Primitive communal system and the ancient world. The primitive communal system and its characteristics

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One of the first stages of human development is the primitive communal system. This is the longest, lasting about 650 thousand years. The settlement of primitive people was uneven. They originally inhabited parts of Africa, South Asia and southern Europe. Then people began to occupy other territories of the Earth. The primitive communal system is an important part of the development of humanity.

During the period of the appearance of primitive people, the climate was much warmer and milder. The vegetation covering the planet was varied and very rich. People settled in small groups. They collected fruits, hunted, and looked for plant roots suitable for food. People's nutrition during this period cannot be called regular. Obtaining food depended on chance and was always accompanied by danger and risk.

It was not always possible to find food, so people often went hungry. In addition, predatory animals posed a great danger to them.

Man is a rational being. Therefore, people began to make tools and devices that helped them hunt animals, get food and make life easier. Initially, these were primitive instruments made of stone or wood.

It would not be complete without mentioning that during this period people learned about fire. They observed natural phenomena (lightning, and stored the fire that appeared in this case. However, a lot of time passed before people learned to make fire on their own. With the advent of fire, people could cook food, keep warm, or scare away animals.

The primitive communal system has already revealed the makings of the formation of society. People settled in groups. None of them would have survived alone. Food was obtained together and all the main labor was carried out. This increased efficiency, improved skills and, as a result, improved living standards.

Communication with each other led to the development of speech. A common cause forced people to agree among themselves and share experiences. Speech contributed to more fruitful work and was the main difference between humans and animals.

The primitive communal system did not know the division into classes, states and countries. Humanity went through the stage of development of elementary skills, speech and thinking. This period lasted about 400 thousand years. Development was slow but constant. Tools of labor improved, and with them the skills of people. Gradually, groups were formed. Along with people, the surrounding nature also changed, which influenced their life. We can say that labor created man.

Gradually a clan society arose. However, it was forbidden to join within the clan. Thus, the need arose for contact with other tribal communities.

Ownership of land, tools and objects created as a result of this labor was common. The primitive communal system is characterized by the presence of matriarchy. The woman-mother stood at the head of the clan.

Despite the fact that society was not yet fully formed, it had its own traditions and certain norms of behavior. Especially customs and prohibitions, otherwise taboos, can be highlighted.

Societies are essentially sculptural structures. Most of them were found in Western Europe. These exhibits reflect man's first impressions of the world around him, the life of primitive people and their way of life. Many of them are associated with mythological ideas about natural phenomena and other events. But it was they who gave us a more complete understanding of this period of development of human society. The emergence of art became a new stage in the primitive communal system, making people's lives more harmonious and organized.

The state did not always exist among peoples; its formation was preceded by a primitive communal system - ancient type collective or cooperative production. Labor skills were just being formed, the tools of labor were primitive. However, from the moment of the natural emergence of collectivity, labor became collective, that is, the joint labor of all members of the community, which acted as an economic form of organization of people.

The nature of property was general, when all the tools of labor and the means of subsistence obtained with their help belonged to everyone. Since the tools of labor and means of subsistence were used collectively, the distribution of the products of labor was equal. Such collectivity, community, was a kind of communism, but not as a result of any socialization, but as a natural state of the originally emerging collectivity.

The form of social organization during this period was the clan, not only as an association of people related by ties of kinship, but also as a social group formed for joint farming. The primitive communal system successively goes through several stages in its development. Moreover, it should be noted that only at a certain stage did it begin to develop into a state-organized society.

Most peoples experienced a period of savagery, the Stone Age, about 30 thousand years ago, when finished products of nature, obtained with the help of primitive tools, were appropriated, and objects artificially created by man served mainly as auxiliary tools for such appropriation. The social structure of this period was a herd community, a primitive herd.

The barbarian period is divided into two major eras - the Bronze Age and iron age. In the first of them, domestic animal husbandry arose, the cultivation of agricultural crops began, and the tools for performing various operations became more complex. Experience is accumulating production activities in the form of special methods of labor operations in each specific case. Consumer goods became the result of labor, such as an animal and its offspring, and the harvest of cereals. The social organization became different - the primitive herd was transformed into a clan as a carrier and accumulator of collective labor experience, which is constantly being improved. The clans were united into tribes, and the latter into a union of tribes. A need arose to manage public affairs, that is, a need for power, but the state did not yet exist in the generic structure of society. Although coercive power already existed, it was non-political and was not connected with the state. In its original form, the tribal organization is power exercised in the interests of the whole society. Its embodiment was general meetings of members of the clan, tribe, councils of elders as first among equals, the head of the clan, the leader of the tribe, who, by seniority, received the right to govern the clan and tribe in the interests of all relatives and fellow tribesmen. Power initially did not provide any material advantages, but rested only on authority. Subsequently, she began to change and take on new features that were not originally characteristic of her. It is likely that self-government primitive society was carried out not only on the basis of power, but also by coordinating the will and interests and behavior of its members.

During the Iron Age, the most significant qualitative changes took place within the clan system, which ultimately led to its decomposition.

