Classicism (from Latin classicus - first-class) is a trend in art, literature and aesthetics of the 17th-18th centuries. The aesthetics of classicism guided poets, artists, composers to create works of art that are distinguished by clarity, consistency, strict balance and harmony. All this, according to the classicists, found its full expression in ancient art culture. For them, reason and antiquity are synonyms. The rationalistic nature of the aesthetics of classicism manifested itself in the abstract typification of images, strict regulation of genres, forms, in the abstract interpretation of the ancient artistic heritage, in the appeal of art to reason, and not to feelings, in an effort to subordinate the creative process to unshakable rules and canons. The most holistic aesthetic system was formed by French classicism. His ideological basis was the French rationalism of Reme Descartes(1596-1650). In his programmatic work Discourse on Method (1637), the philosopher emphasized that the structure of the rational completely coincides with the structure of the real world, and rationalism is the idea of ​​fundamental mutual understanding. Submission to the state, the fulfillment of the public duty is the highest virtue of the individual. The human thinker is no longer as a free being, which is characteristic of the Renaissance worldview, but subordinate to norms and rules alien to him, limited by forces beyond his control. This period is characterized not only by the consolidation of the absolutist power, but also by the flourishing of manufacture, which the Renaissance did not know. Thus, the characterized period is distinguished by the victory of regulatory manufacturing production, successes in the field of exact sciences, and the flourishing of rationalism in philosophy. In these conditions, the theory and practice of the aesthetics of classicism is taking shape.

Rationalism and normativeism of classicism aesthetics. Classicism is one of the most important areas of art. Having established itself in the works and creativity of many generations, putting forward a brilliant galaxy of poets and writers, painters and musicians, architects, sculptors and actors, classicism left such milestones on the path of the artistic development of mankind as tragedies Corneille, Racine, Milton, Voltaire, comedy Moliere, music Lully, poetry Lafontaine, park and architectural ensemble of Versailles, paintings by Poussin.

According to the codes of art, the artist was first and foremost required "nobility of design." The plot of the picture must have had an edifying value. Therefore, all kinds of allegories were especially highly valued, in which more or less conventionally taken ways of life directly expressed general ideas. The highest genre was considered "historical", which included ancient mythology, plots from famous literary works, from the Bible, and the like. Portrait, landscape, scenes of real life were considered a "small genre". The most insignificant genre was still life.

Establishing strict rules for creativity is one of the characteristic features of the aesthetics of classicism. A work of art was understood by the classicists not as a naturally occurring organism; but as an artificial work, created, created by human hands according to a plan, with a specific task and purpose.

The most fully expounded the rules and norms of classicism, the largest theorist of this direction Nicola Boileau(1636-1711) in the treatise "Poetic Art", which was conceived on the model of the "Science of Poetry" ("Epistle to the Pisons") by Horace and completed in 1674.

The concept of classicism First, there is practically no doubt about the fact that classicism is one of the artistic methods that actually existed in the history of literature (sometimes it is also denoted by the terms "direction" and "style"), that is, the concept of classicism as a creative method presupposes its own content is the historically conditioned method of aesthetic perception and modeling of reality in artistic images: the picture of the world and the concept of personality, the most common for the mass aesthetic consciousness of a given historical era, are embodied in ideas about the essence of verbal art, its relationship with reality, its own internal laws. Secondly, the thesis that classicism arises and is formed in certain historical and cultural conditions is just as indisputable. The most widespread research belief associates classicism with the historical conditions of the transition from feudal fragmentation to a single national-territorial statehood, in the formation of which the centralizing role belongs to the absolute monarchy. This is a necessary historical stage of social development, therefore the third irrefutable thesis of the researchers of classicism boils down to the fact that classicism is an organic stage in the development of any national culture, despite the fact that different national cultures pass the classicist stage at different times, due to the individuality of the national version of the formation of a common social model of a centralized state. The chronological framework of the existence of classicism in different European cultures is defined as the second half of the 17th - the first thirty years of the 18th century, despite the fact that the early classicist trends are felt at the end of the Renaissance, at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. Within these chronological limits, French classicism is considered the standard embodiment of the method. Closely associated with the flourishing of French absolutism in the second half of the 17th century, it gave European culture not only great writers - Corneille, Racine, Moliere, Lafontaine, Voltaire, but also the great theoretician of classicist art - Nicolas Boileau-Despreot. Being himself a practicing writer who earned a lifetime fame for his satyrs, Boileau was mainly famous for the creation of the aesthetic code of classicism - the didactic poem Poetic Art (1674), in which he gave a coherent theoretical concept of literary creativity, derived from the literary practice of his contemporaries. Thus, classicism in France became the most self-conscious embodiment of the method. Hence its reference value. The historical prerequisites for the emergence of classicism link the aesthetic problems of the method with the era of exacerbation of the relationship between the individual and society in the process of the formation of an autocratic statehood, which, replacing the social permissiveness of feudalism, seeks to regulate by law and clearly distinguish between the spheres of public and private life and the relationship between the individual and the state. This determines the content aspect of literature. The basic principles of poetics are motivated by the system of philosophical views of the era. They form the picture of the world and the concept of personality, and already these categories are embodied in the totality of artistic techniques of literary creativity.

The most general philosophical concepts that are present in all philosophical trends of the second half of the 17th - the end of the 18th century. and directly related to the aesthetics and poetics of classicism - these are the concepts of "rationalism" and "metaphysics", relevant for both idealistic and materialistic philosophical teachings of this time. The founder of the philosophical doctrine of rationalism is the French mathematician and philosopher Rene Descartes (1596-1650). The fundamental thesis of his doctrine: "I think, therefore I exist" - was realized in many philosophical movements of that time, united by the common name "Cartesianism" (from the Latin version of the name Descartes - Cartesius). In essence, this thesis is idealistic, since it deduces the material existence from an idea. However, rationalism, as an interpretation of reason as the primary and highest spiritual ability of man, is to the same extent characteristic of the materialistic philosophical currents of the era, such as, for example, the metaphysical materialism of the English philosophical school of Bacon-Locke, which recognized experience as a source of knowledge, but put it below the generalizing and analytical activity of the mind, which extracts the highest idea from the multitude of facts obtained by experience, the means of modeling the cosmos - the highest reality - from the chaos of individual material objects. The concept of "metaphysics" is equally applicable to both varieties of rationalism - idealistic and materialistic. Genetically, it goes back to Aristotle, and in his philosophical doctrine it denoted a branch of knowledge that explores the higher and unchanging principles of all things inaccessible to the senses and only rationally-speculatively comprehended. Both Descartes and Bacon used the term in the Aristotelian sense. In modern times, the concept of "metaphysics" has acquired additional meaning and began to denote an anti-dialectical way of thinking, perceiving phenomena and objects outside their interconnection and development. Historically, this very accurately characterizes the peculiarities of thinking in the analytical era of the 17th-18th centuries, the period of differentiation of scientific knowledge and art, when each branch of science, standing out from the syncretic complex, acquired its own separate subject, but at the same time lost its connection with other branches of knowledge. As we will see later, a similar process took place in art.

