialectical and historical materialism as a methodological basis. But at the same time, he showed the methodological significance of pedagogy in more detail and concretely in his works. Another well-known methodologist, V.G. Kartsov, rhetorically asked: “Surely the methodology of teaching history should not be based on the methodology of historical science itself?” the subject itself." A.A. Vagin, consistently defending the pedagogical nature of the methodology, emphasized that “the direct methodological basis of the methodology for teaching history ... is the Marxist-Leninist pedagogical theory ...”. All these ideas led to the conclusion that the methodology of teaching history has a class, party character (S.A. Ezhova and others).

In the 1990s the methodology of not only the historical and pedagogical sciences, but also particular (subject) methods, especially the methods of teaching history and social science, underwent a fundamental revision. “In the teaching of social disciplines, all the contradictions of Russian society, which is going through a transitional period of its development, have been focused. The deideologization of school social science education in practice meant only its decommunization, the rejection of Marxist ideology. The crisis of society affected the state of social sciences, school social science and did not allow formulating a new positive strategy for school social science ... "(" Strategy for the Development of Historical and Social Science Education in General Educational Institutions ", No. 24/1 of December 28, 1994) In the operative part of this document, it was recommended to continue the development of a new concept of history education based on the achievements of modern science, historical synthesis, a combination of sociological, geographic-anthropological, cultural-psychological approaches.

In the modern archives of teaching methods there is more than one draft of the concepts of the educational field "Social Studies", the subject "History" and individual courses, which, for various reasons, have not received the status of an official document.

The theoretical and methodological basis of work in the field of school history education in recent years has been various conceptual approaches that synthesize the ideas of the philosophy of history and the philosophy of education, humanistic pedagogy and psychology, the theory of upbringing, student-centered and developmental education. A new impetus to the development of scientific and methodological knowledge is given by the appeal of specialists to the ideas of pedagogical axiology, pedagogical praxeology, and pedagogical mythology.

Functions of the methodology for teaching history as a science

There is a figurative definition of methodology as a reliable "bridge from theory to practice."

An extremely important function of any science is to express its attitude to experience, to solved and especially unresolved problems of education from the perspective of its own, specific aspect vision. In this sense, any science begins with practice.

But the empirical basis of science is not a simple set of facts, therefore the second most important function of science is diagnostic, contributing to the selective assessment of the facts obtained, their comparison, correlation with criteria, systematization, classification, etc.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

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KALININGRADSTATEUNIVERSITY

Tutorial

METHODOLOGYTEACHINGSTORIESINAVERAGESCHOOL

N.Yu.Nikulin

Kaliningrad - 2000

UDC 93/99: 37.022

Reviewer: Department of Social Sciences BGA, Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor V.P. Panteleeva

Published by decision of the Editorial Publishing Council of Kaliningrad State University.

NikulinN.Yu. H651 Methods of teaching history in high school: Textbook / Kaliningr. un-t. - Kaliningrad, 2000. 95 p.

ISBN 5-88874-165-5.

The manual is designed to help university students and history teachers get acquainted with the changes that are taking place in the modern school in the field of history education. The manual is based on the material of the course "Methods of teaching history", which is taught at the Faculty of History of Kaliningrad State University.