The economic basis of this system was collective (primitive communist) ownership of the means of production, which corresponded to the low level of development of the productive forces. Certain forms of human society also corresponded to the economic structure of the primitive communal system. Initially, these were small migrating groups of people, united by the common acquisition of food and the need for protection from the external environment (danger). Then a more stable form of organization of the human collective gradually took shape - the clan community. Its members were united by blood kinship, as well as a common labor process and property.

The emergence of a clan community is a consequence of two main reasons: the development of productive forces and the development of the family. The community began to take shape with the advent of stone and bone tools among ancient people, the invention of the bow and arrow, which turned hunting into a regular way of obtaining food, and the development of the natural division of labor (men were engaged in hunting, fishing and making the corresponding tools; women and children were engaged in collecting fruits and housekeeping). Another reason for the emergence of the clan community was the transition from promiscuous sexual relations to group marriage. With this form of marriage relations, characteristic of the early clan community, there is exogamy - an order according to which it is possible to marry only with members of another clan. Therefore, in this situation there must be at least two exogamous clan groups within one intermarital association (the so-called dual organization).

For most peoples of the world, the clan system goes through two stages - matriarchy and patriarchy. Matriarchy, or the maternal clan system, is characteristic of the period of formation and initial development of the clan system. During this period, a woman occupies a dominant position in the clan community, since, firstly, she plays a very important role in obtaining the means of living, and secondly, kinship is determined only by female line and all members of the clan are considered descendants of one woman.

Patriarchy as a paternal clan system becomes the main form of social organization later. It arises with the advent of social production - agriculture, hunting, metal smelting, which became the work of men. The dominant position in the clan passes to the man. Kinship begins to be established through the male line.

The organization of public power in the system of managing the affairs of the clan corresponded to the original communist economic relations. The bearer of power was the entire clan community as a whole. The highest authority was the general meeting (council) of all adult members of the clan. The council resolved all the most important issues in the life of the community relating to production activities, religion and religious rituals, resolved disputes between individual members of the clan, etc.

The day-to-day management of the affairs of the clan community was carried out by an elder, usually elected at a meeting by all members of the clan, both men and women. His power was not hereditary. At any moment, the elder could be replaced by another member of the clan. The elders and other officials of the clan, military leaders, who were elected during military operations, participated in the production activities of the clan community on an equal basis with its other members.

Public power under the primitive system was very effective and authoritative. Although she performed the function of coercion in relation to troublemakers, no special bodies she didn't have it for it. Yes, this was not necessary. Social power was based on the consciousness of all members of the clan, the moral authority of the elders, based on their personal qualities. Characterizing the organization of power in primitive society, V.I. Lenin pointed out: “We see the dominance of customs, authority, respect, the power that the elders of the clan enjoyed, we see that this power was sometimes recognized for women, but nowhere do we see a special category of people who are allocated in order to control others and so that, in the interests, for the purpose of control, systematically, constantly possess a certain apparatus of coercion...”

The clan was the basis, a completely independent social community. Individual clans were united into broader associations - phratries. Several related phratries made up a tribe.

F. Engels noted that clan, phratry and tribe were three naturally interconnected degrees of consanguinity. “Therefore, when we encounter a clan among any people as the main social unit, we will have to look for its tribal organization.” Power in the phratry and tribe was based on the same principles as in the clan community. The council of the phratry was a general meeting of all members and in some cases was formed from the elders of the clans included in the phratry. At the head of the tribe was a council, which included representatives of the phratries - elders, military leaders, and priests. For example, at Eastern Slavs management was carried out by: the elected leader of the tribe - the prince, the tribal council - the city elders and the tribal meeting - the veche. The council met in public, surrounded by other members of the tribe, who could also participate in the discussion of issues. However, the decision was made by the council.

Thus, in primitive society, power acted as self-government, primitive democracy. This nature of it was determined, as already noted, by the collective, primitive communist ownership of the means of production, which determined the social equality of all members of society.

In primitive society there were certain rules of behavior and social norms. First of all, these are customs that arose in connection with the social need to embrace general rules daily repeated acts of production, distribution and exchange of products. An order was created in which the individual would be subordinated to the general conditions of production.

Through customs, closely related and often coinciding with other social norms operating in primitive society - primitive morality, religious norms, not only industrial, but also everyday, family and other social relations were regulated.

All social norms in primitive society were formed in the interests of all members, which presupposed their voluntary implementation. They were performed out of habit, based on the authority of the elders, their moral and religious views.

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Discipline: Theory of State and Law

Topic: The decomposition of the primitive communal system and the emergence of states

Introduction

1. Primitive communal system

2. Signs of the state

Conclusion

Introduction

About twelve thousand years ago, crisis phenomena began to arise on the globe that threatened the existence of man as a biological individual. With unfavorable climate change, the extinction of megafauna (mammoths, woolly rhinoceroses, etc.), which was the main source of food for primitive people, began. The result of crisis phenomena and the emergence of new tools of labor was the transition of humanity from an appropriating economy (hunting, fishing, gathering) to a producing economy - to pasture, and then nomadic cattle breeding, as well as to slash-and-burn, and then irrigated agriculture.