Having established the ratio of the accentology of the Russian and the ancient languages: “the longitude and brevity of syllables in this new Russian versification is not as clear as that of the Greeks and Latins<...> , but only tonic, that is, consisting in a single stress of the voice ”(368), Trediakovsky in his reform followed the path of consistent analogies. The sounds of the language differ in their quality: they are vowels and consonants. The semantic unit following the sound - the syllable - consists of sounds of different quality, and the vowel is the syllabic. Syllables are combined into a larger semantic unit - a word, and within a word one syllable - stressed - is qualitatively different from the others; word-forming is the stressed syllable, which is always one in any word and can be combined with any number of unstressed syllables, just as in a syllable one vowel sound can be combined with one or more consonants. So, Trediakovsky comes close to the idea of ​​a new rhythmic unit of verse - the foot, which is a combination of a stressed one with one or several unstressed syllables. The smallest rhythmic unit of a tonic verse is a long sound, regularly repeated within a verse at regular intervals, composed of short sounds. The smallest rhythmic unit of a syllabic verse is a syllable, by the number of which in one verse its rhythm is determined. Combining stressed and unstressed syllables for Russian versification into groups repeating within the verse, Trediakovsky enlarges the smallest rhythmic unit of the verse, taking into account the number of syllables in the verse (syllabic) and the different quality of stressed and unstressed sounds. Thus, combining the syllabic and tonic principles of versification in the concept of the foot, Trediakovsky comes to the discovery and scientific substantiation of the syllabo-tonic versification system. Defining the foot: “Measure, or a part of a verse, consisting of two syllables in our country” (367), Trediakovsky identified the following types of feet: spondeus, pyrrhic, trochee (trocheus) and iambic, especially stipulating the need for regular repetition of feet in verse. Starting with the chorea or iambic feet, the verse should continue with the same feet. This is how a productive sound model of Russian rhythmized verse is created, which differs from prose, as Trediakovsky puts it, “in measure and fall, than the verse is sung” (366) - that is, by regular repetition of the same combinations of stressed and unstressed syllables within one verse and passing from verse to verse into within the entire poetic text. However, this is where Trediakovsky's positive achievements in the field of Russian versification end. For a number of objective reasons, his reform in a specific application to Russian versification turned out to be limited by Trediakovsky's too strong connection with the tradition of Russian syllabics: it was on this that he was guided in his poetry studies: “the use of all our poets accepted” (370) had a decisive influence on the degree the radicality of the conclusions that Trediakovsky dared to draw from his epoch-making discovery. The limitation of his reform is already noticeable in the fact that the "New and Short Method ..." does not even mention three-syllable feet - dactyl, anapest and amphibrachium, although later, in search of analogues of the Homeric hexameter, Trediakovsky develops a magnificent and perfect model of six-foot dactyl - a metric analogue of the ancient hexameter in Russian versification. This unconditional preference for two-syllable feet in general, and chorea in particular - "that verse is perfect and better in all numbers, which consists only of chorea" (370) - testifies to the unresolved power of the syllabic tradition over Trediakovsky's metric thinking. It has already been said above that every Russian syllabic verse had an obligatory stressed syllable - the penultimate one. Thus, each syllabic verse ended with a chorea foot, which determined the feminine type of clause and rhyme. And as an obligatory element of the Russian syllabic verse, this final chorea foot had a rather strong rhythmic effect on the entire verse: the words in the verse were often selected and arranged in such a way that a tendency arose to order the rhythm of the verse according to the laws of chorea, which led to a drop in stress on odd syllables ... Of course, this was quite spontaneous, but, nevertheless, according to the calculations of researchers, such random choreic verses in the Russian syllabic were up to 40%. Here is a typical example from Satire I by A.D. Kantemir: If in the first verse the stresses are quite random and fall on the 2nd, 5th, 9th, 11th and 12th syllables, then in the second there is a clear tendency for the stress to fall on odd syllables: 1, 3 , 5, 7, 8, 12th. It is not disturbed by the fact that after the seventh syllable the stress begins to fall on even syllables - 8 and 12, since between the seventh and eighth syllables there is a caesura - an intonation pause, equal in duration to an unstressed syllable and making up for its absence. It was precisely this tendency of Russian syllabic verse towards self-organization in the rhythm of the chorea that Trediakovsky saw. And this explains both his addiction to chorea, and his conviction that Russian versification is characterized only by two-syllable feet. Further, it is necessary to note the fact that in the sphere of Trediakovsky's attention, as the object of the reform, was only a long verse - a syllabic 11- and 13-compound. Trediakovsky did not work with short poems at all, believing that they did not need reform. And his judgment was not entirely unfounded: on short verses, the final foot of the chorea had an incomparably stronger rhythmic influence, so that they often turned out to be completely tonically correct. For example, the famous poem of Feofan Prokopovich on the Prut campaign of Peter I was written in an almost correct 4-foot chorea: The fact that Trediakovsky limited his reform to one type of verse - a long one, and also prescribed for him one and only possible rhythm - choreic, had several more consequences, also tending to limit the practical application of syllabo-tonics in the field of clauses and rhymes. Firstly, in accordance with the traditions of the heroic 13-complex, who has a paired rhyme, Trediakovsky recognized only it, negatively regarding the cross and encompassing types of rhyme. Secondly, the type of rhyme and clause (feminine) dictated by the chorea excluded the possibility of masculine and dactylic endings and rhymes, as well as the possibility of their alternation. As a result, it turned out that Trediakovsky, the discoverer of the syllabo-tonic principle of versification, created only one type of syllabo-tonic verse. The syllabic thirteen-syllable, reformed by him, from the modern point of view, is something like a seven-foot chorea with the fourth foot truncated to one stressed syllable. The second stage of the reform of Russian versification was carried out by Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov in his "Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry", which he, then studying in Germany, sent from Marburg to St. Petersburg with the text of his first solemn ode "On the capture of Khotin" in 1739 "Letter. .. "Lomonosov was the result of his careful study of" A new and short method ... "Trediakovsky. Lomonosov did not doubt the main provisions of Trediakovsky's reform: he fully shares the conviction of his predecessor that “Russian poetry should be composed according to the natural property of our language; and what is very unusual for him, from other languages ​​not to bring. " Despite the fact that Lomonosov here does not use the words “syllabic versification”, “polyaccent of the Russian language” and “Polish versification”, it is quite obvious that we are talking about precisely the accentological discrepancy between the Polish versification (“other languages”) and the “natural property” of the Russian language - loose stress. Moreover, the first rule, proposed by Lomonosov as the basis of the principle of versification, testifies that Lomonosov, like Trediakovsky, considers accentology to be the basis of versification and fully shares the analogy of forcefulness-unstressedness with longitude-brevity, proposed by Trediakovsky: “First: in the Russian language those only syllables are debts, over which there is power, and the rest are all short ”(466). However, further significant differences begin: already in the second rule, concerning the composition of Russian verses, there is an obvious protest against Trediakovsky's restrictions caused by the latter's adherence to the syllabic tradition:

