Water. Anthropogenic impact on the hydrosphere.

The growth of cities, the rapid development of industry, the intensification of agriculture, a significant expansion of irrigated areas, improvement of cultural and living conditions and a number of other factors are increasingly complicating the problems of water supply.

The demand for water is enormous and increasing every year. The annual water consumption on the globe for all types of water supply is 3300-3500 km3. Moreover, 70% of all water consumption is used in agriculture.

The chemical and pulp and paper industries, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy consume a lot of water. Energy development is also leading to a sharp increase in water demand. A significant amount of water is spent for the needs of the livestock industry, as well as for the household needs of the population. Most of the water, after being used for domestic needs, is returned to rivers in the form of wastewater.

Shortage fresh water is already becoming a global problem. The ever-increasing needs of industry and agriculture for water are forcing all countries and scientists around the world to look for various means to solve this problem.

On modern stage such directions are determined rational use water resources: more complete use and expanded reproduction of fresh water resources; development of new technological processes to prevent pollution of water bodies and minimize the consumption of fresh water. My work is dedicated to the topic of rational water use. It will discuss the main problems of rational use of water resources, pollution problems and methods of purifying water resources.

1. Water resources and their use.

The basis of Russia's water resources is river flow, which averages 4262 km3 per year, of which about 90% falls in the basins of the Arctic and Pacific oceans. To the basins of the Caspian and Azov seas, where over 80% of Russia’s population lives and its main industrial and agricultural potential is concentrated, accounts for less than 8% of the total river flow.

Currently, the availability of water per person per day varies in different countries of the world. In a number of countries with developed economies, the threat of water shortages is imminent. The shortage of fresh water on earth is growing exponentially. However, there are promising sources of fresh water - icebergs born from the glaciers of Antarctica and Greenland.

A person cannot live without water. Water is one of the most important factors determining the location of productive forces, and very often a means of production. The increase in water consumption by industry is associated not only with its rapid development, but also with an increase in water consumption per unit of production. For example, factories spend 250 m3 of water to produce 1 ton of cotton fabric. The chemical industry requires a lot of water. Thus, the production of 1 ton of ammonia requires about 1000 m3 of water.

Modern large thermal power plants consume huge amounts of water. Only one station with a capacity of 300 thousand kW consumes up to 120 m3/s, or more than 300 million m3 per year. Gross water consumption for these stations will increase approximately 9-10 times in the future. Avakyan A.B., Shirokov V.M.: Rational use of water resources: Textbook for geogr., biol. and builds. specialist. universities - Ekaterinburg, Victor publishing house, 1994. - 320 p.

One of the most significant water consumers is agriculture. It is the largest water consumer in the water management system. Growing 1 ton of wheat requires 1,500 m3 of water during the growing season, 1 ton of rice requires more than 7,000 m3. The high productivity of irrigated lands has stimulated a sharp increase in the area worldwide - it is now equal to 200 million hectares. Constituting about 1/6 of the total crop area, irrigated lands provide approximately half of agricultural products.

A special place in the use of water resources is occupied by water consumption for the needs of the population. Household and drinking purposes in our country account for about 10% of water consumption. At the same time, uninterrupted water supply, as well as strict adherence to scientifically based sanitary and hygienic standards, are mandatory.

The use of water for economic purposes is one of the links in the water cycle in nature. But the anthropogenic link of the cycle differs from the natural one in that during the process of evaporation, part of the water used by humans returns to the atmosphere desalinated. The other part (which, for example, makes up 90% for water supply to cities and most industrial enterprises) is discharged into water bodies in the form of wastewater contaminated with industrial waste.

According to the State Water Cadastre, the total water intake from natural water bodies in 1995 amounted to 96.9 km3. More than 70 km3 was used for the needs of the national economy, including for:

industrial water supply - 46 km3;

irrigation - 13.1 km3;

agricultural water supply - 3.9 km3;

other needs - 7.5 km3.

Industry needs were met by 23% by drawing water from natural water bodies and by 77% by a system of recycling and re-sequential water supply.

It is of great importance to meet the needs of the population for drinking water in their places of residence through centralized or non-centralized drinking water supply systems.

In the Russian Federation, centralized water supply systems operate in 1,052 cities (99% of the total number of cities) and 1,785 urban-type settlements (81%). However, in many cities there is a lack of water supply capacity. In Russia as a whole, the shortage of water supply capacity exceeds 10 million m3/day, or 10% of the installed capacity.

The sources of centralized water supply are surface water, the share of which in the total volume of water intake is 68%, and groundwater - 32%.

Almost all surface water supplies in last years are exposed to harmful anthropogenic pollution, especially rivers such as the Volga, Don, Northern Dvina, Ufa, Tobol, Tom and other rivers of Siberia and Far East. 70% of surface waters and 30% of underground waters have lost their drinking value and moved into the categories of pollution - “conditionally clean” and “dirty”. Almost 70% of the population of the Russian Federation consume water that does not comply with GOST “Drinking water”.

Over the past 10 years, the volume of water financing economic activity in Russia reduced by 11 times. As a result, the conditions of water supply to the population worsened.

The processes of degradation of surface water bodies are increasing due to the discharge of contaminated wastewater into them by enterprises and facilities of housing and communal services, petrochemical, oil, gas, coal, meat, forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries, as well as ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, collection of collector and drainage waters from irrigated lands contaminated with toxic chemicals and pesticides.

The depletion of river water resources continues under the influence of economic activities. The possibilities of irreversible water withdrawal in the basins of the Kuban, Don, Terek, Ural, Iset, Miass and a number of other rivers have been practically exhausted.

The condition of small rivers is unfavorable, especially in the areas of large industrial centers. Significant damage to small rivers is caused in rural areas due to violation of the special regime of economic activity in water protection zones and coastal protective strips, leading to river pollution, as well as soil loss as a result of water erosion.