This process in the scientific literature was called the “Neolithic revolution”, since it occurred during the late Neolithic period at the turn of the transition to the Bronze Age, when man learned to smelt and use first soft non-ferrous metals, and then iron. Until quite recently, archaeologists viewed the “Neolithic Revolution” as a short-term event that was the result of a single innovation - the domestication of wild animals and plants. Archaeological research conducted over the past 35 years has exposed the limitations of such ideas. Today we consider the “Neolithic Revolution” as a process that began around the 10th millennium BC. and continued in a number of regions of the Middle East at the beginning of the 5th millennium BC.

Significant changes in all spheres of human activity occurred after three major social divisions of labor. The first of them is the separation of cattle breeding from agriculture, the second is the separation of crafts from cattle breeding and agriculture, the third is the emergence of merchants who are no longer directly involved in the production process. Thus, certain groups of the population began to specialize mainly in one type of production activity. This contributed to the differentiation of production, which in turn contributed to a significant increase in labor productivity, as well as increased commodity exchange.

Researchers come to the conclusion that as a result of the first major social division of labor, which occurred between different clans and tribes, regular interclan and intertribal commodity exchange developed. The second major social division of labor contributed to the penetration of systematic commodity exchange directly into the clan and tribe. This led to property inequality, first between clans and tribes, and then within them.

state primitive communal system

1. Primitive communal system

The state did not always exist among peoples; its formation was preceded by a primitive communal system - an ancient type of collective or cooperative production. Labor skills were just being formed, the tools of labor were primitive. However, from the moment of the natural emergence of collectivity, labor became collective, that is, the joint labor of all members of the community, which acted as an economic form of organization of people.

The barbarian period is divided into two major eras - the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. In the first of them, domestic animal husbandry arose, the cultivation of agricultural crops began, and the tools for performing various operations became more complex. Experience in production activities is accumulated in the form of special techniques of labor operations in each specific case. Consumer goods became the result of labor, such as an animal and its offspring, and the harvest of cereals. The social organization became different - the primitive herd was transformed into a clan as a carrier and accumulator of collective labor experience, which is constantly being improved. The clans were united into tribes, and the latter into a union of tribes. A need arose to manage public affairs, that is, a need for power, but the state did not yet exist in the generic structure of society. Although coercive power already existed, it was non-political and was not connected with the state. In its original form, the tribal organization is power exercised in the interests of the whole society. Its embodiment was general meetings of members of the clan, tribe, councils of elders as first among equals, the head of the clan, the leader of the tribe, who, by seniority, received the right to govern the clan and tribe in the interests of all relatives and fellow tribesmen. Power initially did not provide any material advantages, but rested only on authority. Subsequently, she began to change and take on new features that were not originally characteristic of her. It is likely that self-government of primitive society was carried out not only on the basis of power, but also by coordinating the will and interests and behavior of its members.

During the Iron Age, the most significant qualitative changes took place within the clan system, which ultimately led to its decomposition.

For most peoples of the world, the clan system goes through two stages - matriarchy and patriarchy. Matriarchy, or the maternal clan system, is characteristic of the period of formation and initial development of the clan system. During this period, a woman occupies a dominant position in the clan community, since, firstly, she plays a very important role in obtaining a livelihood, and secondly, kinship is determined only through the female line and all members of the clan are considered descendants of one woman.

Public power under the primitive system was very effective and authoritative. Although it performed the function of coercion in relation to troublemakers, it did not have any special bodies for this. Yes, this was not necessary. Social power was based on the consciousness of all members of the clan, the moral authority of the elders, based on their personal qualities. Characterizing the organization of power in primitive society, V.I. Lenin pointed out: “We see the dominance of customs, authority, respect, the power that the elders of the clan enjoyed, we see that this power was sometimes recognized for women, but nowhere do we see a special category of people who are allocated in order to control others and so that, in the interests, for the purpose of control, systematically, constantly possess a certain apparatus of coercion...”

The clan was the basis, a completely independent social community. Individual clans were united into broader associations - phratries. Several related phratries made up a tribe.

F. Engels noted that clan, phratry and tribe were three naturally interconnected degrees of consanguinity. “Therefore, when we encounter a clan among any people as the main social unit, we will have to look for its tribal organization.” Power in the phratry and tribe was based on the same principles as in the clan community. The council of the phratry was a general meeting of all members and in some cases was formed from the elders of the clans included in the phratry. At the head of the tribe was a council, which included representatives of the phratries - elders, military leaders, and priests. For example, among the Eastern Slavs, governance was carried out by: the elected leader of the tribe - the prince, the tribal council - the city elders and the tribal gathering - the veche. The council met in public, surrounded by other members of the tribe, who could also participate in the discussion of issues. However, the decision was made by the council.

In primitive society there were certain rules of behavior and social norms. First of all, these are customs that arose in connection with the social need to cover by general rules the daily repeating acts of production, distribution and exchange of products. An order was created in which the individual would be subordinated to the general conditions of production.