In all Russian correct verses, long and short, our language should use the characteristic feet, established by a certain number and order, to use. They are what should be, the property of the words in our language teaches it.<...>In the treasure of our language we have an inexhaustible wealth of long and short utterances; so that in our verses there is no need to introduce double-syllable and tri-syllable feet (467-468).

In one rule, Lomonosov removes two of Trediakovsky's restrictions at once - short poems, in his opinion, are subject to reform as well as long ones, and Trediakovsky's set of two-syllable feet is supplemented with three-syllable feet. In total, Lomonosov offers six types of feet: iambic, anapest, yamboanapest, formed from an iambic foot in combination with an anapesta foot, trochee, dactyl and dactylochorei, made up of chorea and dactyl feet. A natural consequence of this expansion of the range of rhythms was the assumption of different types of rhyming, as well as the assertion of the possibility of alternating clauses and rhymes:

<...>Russian poetry is red and characteristic of masculine, feminine and three letters have vowels in themselves[dactylic] rhymes<...>may end;<...>before we masculine, feminine and trigonal we can have rhymes, then the change, which always delights human feelings, tells them to mix decently (471. Lomonosov's italics).

Finally, the consistent abolition of all restrictions imposed by Trediakovsky on the use of the syllabo-tonic principle led Lomonosov to the idea of ​​the need to introduce another rhythmic determinant of verse that Trediakovsky lacks. Since Trediakovsky worked only with long verse, he did not need the concept of meter. And Lomonosov, who worked with both short and long verses, came face to face with the need to define the verse not only by the type of rhythm (iambic, trochee, etc.), but also by length. So in his "Letter ..." the concept of size is formed, although the very term "size" Lomonosov does not use, but only lists the existing sizes, denoting them with the Greek terms hexameter (six-foot), pentameter (five-foot), tetrameter (four-foot), trimeter ( tricycle) and diameter (two-stop). Six types of feet, each of which can be used in five dimension variants, give the theoretical possibility of the existence of "thirty kinds" of poem (470). Compared with one "genus" - Trediakovsky's seven-foot chorea, Lomonosov's thirty metric-rhythmic versions of poetry are already a whole poetic system. Of course, Lomonosov was not free from subjective bias in the field of versification. But if the source of Trediakovsky's subjective addiction to chorea was the irresistible power of the syllabic tradition, then Lomonosov's love for iambus had deeper aesthetic foundations. The ascending intonation, which determines the rhythmic pattern of the iambic foot, corresponded to the high status of the genre of solemn ode, and the main reason for Lomonosov's addiction to iambic was this harmony of form and content:

<...>pure iambic verses, although difficult to compose, however, rose quietly upward, matter nobility, magnificence and height multiply. They can nowhere better be used than in the solemn odes that I have performed in my present (470).

There was only one unproductive moment in the entire Lomonosov reform - this is the requirement for the purity of the rhythm, the restriction on the use of pyrrhic in two-syllable meters (iambic and chorea). However, this did not have the character of a ban or a strict prescription. And in practice, Lomonosov very quickly abandoned this position, since the non-use of pyrrhic in two-syllable meters limited verses lexically. The maximum word length in pure iambic and choreic verses without pyrrhicles is no more than three syllables, and any limitation abhorred the very spirit of the Lomonosov reform carried out under the motto: “Why should we neglect this [Russian language] wealth, endure unauthorized poverty<...>? " (471). Thus, the gradual implementation of the reform of Russian versification ultimately confirmed the syllabo-tonic principle of versification in Russian poetry, which corresponds as much as possible to the accentology of the Russian language and is still the fundamental principle of Russian versification. Trediakovsky in this reform is the discoverer, the author of the theoretical substantiation and the first experience in the practical application of the principle, while Lomonosov is a systematizer who extended the scope of its application to all poetry practice without exception.

Regulation of the genre system of Russian literature in the aesthetics of A.P. Sumarokova The next normative act of Russian classicism was the regulation of the genre system of Russian literature, carried out in 1748 by Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov in a poetic didactic message based on the traditions of Horace's aesthetic message "To the Pison (On the Art of Poetry)" and N. Boileau's didactic poem "Poetic Art ". Printed in 1748 as a separate pamphlet "Two Epistles (The first one suggests about the Russian language, and the second about poetry)" by Sumarokov, later combined by him under the title "Instructions to the Writer Who Wants to Be," provided the developing Russian classicism with an aesthetic code, which, for all its orientation towards the European aesthetic tradition, was quite original both in its description of literary genres (since it focused on the Russian literary process), and in its relationship with the living literary process (since in a number of cases theoretical descriptions of genres preceded their actual appearance in Russian literature). Thus, the name of Sumarokov with Russian classicism is associated with a particularly strong associative link: he acted both as a theorist of the method and as its recognized leader in his literary practice. As for the general aesthetic provisions of "Two Epistles ...", they practically do not differ from the main theses of European classicism: in Sumarokov's view, literary creation is a rational process:

The genre system of literature seemed to Sumarokov to be clearly hierarchically organized: in the theoretical aspect, he put forward a general classical position on the inadmissibility of mixing high and low styles, but in practice, as we will see later, his own high and low genre models were in constant interaction:

At the same time, Sumarokov's Two Epistles ... testify to a certain aesthetic independence of Russian classicism, to its reliance on the living practice of Russian literature of the 18th century. In addition to the "exemplary" Western European writers, the text of the epistle about poetry mentions Kantemir, Feofan Prokopovich and Lomonosov, and in a characteristic comparative context: the satirist Kantemir is likened to the satirist Boileau; in his opinion, he occupied in Russian literature, likened Voltaire. Most of all, Sumarokov's orientation towards national trends in literary development is noticeable in the composition of the genres to which he characterizes in his epistles. So, for example, he practically did not devote space to the highest genre of European classicism - the epic poem - he briefly mentioned the very fact of the existence of the literary epic. Exceptionally detailed and fully characterized those genres that in Russian literature took on the charge of satirical exposure and didactics - satire as such, the heroic-comic poem (a parody of an epic), fable and comedy, and the very characterization of comedy is also very original. If Boileau, describing comedy, fluently enumerates comedic types of characters and focuses mainly on the plot, intrigue, witty and brilliant style, then the whole Sumarokian characterization of the genre comes down to characterology: Russian comedy, which has yet to appear in literature, differs from Western European comedy precisely on this basis: the French comedy is mainly a comedy of intrigue, the Russian one is a comedy of character:

Even in this cursory essay, it is obvious that the comedic characters in the presentation of Sumarokov are incomparably brighter and more concrete than the common human "fat, miser and wasteful" Boileau. In the cases when Sumarokov describes genres that already exist in Russian literature, he relies precisely on national and not on European genre models. This happens, for example, with the characterization of the song (Boileau does not have it), which has been very popular since the Peter the Great era. , and also with the characteristics of the solemn ode, described according to the genre model that developed in the work of Lomonosov:

But, perhaps, the most important proof of Sumarokov's orientation towards national aesthetic problems is the leitmotif of the need for a special poetic language, internally organizing the entire problematic of Two Epistles ... the main difficulties of the formation of Russian literature in the XVIII century. The cross-cutting demand for "purity of syllable" following the "order in verse" already achieved as a result of the versification reform, supported by Sumarokov's conviction that "Our beautiful language is capable of anything," directly connects the emerging problem of the style reform of the Russian literary language with hierarchical genre thinking. fixed in "Two epistles ...". Having arranged genres along the hierarchical ladder of high and low, Sumarokov came close to realizing the necessary aesthetic correlation between genre and style:

And even the main direction of the future style reform, namely, the establishment of the proportions of the spoken Russian language and the stylistics of the Slavic literary writing, was already quite obvious to Sumarokov in 1748: in addition to the declaration of the necessity of the Russian literary language ("We need a language like the Greeks had" ), Sumarokov directly points out the path on which this universal norm could be achieved:
Reform of the style of the literary language of M.V. Lomonosov It was in this direction - having established the proportions of Slavisms in the literary language and firmly regulating the norms of their compatibility with Rusisms - that Lomonosov carried out the reform of the literary language in the "Preface on the Use of Church Books in the Russian Language" - the latest normative act of Russian classicism (this work of Lomonosov presumably dated 1758), thus finally securing solid and clear ideas about the laws of verbal art. In his style reform, Lomonosov was guided by the most important tasks of the literary theory of classicism - the need to differentiate literary styles and establish strong genre-style correspondences - and the objective linguistic reality of the first half of the 18th century. in Russia. This was a situation of a kind of bilingualism, since all this time in Russia there were simultaneously two varieties of a book written language. One of them is the tradition of Old Russian bookishness, liturgical literature in Church Slavonic (in the 18th century it was called “Slavonic” as opposed to “Russian” - Russian), which, although it was closely related to Russian, was still a different language. The second is the tradition of everyday business writing, incomparably closer to the lively spoken Russian language, but having a distinct clerical character - it was the written language of official business papers, correspondence and documents. Neither tradition could meet the demands of the language of fine literature. And, implementing the style reform, Lomonosov proceeded from the main thing: the centuries-old Russian bilingualism, the functioning of the Slavic language of ancient bookishness along with the living Russian colloquial language led to a very deep and organic assimilation of a large number of Slavisms by these latter. Compare, for example, the Slavisms “enemy”, “brave” instead of the Russianisms “vorog”, “brave”, “need” instead of “need”, “hope” instead of “hope”, etc. A very frequent situation was when Slavism did not supplant Russianism, but remained in the Russian language with its own independent meaning: "country" - "side", "ignorant - ignorant", "burning" - "hot", "truth" - "truth", "expel" - "expel " etc. . Therefore, Lomonosov, substantiating the norms of the literary style of the new Russian writing and, consequently, proceeding from the reality of the living Russian language contemporary to him, based his reform on this “Slavic Russian” linguistic community. He divided all the words of the Russian language into three groups. To the first, he attributed the words “which are used among the ancient Slavs and now among Russians, for example: God, glory, hand, now, I respect "(474), that is, common for the Church Slavonic and Russian languages, in content and form do not differ. To the second - “although they are generally used a little, and especially in conversations, all literate people are intelligible, for example: I open, Lord, planted, I cry "(474) - that is, words that have practically disappeared from colloquial use, but are common in the Church Slavonic written tradition. Dilapidated and incomprehensible archaisms ("I am addicted, ryasny, ovogda, sven") Lomonosov excluded from this group. Finally, the third group included primordial Russian words “which are not found in the remnants of the Slavic language, that is, in church books, for example: I say, the stream, which, for now, only "(474). And for this group, too, there was an exception: "despicable words that are not proper to use in any calm" (474). Lomonosov does not give examples of such words, but from the context of his other works it is clear that here he means not so much profanity as coarse vernacular vulgarisms of the type "to open up" or "pimple". Based on this division of the lexical composition of the Russian language into three genetic layers, Lomonosov proposes his theory of styles: "High, mediocre[medium or simple] and low ", and lists the genres for which this or that style is most befitting. The high style presupposes the use of Slavic-Russian words and allows the inclusion of Church Slavicisms that have not lost their semantic relevance. This is the style of a heroic poem, ode, oratory. The middle style is formed on the basis of the Slavic Russian vocabulary, but allows the inclusion of “Slavic utterances, in a high calmness used, but with great care so that the syllable does not seem puffed up” and “low words; however, beware lest you descend into meanness ”(475). Medium style - the style of all prose theater plays, poetic messages, satyrs, eclogues and elegies, as well as scientific and artistic prose. The low style is based on the primordially Russian vocabulary, Church Slavicisms are generally excluded from it, but the use of words common to Church Slavonic and Russian is permissible; the use of "common low words" is also allowed (475). This is the style of epigram, song, comedy, epistolary and narrative everyday prose. Thus, it is obvious that the reform of the literary language was carried out by Lomonosov with a clear focus on the middle style: it is the words common to the Russian and Church Slavonic languages ​​and therefore not rigidly attached to a high or low style, are at the center of the entire system: in one or a different proportion of Slavonic Russian vocabulary is included in all three styles. Cutting off linguistic extremes - hopelessly outdated Slavicisms and crude vulgar vernacularity - also testifies to the fact that, in theoretical terms, Lomonosov focused precisely on averaging the stylistic norm of the new Russian literary language, although this orientation came into a certain contradiction with his genre-stylistic poetic practice. As a writer and poet, Lomonosov in his solemn odes gave a brilliant example of a high literary style. His lyrics (anacreontic odes) and satirical-epigrammatic poetry did not have such an impact on the subsequent literary process. However, in his theoretical orientation towards the middle-style literary norm, Lomonosov turned out to be as perspicacious as in the reform of versification: this is an extremely productive direction of Russian literary development. And, of course, it is no coincidence that soon after this final normative act of Russian classicism, Russian fictional prose began to develop rapidly (1760-1780. ), and at the end of the century it was this line of the Lomonosov style reform that was taken up by Karamzin, who created the classical style norm for Russian literature of the 19th century. But before this happened, Russian literature of the 18th century. has done a short in chronological, but unusually rich in aesthetics way of the formation and development of its genre system, at the origins of which lies the first regulated genre of new Russian literature - the genre of satire, which found its embodiment in the work of A.D. Kantemir. Likhachev D.S. See in more detail: Vinokur G.O. Report on Lomonosov II Literature questions. 1997. May-June. S. 319-320.

