Dictionary of dialect and obsolete words for schoolchildren. Dialectisms: what they are and how many types there are. Examples of dialectisms from different regions of Russia

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A dialectical relationship also exists between working conditions in general and the outcome of work activity, its results, which is especially important for psychology. Working conditions as defined affect labor activity and its result; numerous results of labor become working conditions.

The differences in dialectical relationships, from Baxter’s point of view, are determined by the context of socio-cultural attitudes, the relationship between the private and the public, the ideal and reality, values ​​and actions, the correspondence of the understanding of one’s self and the other to the meanings attributed by communicants to these parameters.

Identity and difference are a dialectical relation already in differential calculus, where dx is infinitely small, but nevertheless effective and produces everything.

Identity and difference are a dialectical relationship already in differential calculus, where Ax is infinitely small, but nevertheless effective and produces everything.

Identity and difference are a dialectical relation already in differential calculus, where dx is infinitely small, but nevertheless effective and produces everything.

Only with such a dialectical attitude towards this technique can it provide equally reliable results when studying heterogeneous oil objects and continue to improve as new structural information is accumulated, systematized and used to clarify the introduced assumptions.

In addition, it should be taken into account that there is a dialectical relationship between actual and fixed individual conditions. Current individual conditions can turn into fixed prerequisites for achievements that influence the emergence and nature of the impact of current individual conditions.

Teaching and learning are didactic processes that are associated with activities, actions of the main characters learning process, teaching and learning, teachers and students. In other words, the concepts of teaching and learning characterize the main types of activities of persons directly involved in the learning process. To understand the dialectical relationship between both sides of the learning process, we must first define each of these sides more precisely.

As you can see, redundancy (R) is the reciprocal of information and its value. But the relevance of information - its novelty is closely related to redundancy. The value of a banal message is minimal, but its clarity is absolute. Thus, a dialectical relationship arises between two extremes: absolute banality and originality of the message.

Labor methods become useful because the tasks that arise in the labor process are not unique and do not require a new method of solution every time. And in changing conditions, constant methods of action arise in tasks that are very economical. Moreover, relatively constant components of the task can be ordered under changing conditions. It should also be taken into account that not every task is special and different from other tasks, and the method of work indicates that many tasks have more general requirements. Thus, labor methods provide a solution to a class of problems. It is precisely this dialectical relationship of stability and variability, as well as the relationship of the special and the general between requirements, that corresponds to the labor method.

Glasser and Stroe in 1967 tried to put forward the so-called basic theory. Gouldner in 1970 called on sociologists to develop a reflexive sociology, emphasizing that it should be a moral sociology. Robert Friedrich, considering in 1972 the idea of ​​the need to take into account the dialectical relationship of object and subject in sociological observation, believed that dialectical sociology should become dominant in sociology in the near future.

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The lexical composition of the Russian language is diverse and very interesting. It contains many original words known only to a narrow circle of people. In lexicology they are called limited in use and are classified into special groups. These include professional, obsolete and dialect words.

The latter can most often be heard in rural areas. They exist mainly in the living colloquial speech and usually reflect the realities existing there. Moreover, to name the same object, residents can equally use different variants: and “local”, commonly used.

Dialectal word - what is it?

“A fawn is grazing behind the house.” Not many people who hear this phrase will understand what it means. we're talking about. This is understandable. A foal is sometimes called a foal in a Russian village.

Dialecticisms are words that are actively used by residents of a certain area and are not included in any of the lexical groups of the literary language. Their distribution may be limited to a few settlements or an entire region.

Interest in the “local” word in Russia arose back in the 18th century. Since then, leading linguists and linguists, including V. Dal, A. Potebnya, A. Shakhmatov, S. Vygotsky and others, have done a lot of work in this direction. They looked at various variations and examples of the use of the word dialect. In literature, both domestic and foreign, this word today intersects with such concepts as linguistic geography (features of vocabulary in different territories), social dialectology (age, profession, social status of speakers of local dialects are taken into account).

Groups of dialects in Russian

There are several variants of dialects in Russia. The main principle of combining dialect words into groups is territorial. In accordance with it, the southern and northern dialects are distinguished, which, in turn, include several dialects. Between them are Central Russian dialects, which became the basis for their formation and therefore are closest to the literary norm.

Each group has its own dialect words. Examples of their relationships (including commonly used ones): house - hut (north) - hut (southern); talk - beat (northern) - gutar (south).

Formation of dialect words

Each dialect, as a rule, has its own distinctive features. In addition, in science it is customary to distinguish several groups, which include dialect words with different methods of formation (examples are given in comparison with the norm).

1. Actually lexical. They either have no connection at all with words in the literary language (for example, a squirrel in the Pskov region is veksha, a basket in the Voronezh region is sapetka), or they are formed from an existing root and retain its basic meaning (in the Smolensk region: to bathe means to take a steam bath).
2. Lexico-word formation. They differ from commonly used words only in one affix: poor fellow - in trouble on the Don, talkative - talkative in Ryazan, etc.
3. Phonemic. The difference from the existing literary norm lies in one phoneme (sound): andyuk instead of turkey, pahmurny - i.e. cloudy.
4. Osemantic. They are completely identical to commonly used words in sound, spelling and form, but differ in lexical meaning: begovoy in the Smolensk region - agile, noodles in the Ryazan region - the name of chickenpox.

Detailing life through dialect words

Many territories have their own peculiarities of life, customs, and relationships between people, which most often find expression in speech. Recreate full picture Life in such cases is possible precisely through dialect words. highlighting individual details in the general structure of everyday life:

• methods of laying sheaves of hay or straw ( common name- baburka) in the Pskov region: soyanka - small laying, odonok - large;
• the name of a foal in the Yaroslavl area: up to 1 year - sucker, from 1 to 2 years - strigun, from 2 to 3 years - duck.

Designation of ethnographic or geographical features

Another option is when dialects and their meaning always arouse interest among “outsiders”) help to understand the very structure of life. So, in the north it is customary to build a house and all outbuildings under one roof. From here a large number of“local” words denoting different parts of one building: bridge - canopy and porch, hut - living room, ceiling - attic, tower - living room in the attic, povet - hayloft, zhirka - a place in a barn for livestock.

In the Meshchersky region, the main economic sector is forestry. A large group of names is associated with it, which is formed by dialect words. Examples of words: sawdust - sawdust, pine needles - pine needle, cleared places in the forest - cutting, a person engaged in uprooting stumps - stump.

The use of dialect words in fiction

Writers, working on a work, use all available means to recreate the appropriate atmosphere and reveal the images of the characters. Dialect words play an important role in this. Examples of their use can be found in the works of A. Pushkin, I. Turgenev, S. Yesenin, M. Sholokhov, V. Rasputin, V. Astafiev, M. Prishvin and many others. More often, writers whose childhood spent in the village turn to dialect words. As a rule, the authors themselves provide footnotes containing the interpretation of words and where they are used.

The function of dialectisms in a work of art can be different. But in any case, they give the text uniqueness and help realize the author’s idea.

For example, S. Yesenin is a poet for whom the main means of recreating rural life are Ryazan dialect words. Examples of their use: “in an old-fashioned shabby shushun” - a type of women’s clothing, “there is kvass at the doorstep” - for dough.

V. Korolenko uses local words when creating landscape sketch: “I look... at the padi” - gorges. Or from I. Turgenev: “the last... squares (large thickets of bushes) will disappear.”

For so-called “village” writers, one of the ways to create a literary image is the hero’s speech, which includes dialect words. Examples: “God (God) helped (helped) you” from V. Astafiev, “they (they) ... will spoil (destroy) the earth” - from V. Rasputin.

The meaning of dialect words can be found in the dictionary: in the explanatory one they will be marked obl. - regional or dial. - dialectal. The largest special dictionary is the “Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects”.

The entry of dialectisms into the literary language

Sometimes it turns out that a word that was once used only by a certain group of people becomes common. This is a long process, especially in the case of “local” words, but it also occurs in our time.

Thus, few people would think that the fairly well-known word “rustle” is dialectal in origin. This is indicated by I.S. Turgenev’s note in “Notes of a Hunter”: “the reeds rustled, as we say,” i.e. c The writer uses the word for the first time as onomatopoeia.