Pollution of groundwater used for water supply is increasing. About 1,200 foci of groundwater pollution have been identified in the Russian Federation, of which 86% are located in the European part. Deterioration in water quality was noted in 76 cities and towns, at 175 water intakes. Many underground sources, especially those supplying large cities in the Central, Central Black Earth, North Caucasus and other regions, are severely depleted, as evidenced by a decrease in the sanitary water level, in some places reaching tens of meters.

The total consumption of contaminated water at water intakes is 5-6% of the total amount of groundwater used for domestic and drinking water supply.

About 500 areas have been discovered in Russia where groundwater is contaminated with sulfates, chlorides, compounds of nitrogen, copper, zinc, lead, cadmium, and mercury, the levels of which are tens of times higher than the maximum permissible concentration.

Due to increased pollution of water sources, traditionally used water treatment technologies are in most cases insufficiently effective. The efficiency of water treatment is negatively affected by the shortage of reagents and the low level of equipment of water stations, automation and control devices. The situation is aggravated by the fact that 40% of the internal surfaces of pipelines are corroded and covered with rust, therefore, during transportation, the quality of water further deteriorates.

State control and supervision in the field of drinking water supply is carried out by bodies and institutions of the state sanitary and epidemiological service in interaction with state environmental control bodies and state bodies for managing the use and protection of the water fund. Accounting for the amount of water consumed from centralized drinking water supply systems is carried out by housing and communal services authorities.

Drinking water supply development programs include integral part in plans for the socio-economic development of territories. The design, construction and reconstruction of centralized and non-centralized drinking water supply systems are carried out in accordance with the calculated indicators of master plans for the development of territories, building codes and regulations, state standards, sanitary rules and norms. At the same time, the requirements for ensuring the reliability of these systems when exposed to destabilizing factors of natural (landslides, flooding, aquifer depletion, etc.) and man-made origin must be taken into account.

The hydrosphere (water resources) plays a decisive role in the socio-economic sphere. Nature-transforming economic activity within the lake basin. Baikal is developed in the coastal water protection zone of Lake Baikal, in intermountain basins and valleys of large rivers such as Selenga, Uda, Khilok, Nikoy, Temnil, Dzhida, Barguzin, Upper Angara, Tugnui, etc. Baikal, Slyudyansky, Kultuk, Olkhonsky, etc. were developed here. Severobaikalsky, Barguzinsky industrial hubs and Irkutsk hydroelectric complex.

The Nizhneselenga industrial hub occupies the western part of the Kabansky district of Buryatia and stretches along the left bank of the Selenga River and the southern coast of Lake Baikal from the Snezhnaya River to the mouth of the Selenga River. There are 10 industrial centers here - the villages of Selenginsk, Talovka, Kamensk, Tataurovo and a section of the Trans-Siberian railway with large settlements (Vydrino, Tankhoy, Babushkin), and on the right bank of the Selenga River in this area the population is engaged in agricultural activities.

The Baikal industrial hub in the Irkutsk region occupies the territory from the confluence of the Utulik river to the mouth of the river. Pankovki. This site houses seven industrial enterprises with all vital services and tourist centers. Here the main water user is the Baikal Pulp and Paper Mill (BPPM), which creates the main environmental problem in the Baikal region (territory of the Irkutsk region).

The Slyudyansky industrial hub of the Irkutsk region occupies the coastal zone of Lake Baikal from the mouth of the Toloya River to the mouth of the Bezymyannaya River. Here the industry is represented by 15 enterprises, of which the more powerful ones include the locomotive depot, the Pereval quarry, OJSC Baikal-Mramor and housing and communal services. This industrial hub generally uses annually between 3500-4000 thousand m3 of water (territory of the Irkutsk region).

The Kultuk industrial hub of the Irkutsk region is located in the area from the confluence of the Angasolka river to the mouth of the river. Toloya. The industry includes 7 objects. In terms of water use, we can distinguish the water supply distance and the Kultuk meat processing plant. In general, the industrial center in recent years has used an average of 500-600 thousand m3/year (territory of the Irkutsk region).

The Olkhon region extends, including Olkhon Island and the coastal zone of the Olkhon administrative district of the Irkutsk region, from the mouth of the river. Buguldeika to Cape Ryty. There are no industrial enterprises here. From the reporting of 2-TP (vodkhoz), the main large water users are the oil plant in the village of Khuzhir, the Malomorsky fish factory and others - in total there are 8 enterprises with an annual water consumption of 250-400 thousand m3/year.

The Severobaikalsky industrial hub covers part of the territory of the Severobaikalsky region of Buryatia and stretches in a wide direction along the Baikal-Amur Mainline (BAM). In 1974, the city of Severobaikalsk and large villages to the east were built: Novy Uoyan, Angoya, Yanchukan. In general, the Severobaikalsky region became a huge construction site for the BAM, which led to rapid population growth in the area (from 6.5 to 80 thousand people). Enormous work has been carried out on the construction of housing, the railway, motor transport and public utilities, which in this moment There are more than 10 large industrial water-using enterprises. Water use is 3700-4500 thousand m3/year.

The Barguzinsky economic region is located on the territory of the Barguzinsky district of Buryatia. The main industrial facilities are located along the lower reaches and the mouth of the Barguzin River (Ust-Barguzin village). In the river basin Barguzin contains large settlements and facilities, as well as developed agricultural production. In Ust-Barguzin there are such facilities as a fish processing complex, a meat processing plant, a fish hatchery, a bakery, the annual water use of which is 2000-2500 thousand m3.

Irkutsk waterworks on the river. Angara is located 65 km from its source and is the first stage of the Angara hydroelectric power station cascade. The backwater of the dam from the Irkutsk hydroelectric complex extends to the lake. Baikal, raising its level by about one meter compared to natural. The reservoir of the hydroelectric complex consists of two parts: Angarsk and lake. Baikal. The total volume of the Angara part of the reservoir is 2.1 km3, of which 0.45 km3 is a useful volume and is used for daily power regulation. The Irkutsk hydroelectric complex is a giant water user in the lake basin. Baikal.