2. Signs of the state

In order to determine whether the transition of one or another people to a state-organized society has been completed, researchers have introduced the scientific concept of “signs of a state,” which distinguish it from the social power of the primitive communal system.

The first and most important feature state was the emergence of such power structures, the interests of which do not coincide with the interests of the population (in contrast to the collective power of the tribal society). State power does not merge with society, but stands above it. It is separated from society and expresses primarily the interests of the economically dominant minority. Such power is called special public power. It is called special precisely because it does not coincide with society, although it speaks on its behalf, on behalf of the people. The exercise of public power requires a certain organization - the formation of a special management apparatus (accounting, execution, control, supervision, etc.), as well as a special apparatus of coercion and protection of class interests (courts, police, prisons, army, etc.). In other words, the fundamental feature of such public (state) power is that it is embodied in the professional class of managers (officials), from which the governing and enforcement bodies are staffed.

In the pre-state period, managing the affairs of society was not assigned to a special layer of people and did not constitute anyone’s profession. The authorities of the communal-tribal system were not allocated special material resources for their activities, and they did not have a coercive apparatus. Their decisions, including the imposition of punishment, were carried out by the members of the clan themselves. Consequently, when considering the problem of power in a pre-state society, it is necessary to focus not so much on its management, but on its self-government.

The second feature of a state is the division of the population according to territorial principles. This means that, unlike a clan and tribe, where people were related by blood and not by belonging to a specific territory, the state has its own permanent, strictly localized territory, defines and protects its borders. The population of a territory (country), as a rule, has a stable connection with the state in the form of citizenship or citizenship and enjoys the protection of the state both within the country and abroad. The exercise of state power on the administrative-territorial principle makes it possible to determine its spatial limits and form its central and local bodies on this basis.

Thus, in a state-organized society, power relations are not built on consanguinity or perceived family ties between people, but on the basis of their residence in a certain territory within state borders. The third feature of a state is sovereignty. The concept of “state sovereignty” appeared at the end of the Middle Ages, when demands began to be made for separating state power from church power and giving it exclusive, monopoly significance.

Sovereignty as a property (attribute) of state power lies in its supremacy, autonomy and independence. In other words, state sovereignty means the autonomy and independence of the state in implementing its policies both within its own territory and in international relations, subject to respect for the sovereignty of other states.

Sovereignty is a collective sign of a state. It concentrates all the most essential features government organization society. The independence, independence and supremacy of state power are expressed in its universality (only decisions of state power apply to the entire population and all public, including political, organizations of a given country), in the possibility of canceling any illegal decision of other public authorities; in the presence of exceptional means of influence that no one except her has at her disposal (army, police, courts, prisons, etc.).

The fourth feature of the state is taxes. State taxes are levies established by a special public authority from the population, collected by force in established amounts and within certain periods. They are due to the fact that the state, while carrying out general affairs, needs material support for its activities. Protecting the population from an external enemy, maintaining law and order within the country, implementing social programs, maintaining the administrative apparatus - all this is carried out using taxes collected from the population.

One of the main features that distinguishes the state from pre-state forms of public power is also the publication of legal norms.

Without law, the state cannot exist. Law legally formalizes the state and state power and thereby makes them legitimate, i.e. legal. Without law, without legislation, the state is unable to effectively lead society and ensure the unconditional implementation of the decisions it makes. Among the many political organizations, only the state, through its competent authorities, issues decrees that are binding on the entire population of the country. Being the official representative of society, the state, if necessary, enforces the requirements of legal norms with the help of special bodies (administration, police, courts, etc.).

In addition to the general patterns of the emergence of the state, there were specific forms characteristic of a particular people. Researchers identify such forms of origin of the state as Athenian, Roman, ancient Germanic, ancient Eastern (Asian), etc.

3. Decomposition of the primitive communal system and the emergence of the state

In the process of long but rigorous development of productive forces throughout long history primitive society, the preconditions for the decomposition of this society were gradually created.

The social division of labor played a primary role in the development of the economy and the transition from a primitive to a qualitatively new mode of production.

We already know that at the early stage of the primitive communal system the division of labor was natural. However, with the development of productive forces, the opportunity arose for entire tribes to concentrate labor efforts in one specific area of the economy. As a result, the natural division of labor was replaced by large social divisions of labor.

The first major social division of labor was the separation of cattle breeding from agriculture, which led to significant changes in the primitive communal system.

Cattle farming like no other economic activity, became a source of accumulation of wealth, which gradually turned into the separate property of communities and families. In the new economic conditions, a family or even one person could not only provide themselves with the necessary material wealth, but also produce a product in excess of the amount that was necessary to maintain own life, i.e. create a “surplus”, a surplus product. Livestock became an object of exchange and acquired the function of money, which led to the gradual displacement of collective property and the decline of private economy and private ownership of the means of production.

Thus, already after the first major social division of labor, as a result of the rapid development of productive forces, arose private property and society split into classes. “From the first major social division of labor,” wrote F. Engels, “the first major division of society into two classes arose - masters and slaves, exploiters and exploited.”