UDC 93/99: 37.022

Kaliningrad State University, 2000

ISBN5-88874-165-5 Nikulina N.Yu., 2000

Introduction

Chapter 1 Subject and Objectives of the History Teaching Methods Course

Chapter 2 Historical education in the Russian Federation at the present stage

Chapter 3 The Structure of School History Education

Chapter 5 Educational and methodological complex on history

Chapter 6 The main features of educational knowledge of history

Chapter 7 History Teaching Methods

Chapter 8 Innovative Technologies in History Teaching

Chapter 9 History Lesson

Appendix

INTRODUCTION

At the Faculty of History of Kaliningrad State University, the role and significance of the subjects of the psychological and pedagogical cycle is significantly changing in modern conditions. Last academic year, the state exam in pedagogy, psychology and teaching methods was introduced for the first time. The exam gave an opportunity to take a fresh look at the subjects being studied; a program and questions for the state certification of graduates were developed, an analysis was made of students' readiness to work at school. The curriculum includes not only the course on methods of teaching history, which previously traditionally completed the psychological and pedagogical cycle, but also the course "Scientific Foundations of the School History Course" and a pedagogical workshop. If the first course is lecture and theoretical, then the second is practical. Two main theoretical courses are connected with the reform of the system of higher and secondary education. Their material makes it possible to consider the trends and prospects for the development of the sphere of historical education at the present stage. Much attention is paid to the problems of educational knowledge of history and the peculiarities of pedagogical technologies. A graduate of the Faculty of History should not only understand what pedagogical technology, innovation, author's school is, but also be able to enter the pedagogical process, understand the need for pedagogical organonomy.

This textbook is based on the material of the course "Methods of teaching history", which is read at the Faculty of History of KSU.

The purpose of the manual is to help students of the Faculty of History to learn the content of the course, the methodology of teaching history, the scientific foundations of teaching the school history course and prepare them for teaching practice.

In preparation, the research of Russian scientists was used. The form of the manual does not require strict citation, however, all the works whose materials were involved in writing the manual are listed in the list of recommended literature.

CHAPTER1 SUBJECTANDTASKSCOURSEMETHODSTRAININGSTORIES

Subject methods learning stories how nau ki . FROM ligature methods from others sciences .

The post-Soviet period set new tasks for the methodology and demanded that scientists, methodologists, and practicing teachers rethink the main provisions of methodological science.

Goals teaching determine the content of learning. In accordance with the goals and content, the optimal organization of teaching and learning is selected. The effectiveness of the organization of the pedagogical process is checked by the results of education, upbringing and development.

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Figure - Patterns of the process of school teaching history

The definition of goals should take into account the general objectives of teaching history, developing students, their knowledge and skills, ensuring the educational process, etc. Goals must be realistic for the conditions that exist in a particular school.

Content - an essential component of the learning process. The historically determined restructuring of goals also changes the content of education. The development of history, pedagogy and psychology, methodology also affects the content of teaching, its volume and depth. So, in the teaching of history in modern conditions, the civilizational approach prevails instead of the formational one, much attention is paid to historical figures. The teacher teaches children to be able to distinguish between the process of knowing the past and the process of moral assessment of people's actions, etc.

Process learning history aims to develop the individuality of the student, his personal qualities. It ensures the harmonious implementation of all its functions (development, training, education). The concept of nurturing education contains the concept of education, which lays the foundations for independent thinking of students. The unity of education, upbringing, development is achieved only if the work of the students themselves is activated at all stages of the learning process. Education has an educative character also in connection with the formation of value orientations and beliefs of students on the basis of personal understanding of the experience of history, perception of the ideas of humanism, respect for human rights and democratic values, patriotism and mutual understanding between peoples. The correct solution of the educational and upbringing tasks of the school teaching of history is impossible without taking into account the psychological and age characteristics of students at various concentrations.

Thus, the younger schoolchild strives to accumulate historical knowledge, asks the teacher a lot. He is interested in the details of the clothes of knights, valor and courage in campaigns, they immediately start gladiator fights or knightly tournaments during breaks. A high school student strives not so much for the accumulation of historical facts as for their comprehension and generalization; he strives to establish logical connections between historical facts, to reveal patterns, to theoretical generalizations. In the upper grades, the proportion of knowledge that students receive on their own is growing. This is due to the further development of logical thinking. At this age, there is a growing interest in those elements of knowledge that relate to issues of politics, morality, and art. There is a differentiation of interests of schoolchildren: some are interested in exact disciplines, others - in the humanities. Various types of educational institutions: gymnasiums, lyceums, colleges, general education schools - realize this interest. At the same time, one must be able to attract cognitively valuable material, maintaining and developing the interest of schoolchildren.