Or no less common - tyrant, which during the time of A. Ostrovsky was a dialect in the Pskov and Tver provinces. Thanks to the playwright, it found a second birth and today no one raises any questions.

These are not isolated examples. Previously, eagle owl, tues, and ukhvat resembled dialect words.

The fate of dialect words in our time

Due to the increase in last years migration processes within the country, the dialects are now spoken mainly by the older generation. The reason is simple - their language was formed in those conditions when the integrity of the people in individuals was strong. All the more significant is the work of people who study dialect words, which today become one of the ways to study ethnographic and cultural development, the identity of the Russian people, emphasizing their individuality and uniqueness. For modern generation is a living memory of the past.

Every native speaker of the Russian language knows and uses commonly used words in their speech. These words are familiar to everyone, and determining their meaning is not difficult. Every linguist knows that a language consists of dialects. They are limited geographically. And the meaning of this or that dialectism is not always clear. From the article you will learn what words are called dialectisms and their types, and also examples of sentences from speech and literary texts with dialectisms.

Before giving an explanation of dialectism, it is necessary to say about the type of vocabulary to which these words belong. In other words, dialect vocabulary is regional words that are limited in use on a territorial basis.

Among dialectisms there are subtypes:

1. Dialect words phonetically: fresh meat (must be fresh), do (must be doing). They are distinguished by a special phonetic design.
2. Dialect words by grammatical feature: along (along). These words are distinguished by the combination of a root with an unusual or.
3. Lexical: wire rods (felt boots). They always have a synonymous word in the literary language with a different root.

All lexical dialectisms can be divided into several subgroups:

• Actually dialectal linguistic units. They have words in the literary language that are equivalent in meaning, but not the same root. Example: shulushka (broth).
• Semantic. This group consists of lexemes that have a different meaning in the literary language. For example, greedy for work (diligent, diligent).
• Ethnographic. That is, used in everyday life in a given area: razletayka (light jacket).
• Phraseologisms. These are indivisible phrases. For example: “There is intelligence, but there is not enough intelligence.”

Examples of lexical dialectisms:

Dialectisms of artistic speech

As already noted, dialect words are used as words known to a certain circle of people. For this reason, a natural question arises about how dialectisms can be used in artistic speech.

The answer to the question posed will be the works themselves. The author uses dialect words for various artistic purposes. They can emphasize the theme of the story or novel, the typical character traits and worldview of the main character, and the skill of the writer:

• Kokoshnik, kichka, paneva, amshannik, greenery, trunk, move apart, proshamshil - in the works of I. Turgenev.
• Gorenka, conik, hammanok, izvolok, gudoven - in the works of I. Nikitin
• Zaplot, oak, stance, feet, belly, battle - in the works of D. Mamin-Sibiryak.
• Povet, log, pima, vile, juice, kerzhak, urema - in the works of P. Bazhov.
• Elan - “Pantry of the Sun” M. Prishvin.
• Okoyom - from “The Meshchera Side” by K. Paustovsky.
• Yelling - from the poem “Motherland” by A. Surkov.

For example, he uses dialect words to convey the peculiarities of peasant speech. Sometimes in his texts dialectisms belong to the author’s speech. This is done in order to emphasize the aesthetics and originality of Lev Nikolaevich’s language.

Dialectisms are used to show the area of ​​their use. It is noteworthy that in Turgenev’s works all such words are provided with an interpretation. Thus, Ivan Sergeevich is trying to show that dialectisms are not part of the vocabulary of the Russian literary language.

Konstantin Paustovsky uses dialect words in his own works in order to individualize his characters. Using them, Konstantin Paustovsky achieves ethnographic authenticity and artistic persuasiveness in his works.

Modern writers also use dialect words everywhere. They do this in order to create some kind of allusion to the text. Moreover, they do not give an interpretation to such words.

In modern journalism, the use of dialect words is quite common to emphasize local features, as well as the features of the speech of the hero of the essay.

Worth remembering! Journalism should strive for careful selection linguistic means, therefore, the use of dialect words should always be justified to the maximum.

Sentences with dialect words:

• Peter cooked plum porridge over the fire.
• The frog always screams for a reason.
• Nadys I spent the night with my aunt.
• I cooked a cauldron of potatoes.
• The food is delicious and even sweeter.
• It stood on the side of the market square.
• His friends treated him like he was a fool.
• The grandmother could not cope with the grip.
• The girls sang vocal songs in the evenings.
• Lush shangi lay on a towel.
• You need to run faster so that the storm doesn’t catch you.
• The dog ran along the rubble along the road.
• Chupaha-chuapahoy.
• I'll cut the mow at once.
• The Lithuanian needs to be knocked out so that she can become sharp.
• Kochet walks around the courtyard.

Dialectisms in literature:

Dictionary of dialect words

Dialect words are a rather interesting phenomenon in the lexical system of a language. In order not to lose them, special dictionaries are created.

The collection of dialect words began in the 19th century. The composition of the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” edited by V.I. Dahl included a great variety of dialect words and phraseological units.

In the 20th century, D. Ushakov’s dictionary was published. It also contains quite a lot of dialectisms.

Afterwards, the systematization of quote cards from the works took place domestic writers and poets. As a result of this painstaking work The “Dictionary of Modern Russian Literary Language” was created.

Note! On currently Over time, there have been 13 editions of the Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects.

The ZABGU of Chita published the “Dictionary of Transbaikalia dialects” edited by V.A. Pashchenko.

Dialect words in "Quiet Don"

Perhaps the most striking in terms of the use of dialectisms is M. Sholokhov’s epic novel “”. The publishing house "Drofa" in 2003 published a dictionary of dialect words found in "Quiet Don".

Consider quotes from this work:

• They said wonderful things about him on the farm.
• What are you, clawed one?
• Evdokey, prepare a snack.
• At the imperial review.
• What kind of weapon went.
• The forehead is covered in blood.
• For their Natalya.
• It might go into the ground.
• Don't be afraid to break up.
• A catfish splashed across the water.
• It won't come to Cherkassky.
• We'll push your woman into the ground.
• Gnawing on a chicken cobarga.
• Grigory came out empty-handed.
• The sky was gray in autumn.
• I was not a sick woman.
• Tell Grishka to come today.
• She runs around during the day anyway.
• I went to visit Mokhova.
• With a cucumber, what women leave for seeds.
• Didn't Mishatka bully you?

This article talks about dialectisms. A definition of this concept is given. Examples of individual dialectisms and sentences with such words are given.

In general, speaking about dialect vocabulary, it is worth remembering that it is an adornment of living Russian speech.

Today at school course literature and history are included to study regional dialectisms. This is done in order to preserve and pass on to descendants the heritage of the language of the people.

Useful video

Let's sum it up

In conclusion, I would like to quote lines from a poem by the Transbaikal poet G.P. Zharkova:

But as before, quiet and pleasant,
Heard like a summer breeze
Distinctive from everyone else, incredible,
Transbaikal residents of our sayings.
“Soaring, hear, I sense a thunderstorm today,
Maybe we'll wait for a while for mowing now,
Let's start later. Let's spend the night
But tomorrow it will be, we’ll see.”

Preface………………………………………………………3

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..6

Chapter 1. The concept of dialect…………………………………………….8

§ 1.1 Dialects in modern Russian…………………...8

§ 1.2 Dialects and literary language (study of dialects using examples from the story “Wooden Horses” by F.A. Abramov, “Fairy Tales” by I.A. Bunin, “Peasant Children” by N.A. Nekrasov……………………10

Chapter 2. Dialectological studies…………………………….14

§ 2.1. History of turning to the dialect……………………………..14

§ 2.2. Dialectology yesterday and today……………………………...15

§ 2.3. Geography of dialects………………………………………………………18

§ 2.4. Classification of Russian dialects…………………………….23

§ 2.5. Thematic groups of dialects of the Russian language……………..26

Conclusion……………………………………………………………...33

Bibliography……………………………………………………………...34

Preface.