History shows that the first slave owners everywhere were shepherds and cattle breeders.

With the emergence of private property, a gradual transition from paired marriage to monogamy (monogamy) began. The transformation of a male hunter into a shepherd, the emergence of arable farming, which also became the work of men, led to the fact that domestic work - women has lost its former meaning. All this meant the gradual overthrow of matriarchy, the establishment of the autocracy of men, i.e. the emergence of patriarchy, in which kinship and inheritance were determined along the male line. The clan became patriarchal.

The first result of this new stage in the development of the clan system was the formation of a patriarchal family or a patriarchal household community. Its main characteristic feature is the inclusion, in addition to the husband, wife and children, of other persons subordinate to the unlimited power of the father as the head of the family.

Advances in industrial activity, especially the invention of the loom and advances in smelting and working metals, especially iron, led to the development of crafts. Agricultural production also increased. Such diverse activities could not, naturally, be carried out by the same persons, which is why crafts were separated from agriculture. This was the second major social division of labor.

The development of cattle breeding, agriculture, and crafts as independent branches of the economy led to an increasing accumulation of surplus product. Production directly for exchange appeared - commodity production, and with it trade, which was conducted not only within the tribe, but also with other tribes.

At the next stage social development the emerging types of division of labor are strengthened, especially due to the deepening opposition between city and countryside. These types are joined by the third major social division of labor, which is of decisive importance: a class arises that is no longer engaged in production, but only in the exchange of products - the class of merchants.

Thus, we see that the development of productive forces in the conditions of the primitive communal system led to three large social divisions of labor, and this in turn gave a powerful impetus to the further development of production and significantly increased labor productivity. As a result, people were able to produce more food than was necessary to support their lives. A surplus product appeared, and collective property was gradually replaced by private ownership of the means of production, which gave rise to property inequality. Society split into classes, and exploitation of man by man arose.

The first classical form of exploitation, oppression and social inequality was slavery - the result of the collapse of primitive society and the formation of a new slave-owning socio-economic formation. Coup in public life, expressed in the transition from a classless society to a class one, was accompanied by profound changes that took place in the organs of the clan system, in the entire tribal organization. The process of formation of private property and the associated transformation of a paired marriage into a monogamous one created a crack in the ancient clan system: the family became an economic unit of society, a force threateningly opposing the clan. With the spread of slavery, contradictions grew and the gap between rich and poor families deepened, and the economic basis on which the clan organization rested was destroyed.

Gradually, primitive democracy fell into decay. The organs of the clan system gradually became detached from their roots among the people. An organization that expressed the general will and served common interests was transformed into an organization of domination and oppression directed against its own people. The clan as a social unit disappeared, the functioning of its organs ceased. An objective need arose for an institution that could protect private property and the interests of the propertied class. The state became such an institution. Three main reasons determined the emergence of the state:

1. Social division of labor;

2. The emergence of private property;

3. The split of society into classes.

Consequently, along with the split of society into classes, with the transition from a primitive society to a slave society, a change in types of power occurs - the social power of the primitive communal system, embodied in the clan organization, is replaced by state power concentrated in the hands of the economically dominant class of slave owners.

The decomposition of primitive society with its clan organization and the process of formation of state power in various historical conditions had their own specific characteristics.

The emergence of the state in Athens represents the most “pure” classical form. Here it arose directly from class contradictions developing within the clan society itself, without the influence of any external or other incidental factors.

The peculiarities of the creation of the Roman state were that this process was accelerated by the struggle of the plebeians with the Roman patrician nobility - the patricians.

The plebeians were in person free people, who came from the population of the conquered territories, but stood outside the Roman clans and were not part of the Roman people. Owning land property, the plebeians had to pay taxes and serve military service, but were deprived of the right to hold any positions and could not use Roman lands.

Not everywhere and not always did slavery become the basis of the economy of early agricultural (including cattle-breeding) societies. IN Ancient Sumer, Egypt and in many other societies, the basis of the early agricultural economy was the labor of free tribal community members, and property and social differentiation developed in parallel with the functions of managing agricultural work. Thanks to the development of trade and crafts, classes (stratas) of merchants, artisans and city planners arose. Such stratification in the form of division into closed castes (varnas, estates, etc.) was sanctified by religions in ancient times and existed not only in the state, but also in the communal structure of early agricultural societies Ancient East, Mesoamerica, India, as well as among the Scythians, Persians, and other Eurasian tribes.

However, the general conclusion is that the productive economy led to the division of labor, to social inequality, including class differentiation, remains true for the period of transition from the tribal system to the first civilizations.

In the first millennium AD in Europe, the decomposition of the clan system led to the emergence of a feudal formation.

The formation of the state among the ancient Germans was actively influenced by their conquest of vast territories of the Roman Empire. The Germanic tribes, which by that time still had a tribal structure, could not manage the Roman provinces with the help of tribal organizations: a special apparatus of coercion and violence was needed. A simple supreme military leader turned into a real monarch, and the people's property into royal property; the bodies of the clan system were transformed into state bodies.