The methodology equips history teachers with content and pedagogical teaching aids, knowledge and skills, necessary means for effective historical education, upbringing and development of students.

a) what goals (intended results) should and can be set before teaching history?;

b) what to teach? (course structure and material selection);

c) what learning activities do schoolchildren need?;

d) what types of teaching aids and what their methodological construction contributes to the achievement of optimal learning outcomes?;

e) how to teach?;

f) how to take into account the result of training and use the information received to improve it?;

g) what intercourse and interdisciplinary connections are established in training?

History as an academic subject is based on historical science, but this is not a reduced model of it. History as a school subject does not include absolutely all sections of historical science.

Cognitive activity will be inferior if the teaching of history does not correspond to the modern level of historical science and its methodology.

The methodology is designed to highlight and designate, rework, synthesize the entire body of knowledge about the process of cognition and education and discover new patterns - the patterns of teaching history. These are objective, essential, stable connections between tasks, content, ways, means of training, education and development, on the one hand, and learning outcomes, on the other.

The methodology is faced with the task of studying the regularities of the process of teaching history with the aim of its further improvement and increase in its effectiveness.

CHAPTER2 HISTORICALEDUCATIONINRUSSIANFEDERATIONON THEMODERNSTAGE

State And perspectives development systems general middle education. Reform historical education.

Russian society today is going through a period of profound structural, including socio-cultural, changes. All these processes cannot but affect the sphere of education and upbringing. Education and society are inseparable. This is one system, therefore any problems faced by society, society, civilization as a whole inevitably affect the state of the education sector. At the same time, it is the sphere of education that is capable of exerting a significant influence on the development of certain trends in society. Hence the need for the priority development of education for Russia and Russian society, for each person. It is quite natural that when discussing the strategic issues of education, it is necessary to take into account the totality of problems, including socio-economic ones. Entering the new millennium, education requires extraordinary ideas and bold, fundamentally new approaches.

Any reforms and transformations can only be successful if they are supported by a clear program of implementation. The most important documents on reforming education, adopted at the highest state level, are no exception.

The fundamental document that determines the policy in the field of education is the Law of the Russian Federation "On Education". The law focuses all parts of education (training and upbringing) not only on meeting the changing needs of society and the state, but above all on meeting the educational needs of the individual. With all the differences, flexibility, dynamism and variability of organizational forms of obtaining education of one level or another, both in state and alternative (non-state, private) educational institutions, it is the state that sets the educational standard. The standard must be provided by the educational institution and achieved by the individual in order to receive the appropriate document on education.

The most important direction in the development of education in Russia is the preservation of the unity of the federal cultural and educational space. This problem, which requires further development, has so far only been declared and is based on the invariant part of the Basic Curriculum.

The success of reforms in society largely depends on the educational policy, its consistency, consistency and effectiveness. Overcoming the crisis processes of the formation of a new democratic state largely depends on the effectiveness of the educational process in Russian schools. An important place in this process is occupied by the strategy of developing the historical education of schoolchildren as a factor influencing the mentality of young Russian citizens.

Serious changes are taking place in the education system, the meaning and significance of which are determined by the search for new educational paradigms that correspond to new trends in the development of society.

In the late 80s - early 90s. education entered a period of crisis, which was of a systemic nature. In 1991-1992 it became obvious that the state had lost control over professional pedagogical activity; the prestige of the teaching profession and science decreased, personnel began to leave the sphere; the new textbooks were eclectic; higher educational institutions separated from schools, the continuity of education lost its significance.

At the same time, it must be emphasized that the Law of the Russian Federation “On Education” (1992) marked the beginning of overcoming the chaos in the field of education, when the old normative acts were not implemented, and there were no new ones. This Law played a positive role in building a new education system. It legally fixed the mandatory state minimum of the content of education in the form of temporary state standards, variability, the right to independent pedagogical creativity of teaching teams and teachers, which is reflected in the Basic Curriculum of the Russian Federation.