Modern Russian is one of the richest languages ​​in the world. Its greatness is created by a huge vocabulary, a wide ambiguity of words, a wealth of synonyms, inexhaustible possibilities of word formation, numerous word forms, peculiarities of sounds, mobility of stress, clear and harmonious syntax, and a variety of stylistic resources. It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of the Russian national language and the literary Russian language. The national language - the language of the Russian people - covers all areas speech activity people, regardless of education, upbringing, place of residence, profession; it includes dialects, special vocabulary, jargons, that is, the Russian national language is heterogeneous: it contains special varieties of language.

So let's talk about dialects. A remarkable expert on folk speech, Vladimir Ivanovich Dal, recalled a curious episode in his story “Talk”. Monks came to the author to ask for alms for the needs of their monastery. Dahl wrote: “I sat them down, started questioning them and was surprised from the first word when the young man said that he was from Vologda. I asked again: “Have you been in that region for a long time?” “For a long time, I’m still there.” “Where are you from?” “I’m a tamody,” he muttered clearly, bowing. He had just managed to utter this word - tamody, instead of local, when I looked at him with a smile and said; “Aren’t you from Yaroslavl, father?” He turned purple, then turned pale, looked, lost, at his friend and answered, confused: “No, darling!” - “Oh, and also from Rostov,” I said, laughing, recognizing in this not, my dear, a genuine (real, genuine) Rostovite.

Before I had time to utter these words, the “Vologda resident” fell at my feet - don’t kill me.

Two tramps were hiding under the monastic robes..."

As can be seen from this passage, by the peculiarities of a person’s speech, one can quite accurately determine the region, city or district where he comes from or has lived for a long time.

Here's a modern case. A journalist who was working on an article for Victory Day contacted the dialectology department of the Russian Language Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow. He had archival materials from the war: a tape recording the stories of five soldiers, natives of different places in Russia, and a list of names and addresses of these soldiers. However, the journalist did not know which story belonged to whom. Dialectologists analyzed the linguistic characteristics of each speaker and were able to determine where someone was from.

Even residents of neighboring villages sometimes differ from each other in their dialect and are clearly aware of this. Everyone's Gavorka is different: theirs is poking, ours is different - such a statement was recorded in the Smolensk region. Therefore, a proverb arose among the people: “What is the city, then it is noisy, what is the village, so is the ritual, what is the courtyard, so is the talk.”

When you come from the city, it sometimes seems that in the village they speak a different language, something like Russian: Ishsho the gray shugunok, you put it in the holes - and you have a cave. This phrase can be heard in the speech of natives of the Kursk and Oryol regions, and it means: “If you put a whole cast iron cabbage soup on the handle, it will go into the stove.” Often the most familiar words in dialects have a completely different meaning. In the Novgorod and Tver regions they say: Don't throw noise over the threshold! At the same time, the word noise (or noise) here refers to indoor litter, garbage. And here is an example from dialects near Moscow: Our ftaragodnik is very brooding (a second-year brooder is a two-year-old foal or calf, a brooder is vigorous).

The townspeople also think that in a dialect it is permissible to say anything and any way they want, that dialect is a corrupted, incorrect language. In fact, each local language is a harmonious system, the elements of which are interconnected. Violation of the laws and rules of speech hurts the ears of its speaker in the same way as mistakes in the speech of a foreigner hurt us. In the example about the cast-iron cabbage soup, each h* of the literary language in the dialect corresponds to a sh* (stove-peshka, cast-iron-shchugunok), each c* corresponds in the dialect with (whole-sely), and the long soft shch has a hard shsh (still-ishsho, cabbage soup).

Modern dialects are the result of the development of ancient Russian dialects, the history of which goes back to ancient times. And the literary Russian language itself is also a “descendant” of dialects: it is based on the dialects of Moscow and the villages surrounding it.

Relevance of this work is to show the preservation of dialects in the Russian language, despite the various factors influencing our speech.

Novelty of the work is to show various areas use of dialects of the Russian language.

primary goal course work - characterize the dialects of the Russian language.

To achieve this goal, the work needs to solve a number of relevant tasks:

· Consider the concept of dialect;

· Analyze the structure of dialects of the Russian language;

· Identify the reasons for the emergence of dialects of the Russian language, trace the dynamics of their development.

Object of work are various Russian dialects, without limiting the territories of people's settlement.

Introduction.

Range of working terms. Limits of derivation.

To explain the main terms of this work, we use the “Modern Dictionary of the Russian Language”, 2007, in which we take the following derivations:

Dialect or dialect - (from the Greek dialektos - dialect, adverb), variety of this language, used as a means of communication by persons connected by a close territorial, professional or social community.

An adverb is the largest unit of dialect division, determined by linguistic, cultural and historical characteristics of the delimitation of dialects.

Dialectism is linguistic (phonetic, grammatical, etc.) features inherent in dialectal speech, interspersed into the literary language. Sometimes used as stylistic device in works of art.

Dialectology - (from dialect and logos - word, teaching), a branch of linguistics that studies history and current state dialects (adverbs) and dialects of a particular language.

Descriptive dialectology is a science that studies modern dialects of the second half of the 20th century.

Historical dialectology is a science that studies the history of the development of dialects, as well as individual linguistic features.

Linguistic geography is a branch of linguistics that studies the territorial distribution of linguistic phenomena.

Ethnography - (from the Greek ethnos - tribe, people; also ethnology), the science of ethnic groups (peoples), studying their origin and settlement, life and culture.

Isogloss - (from iso... and Greek glossa - language, speech), a line on a dialectological map showing the boundaries of the territorial distribution of a particular linguistic phenomenon.

Legend - maps, a set of symbols and explanations for the map.

Area - (from Latin area - area, space), the area of ​​distribution on the earth's surface of any phenomena, certain species (genera, families, etc.) of animals and plants, minerals, etc.

Chapter 1. The concept of dialect.

§ 1.1. Dialects in modern Russian.

A dialect is a language system that serves as a means of communication for a small territorially closed group of people, usually residents of one or several rural settlements. In this meaning, the term “dialect” is synonymous with the Russian term “dialect”. A dialect is also called a set of dialects united by common linguistic features. The continuity of the territory of distribution as a condition for the unification of dialects into a dialect is not recognized by all researchers.

It is customary to distinguish between territorial dialects - varieties of language used in a certain territory as a means of communication by the local population - and social dialects - varieties of language spoken by certain social groups of the population.

A dialect can differ from a standard language at all levels of the language system: phonetic, morphological, lexical and syntactic. So, for example, some northern dialects of the Russian language are characterized by a rounded pronunciation, replacing the sound “Ch” with “C” (“tsai” instead of “chai”, “tserny” instead of “black”, etc.). Another feature of some northern dialects is the coincidence of the endings of the instrumental and dative cases of the plural of nouns. For example: “work with your hands” instead of the all-Russian “work with your hands.” But, of course, the biggest differences are in the area of ​​vocabulary. So, in Northern Russian dialects, instead of the all-Russian “good” they say “baskoy”, instead of “neighbor” they say “shaber”; in Siberian villages, gooseberries are called “argus”, hut - the word “buda”, and instead of the common Russian “branch” they say “gilka”.

Dialectal differences in the Russian language as a whole are very small. A Siberian easily understands a Ryazan, and a resident of Stavropol understands a Northern Russian. But in countries such as Germany or China, the differences between individual dialects can be even greater than the difference between Russian and Polish. Since in such countries communication between people speaking different dialects is very difficult or even impossible, the role of a national literary language in them increases sharply. Literary language here serves as a factor that unites the entire population of the country into one people. On the other hand, there are languages ​​in which there is no dialect division at all. An important difference between dialects and literary languages ​​is the absence of an independent form of writing in dialects (exceptions are few).

The relationship between dialects and literary language in modern European countries is largely similar. For dialect speakers - residents of rural areas - it is typical to have (at least partial) knowledge of a literary language and treat it as a prestigious language (official, written, cultural language). The prestige of a dialect is limited to the territory of its distribution.

There are cases when a dialect, as a result of the formation of its own literary norm, became a separate independent language.

It can be considered that the function of the “language of literature” in relation to dialects is performed by the language of folklore; Moreover, the language of folklore works often does not coincide with the dialect of the environment in which these works exist. An important difference between dialects and literary languages ​​is the absence of an independent form of writing in dialects (exceptions are few).