New worldview of man in the 17th century. in different regions of Europe found expression in peculiar forms of spiritual culture. In some countries, after the crisis of the Renaissance culture, the Baroque era begins (Italy, Flanders), in others a new style is formed - classicism. By the beginning of the 17th century, baroque was already a unified style in all types of arts, while classicism was lagging behind in its formation. The stylistic system of classicism cannot be assessed only within the 17th century, because its distribution in modified forms throughout the countries of Europe falls on the 18th and early 19th centuries. But the theory of classicism, in contrast to the baroque, was very developed and even ahead of artistic practice. Classicism as an integral artistic system originates in France. It is often called the culture of absolutism, because in the 17th century. in France, a classic example of an absolutist state is taking shape. But the art of classicism cannot be reduced to serving absolutism. Classicism took shape in the first half of the century, when the question of the future of France remained open. There was a process of state and nation-building, in which there was still a balance of the main social forces of the country - the royal power, the nobility and the growing bourgeoisie. It was not royal power in itself, but precisely this balance that allowed the emergence of classical art, which glorified not absolute submission to the monarch, but ideological citizenship. This art demanded from everyone - rulers and subordinates - reasonable actions, concern for social balance, order and measure. Classicism is a reflective and constructive art. It tried to create ideal models of a just and harmonious world based on reasonable ideas about the public good. Theorists of classicism considered the education of society to be the main task of art. Of course, no art can be built only on the basis of reason, otherwise it would cease to be art. Classicism proceeded from the Renaissance heritage and the experience of modernity, therefore, it was equally characterized by the spirit of analysis and admiration for the ideal. Classicism is replacing the culture of the Renaissance, when this culture itself was in a state of crisis, when Renaissance realism was reborn into the aestheticized empty art of Mannerism. In the historical conditions of the 17th century. the humanistic faith in the victory of good over evil, in the harmonious principle of human nature was lost. The loss of this faith led to a direct crisis of artistic creativity, because it lost its ideal - a person with a rich spiritual life and a noble goal. Therefore, the most important link connecting classicism with the art of the High Renaissance was the return to the modern stage of an active strong hero - a purposeful, energetic person thirsting for happiness and in love with life. But in contrast to the Renaissance ideal, a strong moral criterion existing in society acted on the path to happiness of the hero of the New Age. Public morality as an immutable law of human dignity was supposed to inspire a person and guide his actions. It is such a hero that appears in the tragedies of Corneille, Racine, and Moliere's comedies. It is no accident that the aesthetic theory of classicism is being developed primarily in French drama and literature. The treatises of French writers and poets played an outstanding role in the development of the main stylistic forms of classicism. In parallel with the formation of the theory, the first fully classicistic works of art appeared. One of the first theorists and poets of classicism was Nicolas Boileau-Depreo (1636-1711). In his poetic treatise "Poetic Art", for the first time, the theoretical principles of classicism were brought together. The norms and canons of classicism are presented in this work in a lively and intelligible form. The poetic system must obey the discipline of reason. The rational development of the topic is highlighted. Boileau's call "Love the thought in verse" became the great principle of classicist poetry. The main requirement for a poet is to subordinate his creativity to the discipline of reason. Reason must rule over feeling and imagination. But not only in the content of the work, in the sense, but also in its form. To perfectly reflect the content, you need a correct verified method, high professional skill, virtuosity. The unity of form and content is one of the basic principles of classicism. Classicism saw the aesthetic ideal of beauty in ancient culture. Ancient art was proclaimed the norm for both Renaissance and Baroque art. But the relationship of this norm with the artistic practice of classicism is fundamentally different. For the Renaissance, antique art was a school of craftsmanship and an incentive to an independent creative search, and not a canonical model. The Baroque masters theoretically recognized the canons of antiquity, but in their work they were far from them. In the art of classicism, the norms of antiquity acquire the meaning of an immutable truth. Adherence to these canons in the conditions of the culture of the New Age dooms the art of classicism to the "secondary" truth. The name itself - classicism, not classics, emphasizes this secondary nature. Classicism saw in ancient culture not only an aesthetic, but also an ethical ideal. The art of Ancient Greece and Rome was an example of the art of great public resonance, which preached high civic and moral ideals. The inner core of the use of antique canons in the art of classicism was the rational principle. This element also occupied an important place in the creative process during the Renaissance. But then rationalism was put forward as a counterbalance to the irrational perception of the Middle Ages as the main means in comprehending the laws of nature and art. In classicism, reason appears not as a natural element of human activity, but as an object of worship. Rationalism became the basis and essence of the theory of classicism. Reason was proclaimed the main criterion of artistic truth and beauty. The art of classicism fundamentally separated itself from the sphere of subjective feelings in the perception of beauty. Classicism claimed to affirm absolute moral truths and unshakable artistic forms, established by reason and expressed in rules. Creativity must obey laws. The classicists derived these laws from their observations of ancient art. One of the first theorists of classicism, the great French playwright Pierre Corneille (1606-1684), commenting on Aristotle's Poetics and referring to the historical experience of centuries, tried to deduce the formal laws of drama. One of the main ones was the law of three unities - time, place and action. Corneille's activity was a real reform of drama. He is the author of several treatises on drama theory and critiques of his own writings. The tragedy of Corneille "The Garden" became the national pride of the French. It was quickly translated into many European languages. The fame of the play and its author was extraordinary. "Sid" is still in the permanent repertoire of not only French, but also many other European theaters. The plots of his plays ("Horace", "Cinna", etc.), Cornel made dramatic moments from the historical past, the fate of people in the period of acute political and social conflicts. Especially often he used the material of Roman history, which provided him with abundant material for political reflections on contemporary topics. The main dramatic conflict of Corneille's tragedies is the clash of reason and feeling, duty and passion. Victory has always remained with reason and duty. The viewer had to leave the theater without any contradictions and doubts. The source of the tragic is extreme passion, and the viewer had to learn a lesson - it is necessary to keep passions in check. In the tragedies of another famous playwright Jean Racine (1639-1699), viewers saw not only a majestic hero, but a person with weaknesses and shortcomings ("Andromache", "Bereni-ka", "Iphigeniav Aulide"). Plays Rasi-na reflected the salon life of Versailles. The Greeks and Romans, inevitable according to the demands of classical poetry, seemed to be the real French of their time. On stage, they performed in curled wigs, cocked hats and swords. The kings that Racine brought to the stage were idealized portraits of Louis XIV. The reign of the king lasted more than 50 years, and in European history this time was even called the century of Louis XIV. Under favorable