New types and types of educational institutions have appeared and are successfully developing - colleges, gymnasiums, lyceums, innovative and author's schools, schools-complexes, correctional classes and comprehensive municipal schools.

The process of reforming the education system is based on the principle of the priority of the individual, and the means to achieve this goal have become the humanization, humanitarization and differentiation of educational policy in general and educational systems created in specific educational institutions. The transfer of the center of gravity in the education system to human problems, the focus of education on mastering the achievements of domestic and world culture, the spiritual experience of mankind, on the perception of a holistic picture of the world and the formation of systemic thinking among students - these are the practical guidelines for the education reform.

School reform is not over. It continues in connection with the transition to a twelve-year education. Analyzing the situation in the education system today, it is easy to find that the vast majority of our children study at a ten-year school, and not at an eleven-year school. The burden on children is enormous. We can say that we have the most cruel school in the world. The content of basic school education (from grades 5 to 9) shows that the level of education of Russian schoolchildren is comparable to the quality of education in all highly developed countries of the world, which achieve it over a much longer period of study. One more year must be added to the compulsory nine-year school. Today, there are problems with the employment of fifteen-year-olds, which makes it difficult for them to make a real choice of a life path. The school is also a social institution. Graduates must leave the school at least 18 years of age. The main school must be territorially separated from the senior (secondary) school. The enumeration of the problems of further reforming the system of secondary education can be continued. Here are just some of the issues that are under search for their resolution.

Prospects for the development of school education are associated with the desire of many teachers to go beyond the traditional subject educational system based on the ideas of Ya.A. Comenius.

Currently, the process of self-reorganization of the mass school into new educational institutions is underway. True, it should be noted that the unresolved fundamental issues of the philosophy and methodology of education make it difficult to achieve tangible positive results in schools.

The process of reforming the education system is largely determined by the acceptance by the pedagogical community of the goals and priorities of educational policy, including the policy of historical education. We can fully agree that the preservation, development and enrichment of national values and traditions of education and upbringing are relevant for the reform of the school with a focus on strengthening its originality and originality on the basis of the unity of national and universal ideals of pedagogy [see. 24].

It seems to us that one of the main theoretical and practical problems in building a modern system of historical education is the search for an optimal balance between liberal and national values. Their clash today leads to a split in society. It is necessary to formulate national priorities and values of historical education and public education. It is necessary to educate Russian citizens who have realized their role and place in the country and in the modern world.

An important link in the education reform was the question of what educational priorities most fully correspond to the long-term interests of Russian society and the state. One of the central places in the school reform was occupied by the issue of preserving history as a subject. History as a subject is unique; it cannot be replaced by any other discipline. What is the special importance of history at the present stage, which determines its value?

First of all, this discipline influences the formation of a system of thinking, it enables a person to move freely in the historical space, equips him with knowledge of historical experience, which ultimately allows a correct assessment of modern political and social processes.

In addition, historical knowledge contributes to the formation of a person's own point of view, his independent assessments, but at the same time they teach to value and respect the opinions of others.

History is in many ways the basis for teaching other disciplines (social science, state and law), creating a basis for understanding and implementing such fundamental principles of life as human rights and democracy.

Historical disciplines bring up such important qualities for life in modern society as the breadth of thinking and worldview, tolerance, civic courage, and creative imagination.

As a result, historical knowledge prepares young people for independent life in the modern world full of contradictions, creates favorable conditions for mutual understanding between people representing different cultural, ethnic, linguistic and religious traditions, helps a person to realize himself not only as a representative of a certain country and region, but also as a citizen of Europe. and peace.

Cardinal changes in the late 1980s - early 1990s. put historians before the need for a serious revision of long-established historical ideas. And this extended to the teaching of the subject.

In Russia, at that time, the so-called transitional period began, which entailed a complete revision of approaches to teaching history. This revision is associated not only with a change in the interpretation of certain facts, but also with the deep process of restoring the full context of the historical narrative without ideological distortions and cuts, which, ultimately, is an integral part of the overall extremely painful process that has engulfed the entire society, the process of changing values. .