The functions of a more or less pure dialect are steadily decreasing, and now the most typical areas of its use are the family and various situations of relaxed communication between fellow villagers. In all other communicative situations, mixed forms of dialect speech can be observed. As a result of the erasure of dialect features under the influence of the literary language, so-called semi-dialects are formed

Residents' speech modern village, firstly, it is socially stratified and, secondly, it has a situational conditionality; in other words, it is distinguished by properties that are traditionally considered specific to the literary language. The social and situational heterogeneity of the modern territorial dialect is a consequence of the changes occurring in it, taking place under the powerful influence of the literary language. One of the obvious features of the modern linguistic situation in Russia is the intensification of the use of elements of urban vernacular in unusual, previously uncharacteristic spheres of communication - in the media, in official speech, in journalism, in the author's narration of literary texts. Many linguists think so, and one cannot but agree with this.

§ 1.2. Dialects and literary language (study of dialects using examples from the story “Wooden Horses” by F.A. Abramov, “Fairy Tales” by I.A. Bunin, “Peasant Children” by N.A. Nekrasov.

Literary language (standard) is a standardized language that has rules that all members of society are required to observe. Dialect (dialect) is the smallest territorial variety of language, spoken by residents of several regions. A combination of dialects is called an adverb.

A respectful attitude towards the literary language is understandable and justified: thereby its cultural value and social significance are realized. And the reasons for the disdainful attitude towards dialects go back to the Soviet past. At the time of collectivization, all sides village life were updated, replaced, and as a result, the traditional and linguistic cultures of the peasantry suffered equally.

Literary language constantly influences dialects, and they are gradually destroyed. But everything is interconnected, in turn, dialects complement the standard language and even partially merge into its composition. For example, the word “bagel” was borrowed from southern Russian dialects. If the literary language were torn away from dialects, from the “soil”, then it, like Antaeus, would lose all its power and would become like a dead language, which is what the Latin language is now...

“Oh, what a house it was! There were four living quarters alone: hut-wintering, hut-petnitsa, tower with carved balcony, upper room lateral. And besides them, there were also canopy bright with stairs to the porch, yes cage, Yes tell a story seven fathoms in length - they used to drive up it in pairs - but below, under the povetya, yard with different in flocks and stables.

And so, when the owners were not at home (and during the day they are always at work), there was no greater joy for me than wandering around this amazing house. Yes, wander barefoot, slowly. Waddle.

So that not only with your heart and mind, but with the soles of your feet, you can feel the past times.”

This is a description of a peasant house from the story “Wooden Horses” by Fyodor Aleksandrovich Abramov. It contains words that are incomprehensible to many of us, the meaning of which can only be guessed at. And some familiar words appear in an unusual meaning. So. word hut Abramov means not “a peasant house as a whole,” as indicated in dictionaries of modern literary language, but “a living room in a house.” These rooms can be warm; (with stove) - winter quarters, winter houses - or cold (without oven) - summer girls, summer. It turns out that a similar meaning of the word hut known throughout the Russian North, it is also found in Siberia. L is a familiar word yard here means “the non-residential part of a peasant house located behind the dwelling, in which livestock is kept.”

The words given above are called dialectisms. These are linguistic features of dialects, dialect words and expressions included in literary speech. Writers often use them in their works to convey local flavor and create a speech portrait of characters.

In our example, the well-known words hut and yard used in a meaning different from the usual one. Such dialectisms are called semantic(from Greek"semantikos" - "denoting"). This type of dialectism includes the words tower"a separate superstructure on top of the building", flock"house for livestock", "shed".

The text contains dialectisms of another kind: tell -"a hayloft located above the yard."

This lexical dialectism. They have literary synonyms: story - hayloft, kbchet - rooster; basque - beautiful; bayat, gmtasht - talk. Many semantic and lexical dialectisms are mentioned in explanatory dictionaries of the literary language as they are used in fiction, newspapers and magazines, and are heard in colloquial speech when village problems are touched upon. In dictionaries these words are usually marked dial(dialectal) or region(regional).

Dialectal features are inherent in all levels of language; therefore, dialectisms are not only semantic and lexical, but also phonetic, grammatical, and word-formative.

Ivan Alekseevich Bunin, a native of the Oryol region, who knew the dialect of his native places well, wrote in the story “Fairy Tales”: “This Vanya, getting off the stove, means, getting off, putting on a malakhai, girding himself with a sash, putting a small piece in his bosom and going to this very guard.” Sash, edge - phonetic dialectisms that convey the characteristic features of the characters’ pronunciation. Getting off, putting on, putting away instead gets off, puts on, puts on - example of grammatical dialectism, reflecting the features of dialect morphology: absence -T at the end of 3rd person verbs.

Here is an excerpt from the poem “Peasant Children” by Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov:

The big time didn’t have time to leave, Look - everyone’s lips are so black. They gave me a hard time -blueberry ripe...

Chernitsa- word-formation dialectism. This word is formed using the suffix

-its unlike literary blueberries with suffix –ik.

Another type of dialectism is associated with the peculiarities of life and economy in a certain area These are ethnographic dialects. These include the names of objects. clothes that have no analogues in the literary language. “Women in checkered coats threw wood chips at clever or overzealous dogs,” - wrote Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev in “Notes of a Hunter.” Panev- skirts worn by married peasant women in the south of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus.

Dialecticisms are usually used by writers who themselves come from a village. If the author uses dialect words, the meanings of which he represents only approximately, then oddities arise. Here is a modern example: “During the day he dozed, hearing through oblivion how the grips and stags rattled in the old woman’s hands...”. However, ukhvat and rogach are names for the same object in different dialects. Rogach is the name for ukhvat in Ryazan, Tula, some Tambov, Lipetsk, Voronezh and Belgorod dialects, i.e. in the south of Russia. In most Russian dialects, the name ukhvat is common.

Writers who stylize their works as folk speech and use the form of skaz especially often resort to dialectisms: Nikolai Semenovich Leskov, Pavel Petrovich Bazhov, Stepan Grigoryevich Pisakhov, Boris Viktorovich Shergin. They draw imagery and inspiration from the colloquial language. It is not for nothing that B.V. Shergin, in his essay “Dvina Land,” wrote about one of the Pomeranian storytellers: “I was eager to listen to Pafnuty Osipovich and later awkwardly retold his beautiful, beautiful words.”

Chapter 2. Dialectological studies.

§ 2.1. The history of turning to dialect.

Every year, in winter and summer, people who have made the study of dialects their profession go on expeditions. To get to remote villages you have to walk for many kilometers along the Russian off-road, along forest paths. Somewhere they will lift you on a tractor, somewhere you can only fly by helicopter... to record folk speech, researchers use modern equipment, so their backpacks are no lighter than those of tourist kayakers.

However, at the end of the difficult path, a warm welcome awaits the linguist: the villagers are very hospitable, open and ready to selflessly spend their time, answering the most intricate questions for hours. They treat inquisitive guests good-naturedly and with humor. One day, students needed to establish the local instrumental case form of the noun spoon, that is, as they say in this village: spoon, spoon or spoon. So they asked the question: “Grandma, what do you eat?” To which we received an answer full of irony: “We eat the same way as you - with a poker.”

New sounds, archaic words or meanings, and apt figurative expressions found in dialects bring particular joy to dialectologists. Vladimir Ivanovich Dal began his grandiose work of collecting dialect materials after hearing from the coachman the word rejuvenates, which in some dialects means “covers with clouds, becomes cloudy.” This meaning is probably related to another: “begins to ferment, foam”: rejuvenates beer, honey. This was his first entry, which laid the foundation for the future dictionary.

This is how, with individual words and vivid expressions, dialectology began (from the Greek Dialektos - conversation, dialect, adverb and logos - word, teaching) - the science that studies local dialects (dialects).

§ 2.2. Dialectology yesterday and today.