A distinctive feature of the formation of the state among the ancient Germans was the fact that it arose not as a slaveholding state, but as an early feudal one.

Religion also had a significant influence on the process of the emergence of statehood. In the primitive communal system, each clan worshiped its own gods and had its own idol. When the tribes were united, religious norms helped strengthen the power of the “kings” or military leaders.

Dynasties of rulers sought to unite tribes by common religious canons: in Ancient India(Arthashastra), the cult of the Sun and the god Osiris in Ancient Egypt and so on.

Power was associated with its transfer from God and was secured first by extending the electoral term, and then by life and hereditary rule (for example, the Incas).

Thus, along with industrial progress, property and social, including class differentiation as the reason for the formation of a civilized society and the formation of a state, science also recognizes such reasons for the transformation of the clan community into a family as the intensification of wars and military organization tribes, the influence of religion on the unification of a tribe into one people, the strengthening of the supreme state power and some others.

4. Completion of the process of the emergence of the state

According to Marxist-Leninist theory, the root cause of the emergence of the state was the split of society into opposing classes with irreconcilable contradictions. “The state,” wrote V.I. Lenin, “is a product and manifestation of the irreconcilability of class contradictions.” And only where such contradictions exist as a stable, recurring phenomenon, Marxist-Leninist theory is ready to recognize the emergence and existence of the state. For this reason, official Soviet historiography for a long time classified the states of Mesoamerica as, at best, “military democracies,” although there was no trace of democracy there. The Scythian state also did not receive recognition. Meanwhile, the statehood of the pagan Slavs was unconditionally recognized.

The second erroneous consequence was that all states of the Ancient World should have been unconditionally considered slaveholding. F. Engels called the division into masters and slaves the first major division of society into two classes. Therefore, the emergence of caste and other stratification by Soviet theorists was unreasonably identified with slavery. This was required in order to confirm Lenin’s thesis about the irreconcilability of class contradictions as the basis of the state and the recognition of the state only as an instrument of the ruling class to suppress another class or classes.

However, the founders of Marxism also allowed a different approach to explaining the emergence of the ancient state. As F. Engels wrote, “spontaneously formed groups of same-tribal communities, as a result of their development, first came to the state in order to satisfy common interests (for example, in the East - irrigation) and for protection from external enemies.” This means that he allowed for some “universal” functions of the state. Today their presence in the social or political functions of the modern bourgeois state can hardly be denied.

It follows that the emergence of the state was still connected with different eras in different ways - with the need to implement the common interests of the population. And despite the fact that representatives of different classes or castes did not receive equal satisfaction of their interests, some common interests (for example, protection from external attacks, provision of public works, sanitary conditions) were satisfied by the state.

Recognition of the state as an organ of the entire society is a characteristic motive of any idealistic teaching about the state, that is, a teaching based on an idea, and not on empirically established facts. If state power is from God, then it must be equal to everyone and not have a class bias. So, at least it follows from Christian religion. The patriarchal theory of the state, put forward by Aristotle, sees in the state an expanded family that cares for its subjects in the same way as a father cares for his children. Contract theory J.-J. Rousseau provides the authorities only with what the “agreed” citizens endow them with. But in reality such an agreement was never concluded.

Finally, theories that affirm the power of the state through the consent of subjects to submit to power, the theory of the rule of law, which requires the subordination of power to laws, justice, and respect for human rights, reflect, although correct, purely ideological and psychological foundations the emergence and existence of the state, and not the objective signs generated by the causes and conditions of its origin.

Conclusion

Around the V-IV millennium BC. e. The decomposition of primitive society began. Among the factors contributing to this, an important role was played by agriculture, the development of specialized cattle breeding, the emergence of metallurgy, the formation of specialized crafts, and the development of trade.

With the development of plow farming, agricultural labor moved from female hands into men's, and the male farmer became the head of the family. Accumulation was created differently in different families. The product gradually ceases to be divided among community members, and property begins to pass from father to children, and the foundations of private ownership of the means of production are laid.

From the account of kinship on the maternal side they move to the account of kinship on the father's side - patriarchy takes shape. Accordingly, the shape changes family relations, a patriarchal family based on private property arises.

The growth of labor productivity, increased exchange, constant wars - all this led to the emergence of property stratification among the tribes. Property inequality gave rise to social inequality. The top of the family aristocracy was formed, which was actually in charge of all affairs. Noble members of the community sat on the tribal council, were in charge of the cult of the gods, and selected military leaders and priests from their midst. Along with property and social differentiation within the clan community, differentiation also occurs within the tribe between individual clans. On the one hand, strong and rich clans stand out, and on the other, weak and impoverished ones.

So, signs of the collapse of the clan system were the emergence of property inequality, the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of tribal leaders, the increase in armed clashes, the dooming of prisoners into slaves, the transformation of the clan from a consanguineous collective into a territorial community.

In different regions of the world, the destruction of primitive communal relations occurred at different times, and the models of transition to a higher formation were also varied: some peoples formed early class states, others - slave states, many peoples bypassed the slave system and went straight to feudalism, and some - to colonial capitalism (peoples America, Australia).