The complexity of the situation associated with the teaching of history in secondary schools was aggravated by the fact that a radical revision of historical categories was taking place at all levels simultaneously - in secondary and higher schools, as well as in academic science.

Reforming the system of teaching history in secondary schools was supposed to respond to these ongoing changes in Russia.

History education today is one of the most complex and controversial elements of the federal education system. In the process of its reform, the following stages can be conditionally identified, which coincide with the reform of the school.

First stage (1988-1992) is characterized by the processes of disintegration of the former system of historical education that existed in the USSR and the search for approaches to building a new system in the Russian Federation. The border of the stage can be conditionally considered the adoption in the summer of 1992 of the Law of the Russian Federation "On Education".

Second stage (1992-1996). Qualitative changes at this stage are associated with amendments to the Law of the Russian Federation "On Education", the development of standards for historical education, the transition to a concentric education system, and the adoption of the idea of variable education.

In order to implement the strategy for the development of historical and social science education, the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation prepared and sent to the regions a number of information and methodological letters:

1) "On the transition to a new structure of historical and social science education" dated 11.05.93,

2) “On the structure of historical and social science education for 1993/94 and 1994/95 academic years. G." dated 07/05/93,

3) “On the teaching of courses in history and social science in general educational institutions of the Russian Federation in 1994 / 95 account. G." dated 21.06.94

The status and ways of improving historical and social science education were reviewed by the Board of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation (see Appendix). The fundamental provisions and conclusions regarding the strategy for the development of historical and social science education, formulated in the decision of the collegium of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, were supplemented and specified in the order of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation “On the study of the Constitution of the Russian Federation in educational institutions” dated 09.12.94 No. 479 and in letters from the Ministry of Education RF "On civic education and the study of the Constitution of the Russian Federation" dated 06.02.95, "On improving the legal culture and education of students in the field of electoral law and the electoral process" dated 07.04.95 and "On civil law education of students in general education institutions of the Russian Federation” dated March 19, 1996. The listed documents laid the foundation for the implementation of the strategy for the development of historical and social science education.

The third stage (from 1996 to the present) is characterized by a further search for a model of the standard of history education, the adoption of a concentric structure of history education and the involvement of teachers in various mechanisms of international cooperation in the field of history education (Soros Foundation, programs initiated by the Council of Europe, cooperation with the European Association of History Teachers "Euroclio").

Thus, a paradigm shift took place in the system of Russian historical education. Historical education has become student-centered, pluralistic and diverse.

Most teachers are aware that the traditions of Russian historical education are so deep and culturally valuable in themselves that without taking them into account it is impossible to create a modern and at the same time nationally oriented (not ethnically) system of school history education. It is necessary to search for the optimal balance between traditions, continuity and innovations in building a modern system.

Building an effective modern system of historical education involves determining the optimal balance between the history of the general, national, regional and local (local).

For the Kaliningrad region, this is of particular importance. The peculiarities of the historical development of the region, its geopolitical position, the strengthening of its role as a subject of the federation make it possible to include the history of the region in the system of historical education. Local history helps to establish and maintain a living connection between times, generations, their continuity in their native village, city, region. The regional component of state educational standards is implemented by the teaching staff of schools in Kaliningrad and the region.

CHAPTER3 STRUCTURESCHOOLHISTORICALEDUCATION

Linear structure. concentric structure.

The Law of the Russian Federation "On Education", the decision of the Collegium of the Ministry of Education of December 28, 1994 No. 24/1 "On the Strategy for the Development of Historical and Social Science Education in General Educational Institutions" substantiate the need to form a new structure and content of historical education, which ensure the formation of a holistic and complete knowledge systems at all stages of schoolchildren's education (in primary, basic, complete secondary school). In fact, we are talking about creating a system of propaedeutic knowledge about man and society, the history of Russia and the world in elementary school. In the basic and complete secondary schools (grades 5-9 and 10-11) a concentric system of studying subjects of the educational field "Social disciplines" has been introduced. During the transition period, the problem of the structure of historical education became more acute due to the unpreparedness of the teacher to work in the new conditions. Under the structure understand the order, the sequence of teaching courses of world and national history.