circumstances, France ascended to such a height of economic and mental development and political power that it became the leading European power and the trendsetter of taste and fashion for the whole of Europe. The establishment of absolutism was in keeping with the personal inclinations of the king. Power-hungry, narcissistic, spoiled by the flattery of courtiers, Louis loved to repeat the phrase "The state is me." In order to raise the royal prestige, special attention was paid to the court life. Strict etiquette allocated royal time with punctual pettiness, and the most ordinary act of his life (for example, dressing) was furnished with extremely solemnity. Louis XIV was not satisfied with the admiration for himself, which he saw and heard from the courtiers, he began to attract outstanding writers, French and foreign, to his side, giving them monetary awards and pensions, so that they would glorify himself and his reign. French literature gradually assumed a courtly character. In 1635, the Academy of Literature was established in Paris. Since that time, classicism has become the official dominant trend in literature. Jean de La Fontaine (1621-1695) stood relatively far from the court. It occupies a peculiar place in the literature of classicism. La Fontaine is not afraid of interest in "lower" genres, relies on folk wisdom, folklore, which determines the deeply national character of his work. His artistic legacy is multifaceted, but he owes the fame of one of the greatest poets of France to his fables. (The traditions of La Fontaine were used by IA Krylov.) In their edifying morality, we see a manifestation of one of the most important principles of classicism - art must educate and convince. The figurative system of the classical style turned out to be unproductive for the art of lyric poetry, painting, and music. The volatile, changeable sphere of emotions was alien to classicism. The principles of the new style - "harmonious balance of forms and ideal proportions - were essentially the principles of architecture. It is in this art that the main achievements of classicism lie, which determined its spread over two centuries of European culture. The basic principles of the style found their organic embodiment in the architecture of classicism. Classical architecture developed in France, England and Holland. Ideally, this style is the complete opposite of the baroque. It is characterized by clear geometry of forms, strict lines, clear volumes, harmonious compositional design. Classicism turned to the forms of ancient architecture, he used not only its motives and individual elements the basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order in forms closer to antiquity than the baroque. I did not come to a consistent and clear embodiment of these ideas. In practice, a connection with the baroque system was still visible. Especially this borrowing of some baroque techniques was seen in the architecture of France. Strictly classical figurative means could not solve the problems of glorifying the absolute monarchy, which were posed by the theoreticians of official art. Therefore, the architects of classicism often resorted to baroque methods of ceremonial representativeness. They decorated the facades of their buildings in the spirit of the Baroque, which sometimes makes it difficult to strictly define the style for an inexperienced viewer. Only in the 18th century, when the royal power took the form of an enlightened monarchy and changed its social doctrine, classicism developed a completely independent figurative structure. France of the 17th century is characterized by the interweaving of late Renaissance, Gothic and Baroque features with features of classicism. But the main direction was classicism, all the others accompanied it. In the general mainstream of the culture of the New Age, there was a process of gradual transformation of the fortified castle into an unfortified palace. In the city, he was included in the general structure of streets and squares, outside the city he was associated with a vast park. Drawbridges were replaced with stone ones, ditches became elements of the park, towers at the entrance were replaced with pavilions. The garden and park ensembles of Tuileries, Fontainebleau and others were created. They laid the foundations for the art of a regular French garden with its enfilades of straightened alleys, trimmed by grass and shrubs, which were given the geometric shape of cones and balls. The gardener became an architect and sculptor, began to think in spatial categories, to subordinate living material to rational design. The growing need for housing changed the way the city was built. At the beginning of the century, a type of hotel developed in Paris, which dominated for two centuries. These are the houses of the nobility with a courtyard and a garden. They combine simple and convenient plans with facades richly decorated with sculpture, relief and order. In the new look of city houses, roofs were of great importance, the design and shape of which changed. In the 30s of the XVII century. the architect Mansart proposed a broken roof shape using an attic for housing. This system, named after the author's attic, spread throughout Europe. Since the beginning of the 17th century. formed the architecture of English classicism. This period coincides with the time of the country's vigorous industrial development and the emergence of capitalism. The initiator and creator of the first large-scale compositions of classicism was the architect Inigo Jones. He owns projects for the famous Banquet House (buildings for official receptions) and Lindsay House in London. He was the architect of Kwans House (Queen's dwelling) in Greenwich. It is a shining example of classicism in the history of housing construction. In the strictest forms of classicism, the ensemble of buildings of the Whitehall Royal Palace, the ensemble of the Greenwich Hospital in London (architects Jones, Christopher Wren, and others) were created. Classicism has developed new forms in various areas - the creation of urban squares of various types (Covent Garden square in London, Place Vendome in Paris), the construction of palace complexes (Versailles, Whitehall), temples (St. Paul's Cathedral in London - architect C. Wren, Cathedral of the Invalides - architect Hardouin-Mansart), public buildings - town hall, hospitals, private residential buildings, mansions of the nobility, buildings of trading companies (the ensemble of the Invalides - architect Bruant, Trinity College Library in Cambridge ", the customs building in London - architect K. Rehn; the building of the town hall in Augsburg - the architect Elias Hall, the town hall in Amsterdam - the architect J. van Kampen, the building of scales in the city of Gouda, etc.) Classicism developed forms of architectural language that met both the tastes of absolute monarchy and the bourgeois social order ... Versailles, the new residence of Louis XIV, occupies a special place in French architecture. Versailles became the aesthetic tuning fork of the era. This is an architectural ensemble of a palace, park and city unprecedented in grandeur and integrity. From the huge square in front of the palace there are three avenues, the central * axis stretches for 16 kilometers through the city, square, palace and park. Many architects took part in the creation of the Versailles ensemble during several construction periods - Levo, Orbe, Mansart, Lebrun, Le Nôtre, Gabriel. This ensemble consistently embodied the principles of classicism - regularity, strict symmetry, clarity of composition, clear subordination of parts, calm rhythm of alternation of windows, pilasters, columns. At the same time, the lush decorative finish, especially in the interior, is reminiscent of the Baroque. The halls of the palace are located in enfilades, richly decorated with sculptural decor, colored marble, reliefs from gilded bronze, frescoes, mirrors. The park has become an important part of the ensemble, inseparable from its architectural expressiveness. It can be considered a programmatic work of a new type of art - landscape gardening. André Linotre (1613-1700) perfected his creativity, which combined elements of architecture, sculpture, gardening, and hydraulic engineering on the basis of an ensemble. For the first time in history, landscapes organized by artists have turned into works of art. The park was decorated with sculptures by the famous masters François Girandon (1628-1715) and Antoine Kuazevox (1640-1720). This