The number of water users is 105, of which 40 belong to the Irkutsk region. All enterprises and organizations registered as water users are divided into 3 sectors of economic activity: housing and communal services, agricultural and industrial, which include all other sectors of industry, transport and services. The main water user is the Baikal Central Control Commission and the city of Baikalsk. The plant takes up up to 92% of water intake and 99% of wastewater discharge from coastal industrial centers of the Irkutsk region.

Basin of the Barguzin River (area 211.0 km2). On its territory there are two administrative districts of the Republic of Buryatia - Kurumkansky, Barguzinsky. The economy has an agrarian direction, includes 7 collective farms, 6 state farms, 2 peasant farms, fisheries, forestry, motor transport and municipal services, agricultural and food processing plants. The number of water users is 61. There are irrigation systems: in the Kurumkansky district - 4, in the Barguzinsky district - 10.

The total population of the Barguzin river basin is about 44,900 people, settlements- 63. Their territory is divided into 17 village councils.

The basis of water use is agricultural water supply - 84.9%: 14.39 million m3 is used annually for irrigation, up to 2 million m3 is allocated annually for other needs, which is 12.5% ​​of the total water withdrawal to the agricultural sector.

River pool Udy (34,800 km2) covers the territories of Zaigraevsky, Khorinsky, Kizhinginsky, 1/3 of the Eravninsky districts and the eastern part of Ulan-Ude. The main tributaries of the Uda River are the Ilka, Khudan, Ona, and Kurba rivers.

There are 104 settlements located here (not counting the city of Ulan-Ude), of which 8 are workers’ villages; which are united by 27 rural somon councils. The number of residents is about 105,200 people. The number of agricultural production enterprises is 50, housing, communal and consumer services - 16 units, 72 industrial facilities and non-agricultural enterprises.

The main water consumers are the agricultural sector (share 75.3%), industry and other sectors with a share of 17.1%, of this share, discharged as wastewater, within 17%. Housing and communal services are allocated 8.5% of the total fence, of which 16.6% are discharged annually.

The Selenga basin includes the territories of 6 administrative districts of the Republic of Buryatia, excluding the basins of tributaries - the Uda, Dzhida, Khilka, Chikoya rivers, which will be considered separately, Pribaikalsky, Kabansky, Ivolginsky, Tarbagataisky, Selenginsky, Kyakhtinsky and the city of Ulan-Ude.

• - territory (within the boundaries Russian Federation) extends from the state border with Mongolia to the coastal strip of Lake. Baikal, including the southern side of the Khamar-Daban ridge - on the left side, and on the right side - borders with the basins of tributaries - the Chikoya, Khilka and Uda rivers, at the turn of the river. Selenga to the north Right side covers the drainage area of ​​the Itantsa River;
• - the basin area is 26,776 km2, about 279,600 people live here in 129 settlements, which are united in 47 village and town councils; there are 11 workers' settlements and 3 cities (Ulan-Ude, Kyakhta, Gusinoozersk);
• - about 250 enterprises use the water resources of the Selenga basin, of which 143 are industrial and other non-agricultural facilities, housing and communal services are represented by 44 water users, agriculture - 62.
• - the pool bears the main industrial load, because within its boundaries there are large industrial facilities: Gusinoozerskaya State District Power Plant, Ulan-Ude CHPP-1 and CHPP-2, Kholboldzhinsky coal mine, industrial facilities of Ulan-Ude, Selenginsky pulp and paper plant, Timlyuysky ACZ and other plants.

The main water consumers are industry and other non-agricultural sectors, their average annual water consumption is 473.25 million m3 (77.7% of total water intake). Housing and communal services account for 10.7% and agricultural water disposal - 56.21 million m3 (9.2% of total water intake).

River pool Dzhidy occupies an area of ​​23,500 km3 and is characterized by the most developed hydrographic network. The basin territory covers the Zakamensky and Dzhidinsky districts of the republic, which have 353,170 hectares of farmland, of which irrigated land - 14,042, non-agricultural land - 7,685 and forest fund - 1,257,350 hectares. Citizens own 11316 and peasant farms- 4620 hectares of land, administrations - 62430 hectares, of which urban (village) - 14990 and rural - 47440 hectares of land.

Settlements - 61 settlements, of which 1 is a city, 3 are workers’ villages. Economic activities are carried out by 64 organizations and enterprises that are registered as water users, which are divided as follows: industry and other sectors - 17, public utilities - 3, agricultural areas - 44.

The basis of water use is irrigation - 41.1%. Industry and housing and communal services use approximately the same amount of water - 4.6 and 4.4 million m3, respectively (22.6%).

Agricultural production does not have wastewater. Drains from industrial facilities - 1.64 million m3, from housing and communal services - 1.29 million m3.

The volume of water use in the Dzhida basin is decreasing annually.

The Khilok river basin is located south of the Uda basin, starting from the Selenga River, it goes in a narrow strip east to the river basin. Vitima. On the northern side it is framed by the Tsagan-Daban and Tsagan-Khurtei ridges. On the lower reaches of the river. Khilok is separated from the Tugnui tributary by the Zagansky ridge. The southern watershed is the Malkhansky and Yablonovy ridges. The area of ​​the basin is 38,500 km2, of which 10,850 km2 belong to the Republic of Buryatia, 27,650 to the Chita region.

On the territory of the basin there are 5 administrative districts, of which 2 (Mukhorshibirsky and Bichursky) belong to the Republic of Buryatia, 3 (Petrovsk-Zabaikalsky, Khiloksky and part of Chita) - to the Chita region. The population is 157,700 people, of which 55,400 people live in the Republic of Buryatia. and in the Chita region - 102,400 people.

In the basin under consideration there are 429,580 hectares of farmland, of which 282,820 hectares are arable land. During the 90s, the reduction in farmland amounted to 510,370 hectares, i.e. the area decreased by 2.2 times.

The largest industrial facilities are the Tugnuisky and Okino-Klyuchevsky coal mines, the Petrovsk-Zabaikalsky steel plant. The main burden of housing and communal services is borne by the housing and communal services of the city of Petrovsk-Zabaikalsk, large workers' settlements - Bichura, Mukhorshibir, Khilok.