Let's look at the background of the issue. Linear and concentric structures of historical education have been developed in the methodology. Different construction principles have their advantages and disadvantages.

In the Soviet school, the linear principle of building school history education prevailed. This principle underlay the school history course for 43 years. For 25 years, history was taught at school on the basis of the Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR and the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of May 15, 1934. Since 1959, attempts were made to switch to a concentric structure of education. However, on May 14, 1965, the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted the Decree "On changing the order of teaching history in schools", as a result of which the linear structure of history education dominated for another 18 years. The transition to the linear principle of teaching history in secondary school in the mid-1960s was, of course, not a simple return to historical education in the 1930s-1950s. It was a qualitatively different period in the development of the Soviet educational system. Its improvement continued, the last version was developed in 1984 and lasted until 1993. It looked like this (Table 1).

Table 1 - The structure of school history education

	historical course	Number of hours per week
	Episodic stories on the history of the USSR
	Ancient world history
	History of the Middle Ages (until the middle of the 18th century)
	History of the USSR from ancient times to the end of the 18th century
	New history (1640-1870). History of the USSR (XIX century)
	New history (1870-1918). History of the USSR (from the beginning of the 20th century to 1936). Recent history of foreign countries (1917-1939)
	History of the USSR (from 1936 to the present). Recent history of foreign countries (from 1939 to the present)

The linear structure, as we see, involves the study of successive stages in the history of mankind from ancient times throughout the entire school course - each stage once. This structure has existed for a long time, as it has a number of positive aspects. The advantages of linear construction are that it corresponds to the structure of historical science. Psychological and pedagogical considerations do not play a leading role in substantiating this principle. The arrangement of the material is natural; students graduating from high school get a complete picture of the historical development of mankind. While saving time, the linear principle avoids repetition. Learning new material keeps students interested in the subject. This structure allows you to adhere to the requirements of consistency, historicism, systematic, accessibility. It makes it possible to form concepts, identify causal relationships, vividly and vividly present historical facts, and make changes to the content of historical education. The general content of educational historical material is easy to correct. In the Soviet school, the volume of historical facts and concepts was repeatedly revised, the time for studying the early periods of history was reduced for the sake of an in-depth study of the latest facts.

However, this structure also has serious drawbacks. First of all, the history of the ancient world and the Middle Ages, which were studied in the lower grades, are learned at an elementary level. Attempts to fill this gap led to an overload of the child. There is no possibility to return to these periods at a higher theoretical level. With a linear structure, training stretches for 6-7 years and is extensive. Synchronization of domestic and foreign history was often disrupted, schoolchildren did not develop a holistic view of the past. The construction of courses was based on the formational approach, the periodization of school courses was not always of a scientific nature. So, in the 8th grade, the history of the USSR was studied from ancient times to the end of the 18th century, in the 10th grade, 1917 and 1936 were milestones that determined the beginning of the study of modern history, the year 1936 ended the course of the history of the USSR. Throughout the USSR there was a single curriculum, a program that determined the content of teaching history. Often, national, regional and historical features of individual republics and regions were not taken into account. It should be noted that the last remarks are not directly related to the principles of the linear structure of education. But they played their role in the decision to move to a concentric structure.

The transition to a concentric structure of school history education in the mid-1990s. perceived as new. However, at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, methodological thought saw the merits of the concentric construction of historical education. So, at the beginning of the 20th century, an accessible propaedeutic course of Russian history was introduced in the first and second grades of gymnasiums, and in 1913 the same course of ancient history was introduced in the second grade.