Thus, the growth of productive forces created the preconditions for strengthening ties between social organizations and developing a system of gift exchange relations. With the transition from a first marriage to a patriarchal one, and later to a monogamous one, the family becomes stronger and becomes isolated within the community. Community property is complemented by personal property. With the development of productive forces and the strengthening of territorial ties between families, the early primitive community is replaced by the primitive neighboring community, and later by the agricultural community. It is characterized by a combination of individual parcel production with common ownership of land, private ownership and communal principles. The development of this internal contradiction created the conditions for the emergence of class society and the state.

List of sources used

1. S.G. Drobyazko, B.C. Kozlov. General theory law: textbook. manual for universities. - 2nd ed., corrected. and additional - Minsk: Amalthea. - 480 pp., 2007

2. Pigolkin A.S. General theory of law. Textbook for universities. - M.: MSTU. 1996. P. 35

3. Vishnevsky A.F. General theory of state and law: textbook. 2nd ed., revised. and additional / A.F. Vishnevsky, N.A. Gorbatok, V.A. Kuchinsky; Under general ed. prof. V.A. Kuchinsky. - M.: Business and educational publishing house. literature, 2006.

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Character traits social structure of the state. The set of socio-political relations and institutions that express the interaction of elements of the internal organization of the state. The meaning of social, state and constitutional system.

The primitive communal system is the first socio-economic formation in history, covering the period from the emergence of man to the formation of classes. The basis of economic life in this society was the appropriation of finished products - an appropriating economy, but with the development of productive forces and production relations, the primitive method of production takes on the character of a producing economy.

The primitive communal system also includes the period of the primitive human herd, although some historians do not consider the era of the “human herd” to be part of the history of primitive society and some attribute the beginning of primitive society “to a time of about 2.5 million years, others 35-40 thousand years ago »

Based on the research of L. Morgan, who restored the prehistoric basis of development in basic terms, F. Engels divided the history of mankind into three eras: savagery, barbarism and civilization, each of which in turn was divided into lower, middle and higher stages 1. The era of savagery is characterized by appropriating character, in the era of barbarism - producing character of production. The lowest stage of savagery is the childhood of humanity; The main achievements of this period were the emergence of articulate speech, the use of fire and crude stone tools. The primitive communal system is characterized by a very low level of development of the productive forces,

To characterize a particular era, it is very important to know not only what was created at that time, but also by what means of labor. Therefore, in the knowledge of the past, the remains of means of labor play approximately the same role as the structure of bones in the study of extinct animals. Savagery is an era mainly of the appropriation of finished products of nature, when products created by man served primarily as auxiliary tools for this appropriation. The highest stage of savagery is characterized by the appearance of the bow and arrow, with the invention of which, that is, the creation of new tools, man changed his character labor activity. Barbarism is the time of the emergence of cattle breeding and agriculture. The identification of pastoral tribes was the first major step towards the social division of labor. At the lowest level of barbarism, pottery began to develop; in the middle - the domestication of domestic animals in the East, and in the West - the cultivation of edible plants. The highest level of barbarism is already characterized by such achievements as smelting iron ore, invention of a plow with an iron share, blacksmith's bellows, mill, potter's wheel, cultivation of fields.

According to the level of technology, history is divided into the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages. In turn, the Stone Age is divided into the Ancient Paleolithic, Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age). The Paleolithic is divided into Pre-Chellean, Chelles and Acheulean eras.

The primitive communal system, through which all peoples passed, is divided economically into two periods: the pre-natal, so-called period of the primitive horde, and the primitive community, which, in turn, is divided into matriarchy and patriarchy. Archaeologists believe that the period of the primitive horde roughly corresponded to the ancient Stone Age (Paleolithic), matriarchy to the new Stone Age (Neolithic) and patriarchy to the Bronze Age.

The genus arises during the period of transition from the early to late Stone Age, at the middle stage of savagery, and reaches its peak at the lowest stage of barbarism. A clan is a collective unit of blood relatives united by economic interests. It is characterized by collective ownership of the means and instruments of production: land, land, as well as housing, - collective production and consumption - -

eat. Common property served as the main connection for h members of this genus.

Even in the ancient world, various ideas were expressed about the initial stage in the development of mankind: one of the opinions considered this stage to be golden

In the 20th century, another imagined the life of primitive people as the existence of animals. Already at this time, a lot of ethnographic materials about the peoples of antiquity were collected.

Like all peoples, our ancestors went through a primitive communal system that lasted long time. The Eastern Slavs, who separated from the pan-Slavic family, formed a single ancient Russian people, which occupied a significant territory of Eastern Europe from Lake Peipus and Lake Ladoga to the Black Sea.

The socio-economic development of the primitive communal system of the Proto-Slavs and Slavs was reflected in the brutal invasions of the steppe nomadic peoples: Khazars, Scythians, Huns, Pechenegs, Polovtsians, etc. Western European tribes, protected from these invasions by our ancestors, developed in more favorable conditions.