The main water consumption is the irrigation system, where 69% of water removal is directed.

River pool Chikoya is located in the most southeastern part of the Baikal region (on the territory of the Russian Federation), bordering on the south with the Orkhon River basin (Mongolia). The mouth area is separated by the Tsagan-Daban and Zagansky ridges from the Khilok River basin. Further, framed by the Malkhansky ridge on the northern side, the basin can be traced parallel to the Khiloksky basin, limited on the southeastern side by the Okinsky ridge. The catchment area of ​​the Chikoya basin is 46,800 km2, of which 10,850 km2 belongs to the Kyakhtinsky administrative district of the Republic of Buryatia and 36,000 km2 to the Krasno-Chikoysky district of the Chita region.

Population of the river basin Chikoya has 45,000 people who live in 57 settlements and own 187,380 hectares of farmland, of which 66,660 hectares are arable land (according to 1997 data), and in 1990 they amounted to 443,020 hectares. Over the nineties, there was a reduction in agricultural land by 255,640 hectares, i.e. their area decreased by 2.4 times. 54 water users are registered in the basin, of which 43 are in agriculture, 7 in industry and 4 in housing and communal services. Agricultural water supply (irrigation) forms the basis of water consumption, the share of which is 87.1%. Industry and other sectors in total use an average of 0.61 million cubic meters or 7%, housing and communal services - 0.16 million cubic meters-1.8%.

The dynamics of water use show that its volume has been falling since the early 80s. The maximum was noted in 1985 at 14.8 million m3, and the minimum was in 1997, when water consumption amounted to 3.05 million m3.

The final picture of water use in the Baikal region as a whole is as follows: average annual water consumption amounted to 890.8 million m3, wastewater discharge - 634.0 million m3, which is equal to 71.2% of the total water intake; average annual water use in industry and other non-agricultural sectors is 605.8 million m3, of which 91.9% is subject to reverse discharge; the share of water use in municipal housing was 9.6% of the total, of which an average of 60.26 million m3 is returned annually in wastewater, which corresponds to 70.3% allocated for municipal needs; Agricultural annual water disposal is within 167.5 million m3, of which 82.2% is used for irrigation of farmland.

Most of the region's water use is based on the rivers of the Selenga River basin, where the average annual water intake accounts for 68.4% of the regional water intake. A significant share is accounted for by water use in coastal strip lake Baikal, where the volume is 15.0%. The degree of participation of the Udinsky basin is 7.2%, Khiloksky - 3.5%, Barguzinsky - 2.5%, Dzhidinsky - 2.2% and Chikoysky basin - 1.2%.

The dynamics of water use in the Baikal region are similar to those in the Selenga basin. The synchronicity and range of fluctuations over time are the same.

Conclusions:

• 1. The volume of water consumption in the Baikal region has decreased significantly since the 90s, especially in agriculture.
• 2. The basis of water consumption in the region is the Selenga basin, since almost the entire industrial complex of the Lake Baikal basin is concentrated on its territory.
• 3. Among industrial water-using facilities, Gusinoozerskaya GRES is the main water consumer, where the average annual volume is in the range of 450-470 million cubic meters.

Pollution of water bodies and main directions of water resource protection

The growth of industrial and agricultural production and high rates of urbanization contributed to the expansion of the use of water resources in Belarus. The intake of river and groundwater has constantly increased, reaching its maximum value of 2.9 km 3 in 1990. Since 1992, as a result of a decline in production, there has been a decrease in water consumption in various sectors of the economy to 1.9 km 3 in 1998 The main consumer of water turned out to be housing and communal services - 43.4% of total consumption; production (industrial) water supply - 31.4%; agricultural water supply and irrigation - 11.0%; fish pond farming 14.2% (use of water resources is reflected in Table 5.2). In the regional aspect, the central part of Belarus stands out, where almost a third of the total volume of used water is consumed, which basically coincides with the economic potential of this region.

Table 5.2

in the Republic of Belarus

Water management is being formed as a branch of the national economy engaged in the study, accounting, planning and forecasting of the integrated use of water resources, the protection of surface and ground water from pollution and depletion, and its transportation to the place of consumption. The main task of water management is
VA - providing all industries and types of economic activity with water in the required quantity and appropriate quality.

Based on the nature of the use of water resources, sectors of the national economy are divided into water consumers and water users. At water consumption water is withdrawn from its sources (rivers, reservoirs, aquifers) and used in industry, agriculture, and for domestic needs; It is part of manufactured products and is subject to contamination and evaporation. Water consumption from the point of view of water resource use is divided into returnable (returned to the source) and irreversible (losses).

Water use It is usually associated with processes where it is not water as such that is used, but its energy or the aquatic environment. Hydropower, water transport, fisheries, recreation and sports systems, etc. are developing on this basis.

Sectors of the national economy make different demands on water resources, so it is most advisable to solve water construction in a comprehensive manner, taking into account the characteristics of each sector and those changes in the regime of ground and surface waters that arise during the construction of hydraulic structures and their operation and disrupt ecological systems. The integrated use of water resources makes it possible to most rationally satisfy the water needs of each sector of the national economy, optimally combine the interests of all water consumers and water users, and save money on the construction of water facilities.

Intensive use of water resources entails a sharp change in their quality parameters as a result of the discharge of a wide variety of pollutants of anthropogenic origin into the water, and their natural ecosystems are destroyed. Water loses its ability to self-purify.

Self-purification in the hydrosphere is associated with the cycle of substances. In water bodies it is ensured by the combined activity of the organisms inhabiting them. Therefore, one of the most important tasks of rational water management is to maintain this capacity. The factors of self-purification of water bodies are numerous and varied; they can be conditionally divided into three groups: physical, chemical and biological.