The origins of dialectological research go back to the 18th century. In the essay “A Conversation between a Foreign Person and a Russian about Old and New Spelling...” the poet Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky drew attention to the Moscow akan and the tsk in some dialects. The first actual linguistic discussions about dialects appeared in the works of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov. He was born in the Arkhangelsk province, which means he himself was a speaker of one of the northern dialects and was well aware of how heterogeneous Russian speech is. In “Materials for Russian Grammar” the scientist cites many regional, mainly northern words, and for the first time identifies three main “Russian dialects” - Moscow, northern and Ukrainian, of which the Moscow dialect is considered the main one. Lomonosov makes another important observation: unlike the dialects of other languages ​​known to him (for example, German), Russian dialects are quite similar, so that people living in different places understand each other: “The Russian people, living across a great space, despite the long distance, speak everywhere in a language intelligible to each other in towns and villages.”

The Patriotic War of 1812 shook up Russian society, causing a rapid growth of national self-awareness. Interest arose in the life of the peasantry: in its customs, beliefs, culture, language. Ethnography began to develop intensively. Features of folk speech at that time were considered as ethnographic characteristics. Dialectology was not yet a special science; closely adjacent to ethnography, it was included in it only as component. Therefore, researchers collected mainly “exotic” words and expressions associated with customs and traditions.

Detailed work was carried out by the Society of Lovers of Russian Literature, and later by the Russian Geographical Society, created in 1845 on the initiative of V.I. Dalia. As a result, the “Honeycomb of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary” was published in 1852, where dialect words from different places of the Russian state were collected.

The compilers of the dictionary had to solve many questions: how to write down dialect words orthographically, how to more accurately convey their meanings, which phonetic and morphological option to include in the title of the dictionary entry (for example, the preposition for has the variants glya, zlya, and the adverb yet- assho, even, shshto, looking for, issho, looking for). These and other issues were discussed at special scientific meetings. An important contribution to this work was made by philologist and ethnographer Academician Izmail Ivanovich Sreznevsky. Gradually, rules for compiling regional dictionaries and scientific principles of dictionary work were developed. Dahl took these principles into account when creating “ Dictionary living Great Russian language."

At the end of the 19th century, it became clear that systematic dialectological surveys of various regions of Russia were necessary. In 1903, with the support of the outstanding philologist Academician Alexei Aleksandrovich Shakhmatov, the Moscow Dialectological Commission was organized. In 1931 it was liquidated.

The members of the commission took an important step, without which no direction of research could become real science: They developed methods of dialectology and compiled more advanced programs for collecting dialect data. Before this, only individual words, proverbs, descriptions of rituals, and some phonetic and morphological features of dialects were recorded. Working according to the program, researchers had the opportunity to study dialect as a system, and not just a list of random isolated facts. The information collected in this way provided a holistic picture that could be effectively analyzed, data from individual dialects could be compared, and complete and comprehensive descriptions of each of them could be made.

The commission organized expeditions in which famous scientists and university professors took part. They meticulously recorded the speech of the peasants, had long conversations with them, delving into the meaning of words, capturing the smallest differences between sounds.

Academician A.A. Shakhmatov, who knew and loved the village very well, involved the speakers of the dialects themselves, the peasants, in the collecting activities. Thanks to the efforts of the scientist and the peasant Ivan Stepanovich Grishkin, who helped him, who subtly sensed the sound differences between his dialect and the literary language, the talented work “Samples of the dialect of the village of Leki, Yegorievsky district, Ryazan province” appeared. I. S. Grishkin noticed, for example, the existence in his own speech of two sounds (o), one “real” and the other “false”, pronounced as a diphthong (oo). By that time, linguists already knew that in some modern dialects and monuments of Russian writing, two types of o are distinguished: ordinary and closed (ộ). The diphthong (uo) in the dialect of the village of Leki is pronounced exactly in the place of the closed one (ộ).

In the 10-20s of the 20th century, many descriptions of the dialects of various regions of Russia were compiled and published. This great work was carried out by scientists, teachers and simply amateur dialectologists. Modern linguists still turn to research done during the commission's work as an important scientific source.

Research into dialects continues to this day. Over the past decades, a lot of new information has been accumulated. On their basis, the “Dialectological Atlas of the Russian Language”, “Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects”, and various regional dictionaries were created.

Dialectology, like any science, has several ongoing investigations. Descriptive dialectology studies modern dialects of the second half of the 20th century. Their sound structure is now analyzed not by ear, but with the help of modern acoustic equipment and computers.

New survey programs have been developed that make it possible to compile very complete and accurate descriptions of dialects.

The history of the development of dialects, as well as individual linguistic features, changes in the declension system of nouns and verb tenses is studied by historical dialectology.

This science is closely connected with history, archeology, ethnography, folklore - after all, the fate of the dialect is inseparable from the life of the people. Each historical period - the tribal system, the era of the ancient Russian principalities before the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the time of the rise of the Moscow principality in the 15th century, etc. - left its mark on modern Russian dialects. The boundaries of linguistic phenomena often coincide with ancient political boundaries. Thus, the boundaries of the distribution of the words petun (rooster) and leash, priuz (‘flail - a hand-threshing tool) quite accurately correspond to the borders of the Novgorod Republic.

Dialects sometimes retain archaic features that reflect the characteristics of the Proto-Slavic language, the ancestor of all Slavic languages.

§ 2.3. Geography of dialects.

Dialectology studies territorial varieties of language - local dialects and therefore cannot do without maps. German and French scientists first tried to compile linguistic maps at the end of the 19th century.

In 1876 in Germany, linguist Georg Wenker began a special survey of German dialects in order to subsequently compile a linguistic atlas - a collection of maps. Later, his work was continued by Ferdinand Wrede and in 1926 some of the maps were published. In France, the same work was carried out by Jules Gilleron and Edmond Edmond, who helped him. As a result, in 1902-1910, the “Linguistic Atlas of France” was published in Paris.

In Russia, the idea of ​​linguistic mapping was first put forward by the outstanding philologist Izmail Ivanovich Sreznevsky. In the 50s of the 19th century, he wrote: “The first accessory... of linguistic geography should be... a map of languages, dialects and dialects, a map on which the place of political, religious and all other boundaries is taken by the boundaries of the linguistic diversity of peoples.”

If a thought arises almost simultaneously in the minds of different scientists in different countries, if an idea is in the air, it means that it has become an urgent need for science. Thus, a new direction appeared in dialectology - linguistic geography. Its main method is mapping. This is done using special symbols: color fills, shading, signs.

How is a linguistic map read? Consider the map “Verbs meaning “to cultivate the land with tools” in East Slavic dialects.” To understand it correctly, you must first carefully study legend(from lat. 1e§epc1a - “what should be read”), i.e. a list of symbols.

There are three signs on the map below. Yellow shading shows the distribution of the verb yell(this is the territory of the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, as well as the northern and northwestern dialects of the Russian language); green fill - verb spread plow in this meaning. From the map it is clear that it is known only in Russian.

In linguistic geography, the area where a particular linguistic feature occurs is called habitat(from lat. agea - “area”, “space”), and the line limiting it is isogloss. The areas vary in size: some include dialects of only a few villages, others occupy vast spaces. From the map it follows that in the north and northwest

both verbs are used plow And yell, coexisting in the same dialects. This is shown by the combination of signs. The third sign - a line with teeth facing the direction where the linguistic phenomenon is known, indicates the presence of plow another meaning - “sweep the floor, yard, street 1: she is a broom in the hutplows; give a fuck bridge(canopy).

By comparing the information provided by the map with materials from various dictionaries, written monuments, and information from other Slavic languages ​​and dialects, one can draw conclusions about the antiquity of that other linguistic phenomenon. Thus, when comparing the linguistic map with the historical one, it was discovered that dialects, where the word plow used

in the meaning of sweeping", are located on the territory of the ancient Novgorod Republic. Researchers of the ancient Russian language give numerous examples of the use of the verb plow

The map considered is lexical-semantic; it shows where this or that word exists and what its meaning is. However, there are other maps - phonetic, morphological, syntactic. They can be used to judge the pronunciation of sounds, the dialectal features of grammatical forms, and much more.

linguistic atlas. TO Currently, more than 300 different language atlases have been published in the world. Among them are the “Linguistic Atlas of Europe”, “Common Slavic Linguistic Atlas”, “Common Carpathian Dialectological Atlas”, etc. The variety of Russian dialects is shown on the maps of the “Dialectological Atlas of the Russian Language”, work on which was carried out for more than 40 years. in the meaning of sweeping", are located on the territory of the ancient Novgorod Republic. Researchers of the ancient Russian language give numerous examples of the use of the verb plow in written monuments (chronicles, acts) not only in the meaning of “to cultivate the land”, but also “to clear the land of forests and bushes”. This speaks to the antiquity of the meaning of “revenge”, “to cleanse” and its connection with the meaning of “to cultivate the land”.