To a large extent, the influence of the ideas of concentrism explains the introduction in the pre-revolutionary school of a propaedeutic history course in city schools and the first two classes of gymnasiums (a course in national history). At the beginning of the 20th century, historical education was established in gymnasiums in two concentrations, and in 1913-1915. rebuilt into three steps in Russian history and two - in general history.

In connection with the introduction of universal eight-year education in the USSR in 1959, the teaching of history was restructured on the basis of the principle of concentrism. Students, graduating from an eight-year school, had to have an idea about the history of their country and foreign countries from ancient times to the present. The program provided for the study of elementary courses in the history of the ancient world and the Middle Ages in grades 5-6; in grades 7-8 - an elementary course in the history of the USSR with the most important information from modern and recent history, as well as the Constitution of the USSR; in senior grades 9-11 - systematic courses in the history of the USSR, modern and recent history; in the final class - social studies. This structure eliminated the main shortcomings of the previous linear construction. The overload of students has disappeared, the possibility of a wider use of active methods and the organization of independent work of students has opened up. At the same time, a sufficiently thoughtful selection of the content and appropriate methods of presenting the program material in each of the concentres was not carried out. The history of the USSR in the 19th and 20th centuries, modern and recent history were presented in textbooks for senior classes more specifically than in the 8th grade. Both stages were unacceptably close, which created certain difficulties in learning. Systematic courses, even under the condition of a three-year term (grades 9-11), turned out to be heavily overloaded with factual material. The whole course of study was marked by haste and superficial study. As a result, on May 14, 1965, a resolution “On changing the order of teaching history in schools” was adopted. As already mentioned, we returned mainly to a linear structure.

The last attempt to move to a concentric structure of historical education was made in 1993 and differs significantly from the previous ones.

Consider the advantages of teaching, which is based on the concentric principle of building a school history course. The concentric structure suggests a return to the material being studied. The same question is considered several times in different classes, and its content is gradually expanded, enriched with new information, connections and dependencies. At the first stages of training, elementary ideas are given, which, as knowledge is accumulated and cognitive abilities grow, deepen and expand. In this case, a propaedeutic course (preliminary) is introduced into the teaching of history. The principle of concentrism is widespread in foreign schools and schools in post-Soviet states (Lithuania, Latvia, etc.). Such a structure makes it possible to study the history of mankind with the same depth. The use of concentrism has a number of advantages if, firstly, the volume, specificity of the content and form of presentation of historical material in each of the concentres is correctly determined in accordance with age characteristics. The content for the basic school is not a reduced copy of the systematic course of the secondary school. Each concentration has its own specific material selection. Secondly, there is a gap in time between the relevant sections (3-4 years), it is not advisable to introduce more than two concentres (except for propaedeutics). Thirdly, there are textbooks and even educational and methodological complexes that take into account the peculiarities of teaching history.

The modern school is based on the principle of concentrism. The main reason for the transition to the new structure was the Law of the Russian Federation "On Education", according to which compulsory basic (nine-year) education is introduced. In recent years, the following version of the concentric structure of school history education has been developed.

Such a structure allows, in addition to the listed advantages of the concentric structure, firstly, to intensify the process of studying history; secondly, to more clearly synchronize the courses of national and general history, as well as to create a single integrated course "Russia and the world"; thirdly, to take into account the possibility in the second concentre to systematize and generalize all historical material on the basis of formational, civilizational, cultural and other approaches; from the event-chronological principle of studying the past to the problematic, interdisciplinary, thematic; actively use various methods of historical research in working with authentic texts. Fourth, it becomes possible to introduce profile and modular education in the second center, focused on the interests and career guidance of students in grades 10-11.

The structure of historical knowledge reflects the specifics of history as a science and a subject of study. Just as in the life of society all phenomena are in development and interconnected, so historical knowledge must be dynamic and interconnected. Each of the structural elements occupies a special place in the knowledge system, performs a special function in its formation and development. The basis of the historical knowledge of schoolchildren is facts that make it possible to reveal significant connections and relationships between them: continuity, cause-and-effect relationships, their comprehension in the historical process - according to the age of the students.