Among the physical factors that determine the self-purification of water bodies, dilution, dissolution and mixing of incoming pollutants are of paramount importance. The intense flow of the river ensures good mixing and a decrease in the concentration of suspended particles; in lakes, reservoirs, ponds, the effect of physical factors weakens. The settling of insoluble sediments in water, as well as the settling of polluted waters, contributes to the self-purification of water bodies. An important factor in the self-purification of reservoirs is ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Under the influence of this radiation, water is disinfected.

In the process of drainage - a set of sanitary measures and technical devices - the removal of wastewater outside of cities and other populated areas or industrial enterprises is ensured. Water disposal is carried out using stormwater, industrial and domestic, internal and external sewerage.

The processes of intensifying the use of water resources and increasing the volume of wastewater discharged into water bodies are closely interrelated. With increasing water consumption and wastewater disposal, the main danger is the deterioration of water quality. More than half of the wastewater discharged into surface water bodies around the globe does not even undergo preliminary treatment. To maintain the self-purifying ability of water, it is necessary to dilute the wastewater more than tenfold with clean water. According to calculations, 1/7 of the world's river flow resources are currently spent on wastewater disinfection; If wastewater discharges continue to increase, then in the next decade all the world's river flow resources will need to be consumed for this purpose.

The main sources of pollution are wastewater from industrial and municipal enterprises, large livestock complexes and farms, stormwater runoff in cities and the washing away of pesticides and fertilizers from fields by rain streams. Industrial wastewater is generated at various stages of technological processes.

One of the most important problems associated with rational water management is maintaining the required water quality in all water sources. However, most rivers flowing in the areas of large and medium-sized industrial centers experience high anthropogenic impact due to the influx of significant amounts of pollutants into them with wastewater.

Annual volume of water disposal in Belarus for the period 1990 - 1998. decreased significantly: from 2151 to 1315 million m 3, which was due to both the implementation of a number of water protection measures and a decrease in the need for water in production. The most powerful source of water pollution in the country is domestic wastewater, which accounts for two-thirds of the annual volume of wastewater; the share of industrial wastewater is a quarter. Of the total amount of wastewater discharged into surface water bodies (1181 million m 3 in 1998), about one third is normatively clean (discharged without treatment), three fifths are normatively treated and one twentieth is polluted. Untreated wastewater needs to be diluted many times with clean water. Standard purified waters also contain contaminants, and to dilute them, up to 6 - 12 m3 of fresh water is required for every 1 m 3 . As part of wastewater, up to 0.5 thousand tons of petroleum products, 16 - 18 tons of organic substances are discharged into natural water bodies per year,
18 - 20 tons of suspended solids and a significant amount of other pollutants.

The pressure on surface waters is not only caused by wastewater discharges, a large number of pollutants come with melt and storm water from urban areas, agricultural lands and other sources of pollution that do not have a drainage and treatment system.

Given the close relationship between surface and groundwater, pollution processes gradually spread to ever greater depths. Pollution of groundwater near a number of industrial centers was recorded at depths of more than 50 - 70 m (water intakes in the cities of Brest, Grodno, Minsk, Pinsk, etc.). Groundwater is most intensively polluted in built-up parts of settlements, in areas of treatment facilities, filtration fields, landfills, livestock farms and complexes, warehouses for mineral fertilizers and pesticides, fuels and lubricants. Increased concentrations of petroleum products, phenols, heavy metals and nitrates are often found in groundwater.

The territory of Belarus is characterized by nitrate contamination of groundwater and the formation of nitrate-type waters. A survey of wells in rural areas showed that
75 - 80% of them contain over 10 mg/l of nitrate nitrogen, i.e. above the established MPC standard. This is observed throughout the country, but the highest rates of nitrate pollution are in the Minsk, Brest and Gomel regions.

Problems of protection and rational use of water resources in the Republic of Belarus are solved to a large extent through state regulation and, first of all, through a system of forecasting and planning. The main task is to maintain water resources in a condition suitable for the consumer and their reproduction in order to fully satisfy the needs of the national economy and population for water.

The initial basis for forecasting and planning the use of water resources is data from the water cadastre and accounting of water consumption according to the system of water balances, basin (territorial) schemes for the integrated use and protection of water, as well as projects for the redistribution of water between water consumers in river basins. Water cadastre - This is a systematic collection of information about water resources and water quality, as well as about water users and water consumers, and the volumes of water they consume.

The forecast for the use of water resources is based on the calculation of the water balance, which contains resource and expenditure parts. The resource (incoming) part of the water balance takes into account all types of water that can be consumed (natural flow, inflow from reservoirs, groundwater, volume of return water). At the beginning of the 90s. the incoming part of the water balance of the Republic of Belarus was determined in
23.7 km 3, according to the forecast for 2010 it will increase to 24.0 km 3 due to the expansion of groundwater intake. In the expenditure part of the water balance, the need for water is determined by sectors of the national economy, taking into account the preservation of transit flow in rivers to ensure environmental requirements and the necessary sanitary and hygienic condition of reservoirs. The result of the balance calculation is the establishment of the expected reserve or deficit of flow, volume, nature, as well as the timing of the implementation of measures necessary to provide water for the development of the national economy in the forecast period. This takes into account indicators characterizing the reduction in fresh water intake from surface and underground water sources through the improvement and introduction of waterless technological processes, the development of systems for repeated and consistent use of water, the improvement of water supply schemes and other similar measures.

Forecasting water consumption for the long-term period is based on calculations of water supply to the population, industry, agriculture and other sectors of the economy. The volume of water consumption for household, drinking and municipal needs is determined by the size of the urban population and the norms of household and drinking water consumption per inhabitant. For the period until 2010, it is predicted that the entire population of Belarus will be provided with drinking water of standard quality in accordance with physiological standards (at least 400 l/day per person). Industry needs are determined based on calculations of production volume and water consumption standards. To determine the water needs of individual enterprises (associations) and set limits for water supply, individual norms and standards are used. The projected volume of water consumption for the needs of agricultural water supply includes the water demand of the rural population, livestock farming, economic needs of agricultural enterprises and production facilities for processing agricultural raw materials. In long-term forecasts, water consumption volumes are calculated according to long-term standards that take into account the improvement and implementation of waterless technological processes, new equipment, the development of circulating and drainless water supply systems and other achievements of scientific and technological progress in the use of natural resources.