The considered map is lexical-semantic; it shows where this or that word exists and what its meaning is. However, there are other maps - phonetic, morphological, syntactic. They can be used to judge the pronunciation of sounds, the dialectal features of grammatical forms, and much more.

If linguistic maps are combined according to a certain principle - the generality of the territory in which dialects are widespread, the linguistic level, the relationship of languages ​​- and systematized, it will turn out linguistic atlas. TO Currently, more than 300 different language atlases have been published in the world. Among them are the “Linguistic Atlas of Europe”, “Common Slavic Linguistic Atlas”, “Common Carpathian Dialectological Atlas”, etc. The variety of Russian dialects is shown on the maps of the “Dialectological Atlas of the Russian Language”, work on which was carried out for more than 40 years.

§ 2.4. Classification of Russian dialects.

When studying dialects, it is important not only the features by which they differ or, conversely, by which they are similar, but also those territories within the boundaries of which a certain set of distinctive features is particularly clearly represented.

There can be several principles for classifying dialects, depending on the tasks that are set.

In relation to the literary language, all dialects are distributed according to the “center-periphery” principle: dialects “move away” from the “center” depending on how much they differ in their characteristics from the literary norm.

Depending on their origin, Northern Russian and Southern Russian dialects are distinguished, with Central Russian dialects transitioning between them. If we take into account the equally important historically important opposition “East-West”, then this principle of classification will coincide with the previous one, because in the “center” there will again be dialects, especially close to the literary language, which formed its basis.

Historically, according to the nature of their distribution, Russian dialects are divided into indigenous (“mother”), which are common in the central regions of Eastern Europe, and “new” dialects, i.e. dialects of new settlement territories. “New” dialects in some of their features may be more archaic than their mother dialects; their study gives a lot for recreating past stages of the development of Russian dialects, however, in the classification of dialects by territory, such dialects are usually not taken into account. For example, the Pomeranian group of dialects, the northernmost in the North Russian dialect, is sometimes not distinguished as independent, although the settlement of the coasts of the northern seas by the Slavs began in the 11th century, i.e., even before the formation in the 15th century of stable dialect regions that have survived to this day.

According to the distinctive features of the language, groups of dialects are united regardless of the territory of settlement; this is the basic principle of the classification of dialects adopted in dialectology. Its advantage is that, depending on the characteristics underlying the classification, a dialect can be represented as a dialect of a separate village, as a group of neighboring dialects, and as an independent dialect. The disadvantage of this principle is that on the map the isoglosses of each individual phenomenon turn out to be intricately intertwined and form a chain of random and historically moving boundaries that is apparently irreducible to a system. In this case, all other principles of classification “help”, and above all the historical one.

The sequence in constructing a classification is determined by a known sum of characteristics selected for this purpose.

A dialect is the smallest unit of a dialect, homogeneous in terms of speech characteristics in a common territory of distribution in the same ethnic sphere. “Talk” is at the same time the most vague term in meaning: depending on the quantity and quality of distinctive features, one can describe the dialect of one person, the dialect of one village, and in general the “talk” of all Russians. Therefore, very conditionally, we recognize as “dialect” a specific dialect system, “local speech” in all its features, both distinctive and common to the Russian language. The dialect is the most real unit of dialect division.

A group of dialects is a larger unit, and the larger such a group is in the area of ​​distribution of dialects, the fewer features that distinguish it from all the others. At each individual stage of dialect development, it is the groups of dialects that have the property of representing really existing dialect complexes, defined by the total sum of features and at the same time reflecting the language system.

An adverb is the largest unit of dialect division; it is determined by linguistic, cultural and historical signs of delimitation of dialects, and in the narrow sense of the word it actually means “dialect” (in a broad sense, a dialect is opposed to a literary norm).

In the Russian language, there are two main dialects - Northern Russian and Southern Russian and a strip of Central Russian dialects between them. Central Russian dialects are characterized by a combination of Akanya with Northern Russian features. By origin, these are mainly Northern Russian dialects, which have lost their Okanian dialects and adopted some features of the southern dialects. Central Russian dialects developed as a result of intensive inter-dialect contacts on the territory of the historical central regions of the Russian state. It was these dialects that formed the basis of the national Russian language. Within these three main groups (two dialects and Central Russian dialects), groups and subgroups of dialects are distinguished: northern dialect: Ladoga-Tikhvin, Vologda, Kostroma; Central Russian dialects: Pskov, Vladimir-Volga region; southern dialect: Kursk-Oryol, Ryazan.

Northern and southern dialects differ in a complex of linguistic differences (phonetic, morphological, lexical), forming binary oppositions. The main ones:

Northern dialect: distinguishing non-high vowels after hard consonants in unstressed syllables (okanye); Southern dialect: non-distinction of non-high vowels after hard consonants in unstressed syllables.

Akanye is the non-distinction between o and a, okanye is the distinction between o and a.

(no) catfish (me) sama ) [herself]

(no) soma(s) herself →[soma]→[herself]

water (flowers) fire (from a cannon) [fired "lit"]

water (flowers) →[pol"it"] burn →[pal"it"]

Northern dialect: stop formation of the phoneme g and its pronunciation as k at the end of a word and before a voiceless consonant; Southern dialect: fricative formation of the phoneme g and its pronunciation as []1, and at the end of a word and before a voiceless consonant as [x]. Northern dialect: absence of j in intervocalic2 position (del[ae]t, de[aa]t or del[a]t); Southern adverb: preserving intervocalic j (does). Northern dialect: forms of gender. and wine cases of personal and reflexive pronouns me, you, yourself; Southern dialect: gender forms. and wine cases of personal and reflexive pronouns: me, you, yourself; Northern dialect: hard t in 3 l molds. units h. and pl. including verbs (wears, wears); Southern dialect: soft in 3 liter forms. units and many more including verbs (he wears, they wear); Northern dialect: the presence of consistent postpositive particles –ot, -ta, -tu, -te, -you, -ti (izba-ta); Southern dialect: absence of consistent postpositive particles.

§ 2.5. Vocabulary of Russian dialects.

Dialectology studies mainly the specific part of the dialect dictionary, its composition and origin, change and development of word meanings. In order to correctly determine the subject of research, you need to know what a dialect word is and what its characteristic features are.

The main feature of a dialect word is its use in a limited territory, in other words, “the presence of isoglosses in the word within the territory occupied by the language.” Therefore, one cannot consider dialect words known to the literary language and denoting the realities of old peasant life “ethnographisms” or local nature: barn, canopy, polati, bast shoes, zipun, beam, gulley; special terms of all-Russian distribution: shuttle, weft, reed (terms of weaving); colloquial vocabulary, as well as variants of words of foreign origin included in the speech of speakers of dialects from the literary language: ahtobus, dilator, fershal, semi-clinic. All these words are not limited locally in their use, and are not associated with certain groups of dialects. Thus, a dialect word is “a word that has a local distribution and at the same time is not included in the vocabulary of a literary language (in any of its varieties).

In the vocabulary of dialects, the following most general groups of dialect words can be distinguished:

Actually, lexical dialectisms are local words, the roots of which are absent from the literary language, or dialectal derivatives from the roots presented in the literary language: Pskov veksha-squirrel, rogozitsya-to play mischief, Voronezh sapetka-basket, Smolensk banitsya-to wash in a bathhouse, to steam, t .d.

Lexical-word-formative dialectisms differ from their corresponding literary language equivalents in their morphemic composition. These are words with the same roots and having the same lexical meaning as in the literary language, but with different affixes: Pskov plotka - roach, Don bedakha - poor fellow, Ryazan talkative, talkative - talkative, Tula pity - regret, etc.