Thus, the object of studying history is the past of people and mankind in their natural and social development (man - nature - society). The main system characteristics of the object are historical time, historical space, historical movement.

The named object can be represented at different levels: the history of a person, the history of social groups and societies; world history; history of civilizations and states; ethno-national history; regional history; edge history. The main content dominants of the school course are the history of the Fatherland and general history.

CHAPTER4 CONTENTSCHOOLHISTORICALEDUCATION

General approaches in formation historical content. historical propaedeutics. Characteristic content first concentration. Content subject in second concentration.

In accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation "On Education", educational standards in history are being introduced in our country. The education standard is a federal regulatory document that necessarily determines the minimum content of educational programs and requirements for the level of training of students. The educational standard is designed to provide students with equal opportunities to receive historical education, stimulate higher results and, on this basis, individualize learning. At present, the compulsory minimums for the education of elementary and basic schools have been approved. The core curriculum, the required minimum education and the exemplary curricula form the content of the subject.

The school history course is designed to solve a triune task: to provide an integral system of knowledge, ensuring their depth and strength; ensure the formation of a scientific understanding of history and a respectful attitude towards both domestic history and the history of foreign countries and peoples; to develop the historical thinking of schoolchildren and teach students to independently acquire and apply knowledge. At the same time, the historical thinking of schoolchildren is considered in organic unity with the general development of their thinking. I would especially like to emphasize that historical education should help each person to master three circles of values: ethno-cultural, national (Russian) and universal (planetary).

When designing the content of school history education, it is necessary to ensure a balance of political, cultural, ethno-national and other values with the dominance of national (state) values. The modern concept of history education preserves the systematic study of history. History cannot be replaced by any set of anthropology or social studies courses. This academic discipline is the core of the humanities courses in basic and complete secondary schools.

The main content lines of school history education include historical time, historical space, and historical movement. Historical time is characterized not only by the counting of years and the periodization of events and processes (year, century, millennium, epoch), but also by the cyclicity in history, the synchronicity and asynchrony of historical movement. The historical space contains maps of local historical civilizations, the dynamics of geographical, environmental, ethnic factors in the development of man and society, changes in the geopolitical map of one's country and the world. The historical movement gives an understanding of human development in different historical eras (needs, interests, motives for action, perception of the world, values, living conditions and life of a person); the evolution of human labor activity, the history of human communities in different eras; the processes of formation and development of states, their historical forms, the main milestones in the political history of countries and peoples of the world; the history of man's knowledge of the world around him, the development of ideology (religious and secular teachings), social thought, and scientific ideas; the history of the culture of the peoples of the world, the history of relations between peoples, societies and civilizations (neighborhood, continuity, conquests, etc.).

In accordance with these lines, the content of a complete subject cycle is formed, which is a presentation of history from antiquity to the present day. There are different levels of representation of history - world history, history of states and peoples, national history and regional history.

The curriculum is a mandatory document for the school. It indicates the subjects to be studied, the sequence of their distribution by year of study, the number of study hours allocated per year, quarter, week. Based on the state standard, programs and textbooks are developed that present the material of history in a chronological sequence of events, phenomena, processes. Curricula contain an explanatory note on the goals of studying history and the basic requirements, show the amount of knowledge, a list of skills that are to be mastered. They consistently present the subjects of the subject, indicate the main factual material, the main theoretical provisions, skills and abilities that students develop in the learning process, and indicate the recommended literature. The history curriculum for elementary and secondary schools defines the content of history teaching.

In connection with the deepening of the processes of differentiation of education, various (alternative) versions of curricula are being developed. In any educational institution today, several variants of history programs can be used simultaneously, which are offered for learning by students in accordance with their interests and abilities. The decision to introduce differentiated programs and create classes with in-depth or, conversely, facilitated study of the subject is made by school councils.

Methods of teaching history in secondary school. Mikhail Studenikin Methods of teaching history in the Russian school of the 19th - early 20th centuries

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