In modern conditions, the water balances of the main river basins are positive. Water withdrawal for domestic and economic purposes does not exceed on average 5-7% of annually renewable resources. A significant increase in water consumption is not expected in the next 10 - 15 years; according to forecasts for 2010, it will be 3-4 km 3. Thus, to meet the water needs, our own water resources (without taking into account transit flow) are quite sufficient; only during dry periods of a low-water year are water shortages possible in the Pripyat, Western Bug, and Dnieper basins.

The rational use of water resources is associated with various organizational and technical measures. Indicators of rational use of water are: the ratio of the volume of water disposal to the volume of fresh water received; frequency of water use, i.e. the ratio of gross water consumption to the volume of fresh water consumption; the number of enterprises that stop discharging untreated and non-neutralized wastewater to the total number of enterprises. Of particular importance are the reduction of the absolute volume of water consumption by reducing irreversible losses and compliance with scientifically based standards and limits of water consumption.

Among the organizational and technical activities that help prevent the depletion of water resources and improve the quality of surface and ground waters is wastewater treatment. The main methods of wastewater treatment are mechanical, biological (biochemical), physicochemical. To eliminate bacterial contamination, wastewater disinfection (disinfection) is used.

Mechanical - the most accessible method - is used mainly to remove undissolved and colloidal particles of organic or mineral origin from waste liquid by simple settling. Mechanical cleaning devices include sand traps used to retain particles of mineral origin; settling tanks necessary to retain suspended impurities of organic origin.

Purification achieves the removal of up to 60% from domestic wastewater, and up to 95% of undissolved impurities from industrial wastewater. It is considered completed if, according to local conditions and in accordance with sanitary rules, the wastewater can be discharged into the reservoir after disinfection. More often, mechanical cleaning is a preliminary stage before biological, or, more precisely, biochemical cleaning.

Biochemical cleaning methods are based on the use of the vital activity of microorganisms-mineralizers, which, by multiplying, process and thereby transform complex organic compounds into simple, harmless minerals. Thus, it is possible to almost completely get rid of organic pollutants remaining in the water after mechanical purification. Plants for biological or biochemical wastewater treatment can be divided into two main types. Facilities in which biological treatment occurs in conditions close to natural (biological ponds, filtration fields, irrigation fields), and structures in which wastewater treatment is carried out in artificially created conditions (biological filters, aeration tanks - special containers). A variant of the basic scheme of wastewater treatment is presented in Fig. 5.1.

Fig.5.1 Schematic diagram of wastewater treatment

Physico-chemical methods of wastewater treatment include: electrochemical electric fields, electrocoagulation, electroflotation, ion exchange, crystallization, etc.

All of the listed methods of wastewater treatment have two ultimate goals: regeneration - extraction of valuable substances from wastewater and destruction - destruction of pollutants and removal of decay products from water. The most promising are such technological schemes, the implementation of which eliminates the discharge of wastewater.

An effective method of combating water pollution is the introduction of repeated and recycled water supply at industrial enterprises. Recycled water supply is such a water supply when water taken from a natural source is then recycled within the framework of the technologies used (cooling or purification) without being discharged into a reservoir or sewerage system. Currently, the volume of recycled and consistent use of water as a percentage of the total volume of water consumption for production needs reaches 89%.

The intensive development of industry and agricultural production, an increase in the level of improvement of cities and towns, and a significant increase in population led to last decades deficit and sharp deterioration in the quality of water resources in almost all regions of Russia.

One of the main ways to meet society's needs for water is the engineering reproduction of water resources, i.e. their restoration and increase not only quantitatively, but also qualitatively.

The prospects for rational reproduction of technological water consumption are associated with the creation of re-sequential, recycling and closed water supply systems at enterprises. They are based on the amazing property of water, which allows it not to change its physical essence after participating in production processes.

Russian industry is characterized by a high level of development of recycling water supply systems, due to which the saving of fresh water spent on production needs averages 78%. The best indicators of using circulating systems are in the gas (97%), oil refining (95%) industries, ferrous metallurgy (94%), chemical and petrochemical (91%) industries, and mechanical engineering (85%).

Maximum water consumption in circulating and re-sequential water supply systems is typical for the Ural, Central, Volga and West Siberian economic regions. In Russia as a whole, the ratio of the volumes of fresh and recycled water use is 35.5 and 64.5%, respectively.

The widespread introduction of advanced water circulation systems (even closed ones) can not only solve the problem of water supply to consumers, but also preserve natural water sources in an environmentally friendly state.

Use of water resources

In recent years, due to economic destabilization, which led to a drop in industrial output, a decrease in agricultural productivity and a reduction in irrigated areas, there has been a decrease in water consumption in Russia (for 1991-1995, fresh water - by 20.6%, sea water - by 13.4%). The structure of fresh water use has also changed: water consumption for industrial needs decreased by 4% (from 53% in 1991 to 49% in 1995), for irrigation and water supply - by 3% (from 19 to 16%), at the same time the share of domestic drinking water supply increased by 4% (from 16 to 20%).

By 1997, the volume of fresh water use in Russia amounted to 75780.4 million m3/year, sea water - 4975.9 million m3/year.

Municipal water supply

Russia's public utilities supply the water needs of the urban population, municipal, transport and other non-industrial enterprises, as well as water consumption for the improvement of populated areas, watering streets and extinguishing fires.

A distinctive feature of public utilities is the consistency of water consumption and strict requirements for water quality.

The main volume (84-86%) of consumed water is used for household and drinking needs of the population; on average in Russia, specific water consumption per city resident is 367-369 l/day.

About 99% of cities, 82% of urban settlements, 19.5% of settlements in rural areas are provided with centralized water supply. The improvement of urban housing stock on average across the country is characterized by the following indicators: provision of central water supply - 83.8%, sewerage - 81.4%, central heating - 84.7%, baths and showers - 76.7%, hot water supply - 70.8% (data for 1996).