Phonemic dialectisms coincide in meaning with the corresponding words of the literary language, but differ from them in one or two phonemes, and phonemic differences are not related to the phonemic and morphological patterns existing in dialects. In these words, the lexicalization of some phonetic phenomenon occurred: arzhanoy - rye, andyuk - turkey, vyshnyaya - cherry, pakhmurny - cloudy, avzhe - already.

semantic dialectisms are identical in sound form to the corresponding words, but differ from them in their meanings: Pskov - flood - drown, Smolensk begovoi - agile, Ryazan noodles - chicken pox, mermaid - garden scarecrow, etc.

Thematic groups of dialect words.

The vocabulary of dialects is rich in words that reflect the uniqueness of the subsurface conditions of a particular area, the peculiarities of economic life and the way of life of the population. The detailing of names is characteristic, especially in the part that relates to the leading sector of the economy, the predominance of specific names, relative (compared to literary language) limited thematic groups.

Agriculture. The names of various land plots and lands are varied: Perm arable land - arable land, Zhnitvina - compressed field, Smolensk vzmet - plowed virgin soil, Kursk bologna - flooded meadow, as well as parts of the field depending on the nature of their cultivation: Perm crossing - a strip of arable land traversed by a plowman from turn to turn, Voronezh lan is a large strip of arable land, Pskov post is a strip of land that is captured by the reaper, passing with a sickle. In this group we find archaisms associated with shifting agriculture in Rus', when farmers cut down and burned forests, uprooted stumps in order to expand meadows and crops. The names of areas cleared from under the forest for plowing are peculiar: Perm burnt-out, palenina, burnt-out - a place where the forest was burnt out or scorched by humans, chishchenina, clearing - a cleared and uprooted area. Many of these words in modern dialects either fell out of the active vocabulary and were preserved only in toponymy, or changed their semantics. So, lyada, lyadina is originally “a plot of land in a forest, suitable for cultivation or cultivated by slashing for a field,” in modern dialects it is also “a plot of forest, a clearing in a forest, uncultivated land, virgin soil.” The names of parts of old agricultural implements are differentiated in dialects: Pskov kokora - the main wooden part of a plow, plowshares - metal tips on the forks of a plow, roller - the striking part of a flail, as well as the names of stacking sheaves, hay, straw: Pskov baburka, soyanka - small stacking of sheaves, odonok - a large stack of hay, straw, and others.

Animal husbandry. The economic functions of domestic animals of different ages determined the detail of their age names: Yaroslavl suckling - a foal up to a year, a swift - a foal from a year to two years, a duck - a foal from two to three years. The names of animals and birds according to their use on the farm are detailed: Pskov hog - bare boar, siduha - hen.

Fishing, hunting, forestry. Russia's forest and water resources contributed to the widespread development of hunting and fishing, the main occupations of the population in many territories of the Far North and Siberia. Hence the variety of fishing and hunting grounds, gear and devices: Pskov stock - the general name for a set of nets, sekusha - lure. In the dialects of Ryazan Meshchera, where one of the main occupations of the population is forestry, there is a rich terminology for this branch of the economy: sawdust - sawdust, pine needles, needles of coniferous trees, cut - a cleared place in the forest, hollow - a place where coal is burned, stump - who is engaged in uprooting stumps. In Siberian dialects, the vocabulary of the pine trade is varied: cone - to collect pine nuts, bat - a large mallet, cone grinder - a tool for peeling pine nuts.

The buildings. Differences in the names of residential and commercial buildings according to dialects are often associated with ethnographic differences in realities. In the north, where the characteristic type of construction is house-yard, i.e. both the living quarters and outbuildings are under one roof, the names of the parts of this complex are varied: bridge - porch, canopy, hut - room in the house, ceiling - attic, tower - living space in the attic, loft - hayloft over the barn, zhirka - fence in a barn for small livestock. In the south, the housing for livestock, which is built separately, has the names zakut, zakutka, kotuh. Rooms for drying sheaves have special names: Pskov yard - an extension to the threshing floor for storing chaff; different types fences: Pskov hedge - a fence made of long poles, braid, braid, common fence - varieties of wattle fence.

Items household items. This thematic group includes the names of 1) household utensils, dishes: Vologda barilo - barrel, Ryazan stolbun - clay vessel for milk 2) dishes and food products: Vologda brew - liquid hot food, Ryazan kulesh, Don konder - millet soup seasoned with lard, Ryazan Vologa - butter, sour cream 3) clothes and shoes: Pskov bruise - printed sundress, Kursk Paneva - women's waist clothing.

Objects and phenomena of the surrounding nature. The detail in the names of natural phenomena is related to the features of the local landscape. In the north and west, the vocabulary reflects the abundance of forests and reservoirs: Vologda lyva - large puddle, lake, Arkhangelsk whiskey - stream, channel. The population living near large rivers and lakes distinguishes between types of ice: Ryazan, Voronezh caviar - a large ice floe during ice drift, Arkhangelsk shore - the first ice off the coast. There are many local names for flora and fauna: Pskov bagun - wild rosemary, Ryazan drunken, Bryansk durnika - blueberry, Pskov averyanka - valerian.

In addition to words naming various objects and realities, dialects contain a lot of so-called non-subject vocabulary, denoting concepts common to all native speakers: verbs, adjectives, adverbs, auxiliary parts of speech.

Verbs of speech are represented in all dialects. They can denote the process of speaking as such: Perm bayat, Pskov balaqat; characterize the pace of speech, the manner of speaking, the physiological features of this process: Pskov ram - speak quickly, babble - speak incessantly, fart - speak under your breath, grunt - say angrily, dissatisfied, gundavit - speak under your nose; reflect the content of the speech, its direction: Pskov babble - talk in vain, chatter, boast - lie.

Most Northern Russian dialects know a group of adverbs with a general meaning of the past tense: summer, winter, spring, autumn, morning, night; as well as the adverbs seigod, segodu - this year, seleto - this summer. To indicate an indefinite time of actions in the past, the adverbs onogdy, onogdys, onomedni, a long time ago, recently, the other day are used.

Numerous adjectives related to the characteristics of a person give an idea of ​​​​the person’s appearance, his mind and spiritual qualities, and character traits. For example, in Pskov dialects: shchapny - beautiful, mummy, modely - thin, skinny, karzuby - toothless, mushroom - with thick lips, etc.

Dialect dictionaries.

Regional dictionaries are devoted to describing the vocabulary of folk dialects. Depending on the object of lexicography, consolidated dictionaries are distinguished that describe the vocabulary of all dialects of the Russian language; regional dictionaries, including the vocabulary of a group of closely related dialects, a certain territory, region; dictionaries of the bottom dialect - vocabulary of one locality; dictionaries of one person - vocabulary of one native speaker of the dialect.

Based on the composition of the dictionary, a distinction is made between complete dialect dictionaries, which include all dialect and all-Russian words known to the literary language, and local and differentiated dialect dictionaries, which describe dialect vocabulary that has certain differences in dialects from literary vocabulary.

In recent decades, new types of dictionaries have appeared that describe certain groups of dialect vocabulary - thematic dictionaries, vernacular dictionaries, dictionaries that reveal various kinds of systemic connections in the vocabulary - phraseological, motivational, reverse dictionaries that provide material for studying the word-formation system of dialects, the laws of morphemic compatibility, identifying structural and semantic types.

Conclusion.

We conducted a study of dialects of the Russian language. We gave the concept of dialects of the Russian language, analyzed their structure, and examined the reasons for their occurrence. In this work, we used the achievements of all disciplines studying the Russian language, trying to be at the level of modern research of Russian dialects.

In conclusion, we can say that a dialect is one of our national assets, for example, like oil, gold, achievements in the field of culture, which must be treated with care. Entomologists try to preserve endangered insect species, botanists try to preserve plant species. But this does not mean that we should all breed rare animals or exotic flowers in our homes. Of course, it is convenient for everyone to speak the same language (dialect) - it is always clear what is being said. But then the “greatness and power”, the variety of shades, originality, culture, historical roots, connection of times are lost... Yes, there is an “official” language, but there are also dialects that should not be forgotten. After all, it is not necessary for everyone to speak different dialects, but the more knowledge you have in this area, the more educated you can consider yourself.