sculpture had a programmatic character - the glorification of the reign of the great monarch. The sculptors used baroque motifs in a classical twist: they strove for the isolation of each figure and their symmetrical placement. The eastern facade of the Louvre (sometimes called the "Louvre Colonnade") by the architect Claude Perrault (1613-1688) became a typical example of the architecture of classicism. With its rational simplicity, harmonious balance of parts, clarity of lines, calm and majestic static, Perrault's colonnade responded to the prevailing ideal of the era. In 1677, the Academy of Architecture was created, the main task of which was to generalize the accumulated experience of architecture in order to develop "ideal eternal laws of beauty." Further construction had to follow these laws. Classicism was officially recognized as the leading style of architecture. Art was supposed to visually express and glorify the greatness of the monarchy, the might of the nation and the state in magnificent palaces and parks, urban ensembles, and public buildings. The Academy gave a critical assessment of the principles of the Baroque, recognizing them unacceptable for France. Proportions were recognized as the basis of beauty. It was considered obligatory to have a clear floor division by the order and the allocation of the central axis of the building, which must necessarily correspond to the protrusion of the building, balcony or pediment. The façade wings were to be enclosed by pavilions. The dictate of official classicism was felt in the visual arts as well. The creator of the classicist direction in painting was Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665). This French artist studied and worked in Rome (two years spent at the invitation of Louis XIII in Paris at the royal court were not fruitful for his work). Poussin combined an outstanding theoretician and practitioner. In his Roman workshop, where painters and theorists gathered, the artist's thoughts found fertile ground for dissemination. Poussin did not write special scientific treatises, the artist's thoughts about the goals and possibilities of painting have come down to us in his correspondence and transmission by other authors. He believed that the art of the "majestic style" consists of 4 elements - this is the content, its interpretation, construction and style. The main thing is that the content and plot are majestic and beautiful. For this, the artist must discard everything petty, so as not to contradict the sublime meaning of the story. The subject of the image must be "prepared" for the idea of ​​beauty, the main thing in this preparation is order, measure and form. Order and form - this is what Poussin constantly talks about, and Descartes, the founder of the philosophy of rationalism, speaks about this: "the things that we perceive very clearly and distinctly are true." Only intelligent "preparation" can spiritualize matter so that it becomes truly beautiful. Nature in art should be presented in a form ennobled by reason, devoid of anything that does not correspond to the opinion about the reasonable course of things, the rules of "decency" and good taste. The landscape should personify the epic power and harmony of nature, it is a landscape composed. As an expression of this beauty, the world of Poussin's Arcadia arises, inhabited by celestials, heroes, satyrs, nymphs and beautiful people ("The Kingdom of Flora", "Arcadian Shepherds", "Landscape with Polyphenes"). He drew on themes from mythology, the books of Holy Scripture, historical legends. Poussin was attracted by strong characters, magnificent deeds, the triumph of reason and justice. He chose subjects that provide food for thought, cultivate virtue. In this he saw the social purpose of art. Poussin brings to the fore the themes of public duty, moral necessity, presented in the form of a dramatic plot: the warriors swear allegiance to Germanicus, who was poisoned by Tiberius' orders, Herminia cuts off her luxurious hair to bandage the wounded hero and save him, Tsar Solomon acts as the bearer of moral justice in a dispute between two mothers over a child (Death of Germanicus, Tancred and Herminia, The Taking of Jerusalem, The Abduction of the Sabine Women). The basis of classicism painting is the exact immutable laws of the artistic organization of the work. Poussin's compositions are ordered, they show a clear constructive scheme, the main action always takes place in the foreground. The main importance in the artistic language is given to form, drawing, line. The fetishization of the mind was a threat to true art. Achieving a balance between calculation and inspiration, between rational and emotional, intuitive is a very difficult creative task. Poussin was the only painter of the 17th century, in whose work the concept of classicism was truly productively embodied. For other masters, the task turned out to be overwhelming. The abstract rational principle prevailed, and the classicist system turned into an academic one. It was dominated by a dogmatic approach, reliance on established canons. The French Academy of Arts was established in 1648 and was under the leadership of the first minister of the king. In painting, as in all other forms of art, there was a process of strict regulation and subordination of artistic creation to the tasks of absolutism. The academy was called upon to develop formal rules for virtuoso art. Some artists of that time argued that only scientists can be connoisseurs of art. The idea of ​​improving painting by means of reason was very strong. There were even mathematical tables of the achievements of each painter. The academy met in regular meetings, where prominent artists, in the presence of their students, dismantled paintings from the royal collection of the Louvre. The analyzes of the paintings were based on classification. Everything was categorized by design, proportion, color, composition. The highest genre of painting was considered the historical one, which included subjects from the Bible, ancient mythology, and famous literary works. Only the perfect is worthy of the image, everything low, as in the poetry of the classicists, was rejected as an accidental, unnecessary detail, distracting attention from the main thing. Portrait, landscape, still life, everyday scenes were considered a "small genre". Academicians have developed a whole system of rules based on the correspondence of movements and gestures to certain mental states - fear, anger, joy, surprise, etc. In classical treatises, precise instructions were given on how to convey certain emotional states and attached drawings-diagrams. The proportions of the human body were built according to ancient canons. With the primacy of drawing over painting, the figures on the canvases of the classicists resembled antique sculptures. But antiquity has become not a natural form of expression of the ideal, but an obligatory props for works of "high style". Rational and dry normativity led to the degeneration of classicism into academicism. He banished imagination, fantasy, individual vision from art. The set of rules governing the creative process contributed to the regulation of art, its subordination to the control of absolutism. The historically necessary role of classicism was the development of the conscious principle inherent in all creativity. But due to historical conditions, this tendency has taken on a too dry and rational connotation. The conscientiousness of artistic creation has turned into mechanical expediency. The idea of ​​the primacy of thought has passed into its opposite - lifeless formalism. Cast style formulas have played both a positive and a negative role. We must be able to see classical art in all the richness and diversity of its content. Artistic practice is always richer than theory and, as a rule, is going through its own era. The dramas of Corneille and Racine, the comedies of Moliere and La Fontaine's fables, the landscapes of Poussin and Lorrain are still alive today, confirming their immortality in the history of world culture. Questions 1. What are the general features of the classicism style? 2. How are the cultural ideals of antiquity, Renaissance and classicism connected? 3. What role did the rational principle play in the art of classicism? 4. What principles of classicism were formed in French drama? 5. How did the theorists of classicism understand the main task of art? 6. What are the main features of the classicism style in architecture and painting.