Industry enterprises discharge about 13 km 3/year of wastewater into surface water bodies; for various reasons, insufficiently purified water predominates in the structure of discharged water. In the whole country, about 70% of all supplied water is pre-passed through treatment systems.

Due to the unfavorable state of drinking water supply sources and the imperfection of the water treatment system, the problem of water quality continues to be acute. Standard treatment facilities, including a two-stage scheme of clarification, decolorization and disinfection, cannot cope with the increasing loads of new pollutants (heavy metals; pesticides, halogen-containing compounds, phenols, formaldehydes). Chlorination of water containing organic substances that accumulate in water sources leads to secondary pollution and the formation of carcinogenic organochlorine compounds.

About 70% of industrial enterprises discharge wastewater into public sewers, which, in particular, contains salts of heavy metals and toxic substances. The sludge formed during the treatment of such wastewater cannot be used in agriculture, which creates problems with its disposal.

Industrial water supply

Industrial water supply, which ensures the functioning of technological processes, is the leading area of ​​water use. Industrial water supply systems include hydraulic structures for collecting process water and delivering it to enterprises, as well as water treatment systems.

The industrial potential of each economic region of the Russian Federation is represented by almost all major industries. There are also areas where very specific industries are predominantly concentrated. For example, 46% of light industry production is concentrated in the Central Economic Region, the Ural Economic Region accounts for about 70% of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy products, and the West Siberian Region accounts for 46% of the fuel industry.

The volume of water consumption depends on the structure of industrial enterprises, the level of technology, and the measures taken to save water. The most water-intensive industries are thermal power engineering, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, mechanical engineering, petrochemical and wood processing industries. The most water-intensive industry, the electric power industry, accounts for about 68% of the total consumption of fresh water and 51% of recycled water.

Since most industrial facilities are concentrated in major cities, in Russia, integrated industrial-municipal water supply systems have gained priority, which, in turn, leads to unreasonably high costs for industrial needs of drinking quality water (up to 30-40% of the daily supply of city water supply systems).

Industrial enterprises are the main source of surface water pollution, annually discharging large amounts of waste water (in 1996 - 35.5 km"). They are especially diverse in their properties and chemical composition wastewater from the chemical, petrochemical, oil refining, pulp and paper and coal industries. Despite the sufficient capacity of treatment facilities, only 83-85% of discharged wastewater meets regulatory requirements. In the structure of discharged waters containing pollutants above the standard level, discharge without treatment currently amounts to 23% (28% in 1991); the remaining waters are discharged insufficiently purified.

Agricultural water supply

In rural areas, water supply is carried out mainly through local systems and through individual provision of water users. Local water supply systems are very strong degree depend on the quality of water in the sources and, if necessary, are equipped with special structures. In areas with high rural population density, group systems are used.

For the needs of the industry, about 28% of the total volume of water withdrawn is taken from natural water sources.

Among agricultural sectors, the main consumer of fresh water and a major polluter of surface water bodies, discharging untreated wastewater through the collector and drainage network, is irrigated agriculture. A serious danger to surface water bodies is the removal of fertilizers and pesticides from agricultural fields.

Another large consumer of water and a powerful source of pollution of surface and groundwater are livestock complexes for raising cattle, pigs, and poultry. Purification of livestock wastewater is associated with great difficulties, since it must be kept in storage ponds for a long time before being discharged into water bodies.

Water transport

Water transport is perhaps the most ancient water user. Up to 50 million tons of cargo are transported along Russia's inland waterways (rivers, lakes, reservoirs, canals), with a total length of over 400 thousand km.

When using rivers and other water bodies for navigation, it is necessary to maintain guaranteed depths, flow regimes and other conditions that ensure the uninterrupted operation of water transport during the navigation period.

In a number of cases, the interests of water transport conflict with the interests of other water users and water consumers, such as water supply, irrigation, and hydropower. For example, hydraulic construction, on the one hand, makes it possible to increase the depth and width of the waterway, eliminate rapids, and on the other hand, it introduces serious complications into the operation of water transport by reducing the duration of the navigation period, sharp daily and weekly fluctuations in flow rates and water levels in the downstream of hydroelectric power stations. .

Water transport, without placing high demands on water quality, is one of the significant sources of pollution of water bodies with oil products and suspended substances.

Timber rafting has a very adverse effect on the ecological state of water bodies, changing the natural state of riverbeds, clogging water bodies with submerged wood, and destroying spawning areas.

Fisheries

Fisheries are directly related to the use of water resources and place very high demands on their regime, quantity and quality. For successful reproduction and normal development of fish, clean water with a sufficient amount of dissolved oxygen and the absence of harmful impurities, appropriate temperature and food supply are necessary. Water quality standards for fisheries are more stringent than for drinking water supplies.

In Russia, about 30% of catches in inland seas and reservoirs come from freshwater fish(pike, bream, pike perch, roach, perch, carp, whitefish, stellate sturgeon, beluga, salmon, chum salmon, pink salmon). In recent years, there has been a decline in catches, which is due to a decrease in the productivity of fisheries as a result of intense anthropogenic impact.

The increase in fish reproduction is carried out through artificial fish breeding in fish hatcheries, spawning and nursery farms, and fish hatcheries. A very promising direction is the cultivation of fish in cooling ponds of thermal power plants.

Recreation

Water bodies are a favorite place for recreation, sports, and people's health. Almost all recreational institutions and structures are located either on the banks of water bodies or near them. In recent years, the scale of recreational activities on water bodies has been constantly growing, which is facilitated by an increase in the urban population and improved transport communications.

In the Russian Federation, about 60% of all sanatoriums and over 80% of recreational facilities are located on the banks of reservoirs. 60% of tourist centers and 90% of recreational facilities for the largest suburban holiday in the country.

2.1 Municipal, industrial and agricultural water supply

Communal water supply. The share of municipal water supply in the total volume of water consumed both in the world and in Russia is relatively small, but it is of decisive importance for the life of society. Lack of clean drinking water is one of the main causes of severe infectious diseases. More than half of the world's population uses water that does not meet sanitary and hygienic requirements.