In Wells, schools teach ancient dialects in addition to English as the official language. This position is reinforced by a whole block of decrees of the UK Ministry of Education. Why don't we adopt this experience!

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Vinogradov V.V. The Great Russian Language. M., 1985.

Grachev M.A., Kozhevnikov A.Yu. On the issue of social dialectology of the Russian language // Philological Sciences. No. 5. 1996

Dal V.I. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. Eksmo-press. M., 2000.

Dialectical atlas of the Russian language - M.: Aspect-Press, 1994.

Dialectal vocabulary / ed. F.P. Sorokaletova, F. P. Filina. L., 1985

Dialectography of the Russian language. M., 1985.

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Kozyrev V. A. Vocabulary of modern Russian folk dialects. L., 1984.

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The culture of Russian speech and the effectiveness of communication. M., 1996.

Leontyev A.A. A journey through the map of the world's languages. Enlightenment, M., 1981

Literary norm and vernacular. / Ed. Skvortsova L.I. - M.: Nauka, 1977.

Literary language and folk speech. Permian. 1977.

Plungyan V. A. Why are languages ​​so different? Russian dictionaries. M., 1996

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Russian language of the late 20th century. M., 1996.

Sakharny L.V. To the secrets of thought and words. Education. M., 1983.

Dictionary of linguistic terms / Ed. O.S. Akhmanova. - M., 1964

Sorokaletov F.P. Kuznetsova O.D. Essays on Russian dialect lexicography. L., 1987.

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Every language has its own regional dialects. They can be explained by social stratification in society and the historical past of the people. Those modern languages, which are now used, are the old territorial dialects. The maximum number of them is found in the Russian language; they are summarized in various dialects. Dialectology, which is a special branch of linguistics, deals with the study of oral and written speech.

Social types

Nowadays, social and territorial dialects are distinguished. Social view suggests a variation that is used only by a particular social group.

In some cases, the term “jargon” is used to explain this phenomenon. For example, there are social dialects that are associated with profession. Representatives of information technology use the “language” of IT specialists.

In the Middle Ages, the Ofenian language was used by traders and peddlers. considered the result of social isolation, they have lexical linguistic features.

Territorial species

Based on the name, territorial dialects have a different nature of limitation. They mean “dialect”, used by linguists to describe the oral form of a language, the use of which is characteristic of a certain territory. This part national language, which has certain phonetic, grammatical, lexical, syntactic features.

Territorial dialects of the Russian language are associated with the period of development of ancient East Slavic tribes. The Ukrainian and Belarusian languages ​​are also represented by dialects that appeared in the Old Russian period.

Historical reference

How are languages ​​and territorial dialects related? They are distinguished among the non-literary varieties of the national language. In the Russian language they were formed during feudal fragmentation. In the last century, as the influence of the literary language increased, the process of their degradation intensified. Nowadays, there are not only oral territorial dialects; examples of expressions characterize their use in everyday communication. Increasingly, people use phrases whose meaning is understandable only to a certain circle of people.

Territorial and social dialects differ from jargons in phonetics, syntax, and vocabulary.

Phonetic differences

Let's consider territorial dialects. Examples of phonetic differences are related to territorial characteristics. For example, the Southern Great Russian dialect is characterized by akanye, the use of a soft “t” in third-person verbs.

In SVN it sounds okanye, a hard version of “t” for verbs in the 3rd person. Some dialects allow the replacement of “hv” with the sound “f”. The most visible dialectisms and lexical features in dialects. In the Kaliningrad region, residents call a path globka, and in Ryazan it is a stitch.

The same vegetables sound differently in different places, as there are territorial dialects of the Russian language. Examples of such differences:

• borkan and carrots;
• beetroot and beets;
• temka and pumpkin;
• Rutabaga, German, gnawing.

Let's look at territorial dialects from a historical point of view. which came into the language from the last century: arrogant, childish, tyrant, little boy.

The importance of studying dialects

In order to get a complete understanding of the versatility of the Russian language, it is important to analyze the processes of merging the St. Petersburg and Moscow dialects.

From a social and psychological point of view, we note the need for native speakers of the dialect. Only by considering all the ways of forming dialects and describing basic expressions can we draw a conclusion about the specificity of the Russian language depending on the territorial characteristics.

Vernacular

Vernacular speech acts as a non-literary form of the national language. They are characterized by less defined, broader boundaries. Vernaculars are rightly called the urban mass language.

They do not have their own characteristics of systemic organization; they are explained by the sum of various linguistic forms that violate the classical norms of the literary language.

Vernacular is a casual, rough variety of spoken Russian. There is its development in two main directions.

One is related to ignorance of the specifics of applying language norms. Vernacular speech has typical differences in the areas of phonetics, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary.

For example, adverbs are used in conversation: always, yesterday, otsedova. Some people inflect nouns incorrectly: in the cinema, on the piano.

Currently, vernaculars are being replaced by literary language, so they can only be found among people of the older generation.

Specifics of vernaculars

A distinctive characteristic of vernaculars is their emotionality. For example, you can hear the following words: shy away, image, clothes, drag.

In the speech of the residents there are commonly used words and various dialects. In fiction they are used to convey the specifics of the territory that the author uses in his work.

Such words can be found in the novels of Bunin, Gogol, Pushkin, Nekrasov, and other writers. Dialectal words that are used in works of art are called dialectisms.

Examples

Each region, region of Russia has its own dialects. Here are some examples:

Let's go - let's go.

Shabol - backpack, trunk.

One - one, one.

Sgaibal - crushed.

Drilling - talking.

Buldyzhka is a chicken foot.

The guy is a young man.

Zhor is food.

Zyr - look.

To scratch - to scratch.

To strive is to be afraid.

Shkandybat - go.

To joke is to offend.

Classification of dialects

In the twentieth century, detailed dialectological maps were compiled native language, it was at this time that monographs of their division were published. In the Russian language there are two main adverbs and one dialect:

• South Russian;
• Northern Russian;
• Central Russian dialect.

In addition to such a large division, minor divisions are also distinguished. For example, Muscovites are characterized by “akanie”, and Vologda residents are characterized by “okanye”.

In the Northern Russian dialect there are groups:

• Vologda;
• Ladoga-Tikhvinskaya;
• Kostroma;
• interzonal;
• Onezhskaya

For each group there are a lot of dialects and adverbs. For example, the Tver, Pskov, Moscow, Ivanovo, Nizhny Novgorod, and Vladimir regions are distinguished by their Central Russian dialect.

Linguistic characteristics

It includes vocalism, phonetics, syntax. The southern and northern dialects differ in their own dialectical features. Central Russian dialects combine some features of southern and northern dialects.

In the dialects of the Russian language, six-form, five-form, seven-form systems of vocalism are noted, as well as “akanye”, “okanye” in the form of types of unstressed vocalism.

The main differences in syntax are associated with the use of different cases in the structure, combinations of nouns and prepositions, and the use of various verb forms. The difference can be seen in the structure simple sentences: using particles, rearranging words.

Finally

Currently, the Russian language is considered one of the richest in the world. Its greatness comes from its wide vocabulary, versatility of words, unique possibilities of word formation, many synonyms, fluidity of stress, harmonious and clear syntax, and versatility of stylistic resources. Professionals distinguish between the national and literary Russian languages.

National speech covers all areas of speech activity of the people, regardless of upbringing, education, place of residence, professional activity. It contains jargons, special vocabulary, and numerous dialects.

Rural residents, speaking various dialects, speak the literary language, can write, read, know cultural traditions and the characteristics of their people. Often jargon is used in conversation without thinking about its true meaning.

A special role belongs to folklore. When carefully preserved folk works, the transmission of Russian traditions, you can count on the younger generation to respect the national heritage.

Russian schools are introducing regional component, which is aimed at introducing schoolchildren to the unique capabilities of national dialects. As part of such an additional course, Russian children have a real opportunity to understand much more deeply the beauty of their native language and its distinctive features.

Dialectal expressions that the language is rich in can become an interesting topic for your own research work, a unique project.