Ethical and aesthetic program

The basic principle of the aesthetic code of classicism is the imitation of beautiful nature. Objective beauty for the theorists of classicism (Boileau, André) is the harmony and regularity of the universe, which has a spiritual source as its source, which forms matter and brings it into order. Thus, beauty as an eternal spiritual law is opposed to everything sensual, material, changeable. Therefore, moral beauty is higher than physical beauty; the creation of human hands is more beautiful than the rough beauty of nature.

The laws of beauty do not depend on the experience of observation, they are derived from the analysis of inner spiritual activity.

The ideal of the artistic language of classicism is the language of logic - precision, clarity, consistency. The linguistic poetics of classicism avoids, as far as possible, the figurative depiction of the word. Its usual remedy is an abstract epithet.

The relationship between the individual elements of a work of art is based on the same principles, i.e. composition, which is usually a geometrically balanced structure based on strict symmetric segmentation of the material. Thus, the laws of art are likened to the laws of formal logic.

The political ideal of classicism

In their political struggle, the revolutionary bourgeois and plebeians in France, both in the decades preceding the revolution and in the turbulent years 1789-1794, made extensive use of ancient traditions, ideological heritage and external forms of Roman democracy. So, at the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. in European literature and art, a new type of classicism has developed, new in its ideological and social content in relation to classicism of the 17th century, to the aesthetic theory and practice of Boileau, Corneille, Racine, Poussin.

The art of classicism in the epoch of the bourgeois revolution was strictly rationalistic, i.e. demanded a complete logical correspondence of all elements of the artistic form to an extremely clearly expressed concept.

Classicism of the 18th-19th centuries was not a homogeneous phenomenon. In France, the heroic period of the bourgeois revolution of 1789-1794. preceded and accompanied by the development of revolutionary republican classicism, which was embodied in the dramas of M.Zh. Chenier, in the early painting of David, etc. In contrast, during the years of the Directory and especially the Consulate and the Napoleonic Empire, classicism lost its revolutionary spirit and turned into a conservative academic trend.

Sometimes under the direct influence of French art and the events of the French Revolution, and in some cases independently of them and even preceding them in time, a new classicism developed in Italy, Spain, the Scandinavian countries, and the USA. In Russia, classicism reached its greatest height in the architecture of the first third of the 19th century.

One of the most significant ideological and artistic achievements of this time was the work of the great German poets and thinkers - Goethe and Schiller.

With all the variety of options for classicist art, it had a lot in common. And the revolutionary classicism of the Jacobins, and the philosophical and humanistic classicism of Goethe, Schiller, Wieland, and the conservative classicism of the Napoleonic empire, and the very diverse - either progressive-patriotic, or reactionary-great-power - classicism in Russia were contradictory products of the same historical era.

The idea of ​​\ u200b \ u200bthe reasonable laws of the world, the beauty of nature, moral ideals

Objective reflection of the surrounding world

Striving for reasonable clarity of harmony, strict simplicity

Formation of aesthetic taste

Restraint and calmness in the expression of feelings

Rationalism and consistency in actions

Rococo is ..

style in the art of the 18th century, a characteristic feature of which was a passion for sophisticated and complex forms, bizarre lines that resemble the silhouette of a shell.

43. Rockyle is …… the main element of the Rococo style ornament, reminiscent of the curl shape of a shell and outlandish plants.

44. Mascaron is…. view of the sculptural decoration of a building in the form of a human or animal head full face

45. Sentimentalism is ... this trend in literature and art of the second half of the 18th century, characterized by an increased interest in human feelings and emotional attitude to the world around us, where love for man and nature is in the first place.

Which of the outstanding architectural structures of classicism is called "Fabulous dream"

The residence of the French kings on the outskirts of Paris is the Palace of Versailles.

47. Principles of urban planning in the era of classicism:

Creation of an ideal city with buildings made according to a single plan. The urban ensemble is designed in the form of a square or rectangle in the plan. A strictly regular rectangular or radial ring system of streets with a city square in the center is planned inside them.

48. Why is the work of N. Poussin called the pinnacle of classicism in painting?

N. Poussin - the founder of the classicism style. Turning to the themes of ancient mythology, ancient history, the Bible, Poussin revealed the themes of his contemporary era. With his works, he brought up a perfect personality, showing and singing examples of high morality, civic valor.

N. Poussin

49. What unites the greatest masters "Gallant genre"- A. Watteau and F. Boucher

A world of complex love affairs and life against the backdrop of pristine nature.

Name the composers of Vienna Classicism.

A - Joseph Haydn, B - Wolfgang Mozart, C - Ludwig van Beethoven

A B C

51. A symphony is ...(consonance) work for symphony orchestra, consisting of 4 parts, where the first and last parts have the same keys, and the middle ones are written in keys related to the main, which is determined by