In Russia, with regard to municipal water supply, the highest security indicator has been adopted - 97% in terms of the number of uninterrupted years. Municipal water supply is designed to satisfy the population's needs for water, therefore very high demands are placed on its quality, both in terms of physical properties and chemical and bacteriological indicators. To bring the quality of water into compliance with sanitary and hygienic standards, it is filtered, coagulated, chlorinated or fluoridated for disinfection, and enriched with ammonia to improve taste.

Standards for domestic and drinking water supply depend on the improvement of the housing stock of the settlement, climatic, and often historical conditions. Water consumption per person ranges from 30-50 to 400 l/day or more. Fluctuations in water consumption abroad are also significant. So in London there are 260 liters per person per person, and in New York - 600 liters per day. On average in Russia, urban water consumption is estimated at 450 l/day, of which 50% goes for household and drinking water, 20% for municipal water use and 30% for industrial needs. In many small towns and villages, specific water consumption is 1.5-2 times lower than the national average.

About 60% of water for public water supply is taken from surface and slightly more than 40% from underground sources with best quality waters due to their minimal pollution chemicals chemicals and pathogenic microbes.

Further improvement of water use in municipal services requires a number of measures, among which should be mentioned: centralized water supply in coming years the entire urban population (currently - 98% of cities and 86% of urban-type settlements); worldwide savings and reduction of drinking water losses; stabilization of specific water consumption; development and implementation of improved water supply and distribution systems; a significant increase in the level of mechanization and automation of technological processes of water use.

Water supply for industry. Industry is one of the largest consumers of water. Different industries have different requirements for water quantity and quality. So, for production 1 t cotton fabric about 250 m3 of water is consumed, 1 t synthetic fiber- 2500-5000 m3. The chemical industry requires a lot of water: about 1000 m3 of water is used in the production of 1 ton of ammonia and 2000 m3 - 1 ton of synthetic rubber. Non-ferrous metallurgy is also a water-intensive consumer: 1 ton of nickel consumes 4,000 m3 of water. It should be borne in mind that at enterprises of the same industry, depending on the technological level of production, different amounts of water are used to produce 1 ton of product; for example, to produce 1 ton of oil, from 0.1 to 50 m3 of water is required. Typically, water consumption at related enterprises differs by 5-10 times.

Industrial water supply systems pay great attention to the volume of water consumed. With a direct-flow system, water from water supply sources is supplied to the enterprise, and after use and purification, and sometimes without it, it is returned to the source. In recycling water supply systems, water after technological process cooled, cleaned and then sent back to production cycle. The system is periodically replenished with fresh water to compensate for losses. In a repeated water supply system, water used in some processes is transferred for use in other processes of the same or other enterprises and then, after appropriate treatment, is discharged into water bodies. Often the last two systems are combined. Irreversible water consumption in industry is most often small and ranges from 2 to 20% depending on the nature of production and the technology used, and only in rare cases, such as in the oil refining industry, reaches 50%. Irreversible water consumption consists of the volume of water included in the product and losses at all stages of the technological process.

Water in industrial production is used as a raw material and solvent. The coolant, finally, is a medium that absorbs and transports dissolved impurities. Most of it is used in industry for cooling: for example, in thermal power engineering - 85% of the total consumption; The bulk of water is used for the same purposes at metallurgical plants.

Despite the widespread introduction of recycled water supply - on average up to 75%, and in some industries even more, industry annually withdraws about 50 km3 of water from water bodies, including approximately 4 km3 of sea water. Industrial enterprises annually discharge over 30 km3 of water into water bodies, while only about half of the discharged water is subjected to all types of treatment (mechanical, biological and physico-chemical), and approximately 5-7% of water is discharged without treatment at all.

In the context of the planned acceleration of development industrial production implementation of measures aimed at improving the use of water resources becomes important. The most important among these measures are the following: standardization of the quantity and quality of water consumed in various industries per unit of production; further expansion of the capacity of recycling water supply systems and closed water supply systems and closed water use systems; use of treated municipal wastewater in a number of industries; worldwide reduction in water leakage; recycling of sediments in wastewater from industrial enterprises and their processing for further use in the national economy.

It should be borne in mind that along with a reduction in the specific consumption of fresh water in some industries, such as oil and gas, in the future the consumption will increase, as the conditions for the development and operation of wells become more complicated.

Agricultural consumption. The annual water consumption in rural areas in our country is about 12 km3. The main consumers of water are rural settlements, livestock farming, agricultural processing enterprises, as well as production areas for equipment maintenance.

A characteristic feature of water supply to rural settlements is large intra-daily unevenness, significant volumes of irrecoverable water consumption due to the poor development of sewerage systems and relatively low specific water consumption per capita - 30-100 l/day. In general, 33% of rural settlements have centralized water supply. Compared to municipal water supply in cities, the condition of water intake structures in rural areas is at a lower technical level.

Groundwater is mainly used for agricultural water supply. The use of surface water is widespread only in some regions of Russia - the Volga region, West Siberia and Far East (30-35%).

Livestock farming is a significant consumer of water in rural areas. Animal water consumption rates range from 2 l/day (lamb) to 200 l/day (cow). Water withdrawn for livestock needs must meet the same requirements as water used for domestic and drinking purposes. Drinking contaminated water to livestock reduces animal productivity by 40-70%. In the southern regions of the country, livestock farming cannot develop without watering vast pastures, which, as a rule, They have very limited water resources.

To improve agricultural water supply, the following is required: the introduction of centralized water supply and sanitation systems with biological wastewater treatment facilities; increasing recycling and reuse of water; thorough treatment of wastewater and its use for irrigation of agricultural crops; improvement of water intake from surface sources; desalination of mineralized waters; usage solar energy and wind power to lift water. Increasing the improvement of rural settlements and increasing the volume of agricultural products will inevitably lead to an increase in agricultural water supply and sanitation in the near future.