The level and nature of the economy of individual tribes living in the vastness of the Central and Western regions, Central Asia, Transcaucasia, the Caucasus, Siberia, etc., was very different: along with tribes engaged in hunting, fishing and cattle breeding, back in the 3rd millennium BC . e. there existed, for example, in the Dnieper-Danube region the so-called agricultural and pastoral Trypillian culture. The importance of cattle breeding increased. It became the predominant occupation of most tribes living on the territory of the USSR in the 2nd millennium BC. e. At the same time, the role of hoe farming also grew. As we moved from stone tools to copper and then bronze, tools improved. The bronze culture on the territory of the USSR was widespread among the inhabitants of the Caucasus, Kazakhstan and Southern Siberia. In the last quarter of the 2nd millennium BC. e. in Southern Siberia, Transbaikalia, and Altai, various types of bronze tools and weapons spread. Archaeologists date the beginning of the use of iron on the territory of the USSR to the 1st millennium BC. e. The appearance of iron is attributed primarily to Transcaucasia; Among the Scythian tribes of the Northern Black Sea region, the Iron Age was most developed in the V-IV centuries. BC e.; iron was known to the Sarmatians, who roamed the steppes of Eastern Europe, as well as to the tribes living in the central and northern regions of the European part of the USSR in the 7th-3rd centuries. BC e. “Iron,” wrote F. Engels, “made it possible to cultivate fields on larger areas and clear wide forest spaces for arable land; it gave the artisan tools of such hardness and sharpness that not a single stone or any of the other metals known at that time could withstand.”

The production relations of the primitive society of the Slavs were characterized by the presence of public - communal or tribal - ownership of the means of production, including land, and the absence of classes. Such production relations were fully consistent with the low level of development of the productive forces. The division of labor was carried out according to gender and age. Collective labor, collective ownership of tools and low productivity - these are the features of the primitive community. Under these conditions, all labor acted as necessary; there was no surplus product.

Personal ownership of some tools, decorations, etc. was not private property and did not lead to the exploitation of other people's labor. The basis of communal property was primitive tools of production and its collective nature. The emergence of private property led to the collapse of clan relations, although remnants of them were preserved not only among the Slavs, but also among other peoples even after the clan system.

Historians S. Solovyov, K. Kavelin and others believed that the Slavs lived in a tribal system even after the formation of their state. I. Evers wrote: “Initially, each family exists on its own... The genus embraces many families; in each of them the father is his master... Tribes are formed from clans, and the head of the tribe... becomes little by little... a powerful prince. But the original family relationship, based on nature itself, retains its strength for a long time...” 2. According to this point of view, the family turns into a clan, the clan into a state, but the facts indicate that the family appeared as a result of the collapse of tribal life . The patriarchal family community corresponded to the primitive communal system. M. M. Kovalevsky proved that from the domestic community a rural community, or commune-mark, developed, with individual cultivation of the land by individual families and with an initially periodic and then final division of arable land and meadows. The earliest disintegration of the primitive communal system among the Slavs occurred in the Middle Dnieper region. On the Middle Dnieper and in the Dniester region, the Slavs said goodbye to the clan system very early, back in the first centuries of our era.

The decomposition of the primitive communal system led to the replacement of the patriarchal tribal community of the rural or neighboring - “world”, “rope” - by a territorial community (marks among the Germans). The neighboring community was no longer connected by blood or family relations, but by economic and territorial ones. Farming was carried out by separate households; the household owned the community land. Means of production, tools, livestock, etc. were private property.

It is very likely that in the pre-feudal period among the Eastern Slavs, all arable land was divided between individual farms, and forests, pastures, and watering places remained in common possession. F. Engels believed that “for Russia such a course of development seems historically completely proven” 3.

The primitive communal system created conditions for some development of the economy, but gradually the clan structure became an obstacle to the growth of productive forces: this system began to disintegrate, private property arose, the exploitation of man by man, and classes were formed.

The improvement of tools, in particular in agriculture, and as a result of this, the growth of labor productivity, the strengthening of the social division of labor and exchange contributed to the emergence of private ownership of tools, livestock, etc., and later of land. Despite all the conventions of determining the time when private land ownership arose among the Eastern Slavs, its existence at the beginning of the second half of the 1st millennium AD. e. in the Volkhov-Dnieper region cannot cause any special objections.

As long as members of the primitive community produced all the necessary products together, private property was impossible. When the division of labor was established in the community and a member of the community began to produce any one product alone, private property arose.

During long period the exchange was a random phenomenon, but then it took on a more regular character and became one of the factors contributing to the disintegration of the primitive communal system. Its emergence dates back to very distant times and goes back centuries to 4-6 thousand years BC. e.

The development of exchange reflected the growth of the productive forces of the primitive communal system and contributed to the formation of private property.

The separation of pastoral tribes created conditions for regular exchange, and livestock began to serve as money. Exchange occurs between individual tribes. With the division of production into two large sectors, agriculture and crafts, commodity production and trade appear not only within the territory occupied by the tribe, but also on its borders.

On the territory of our country, exchange also began to develop in the distant past, during the era of Trypillian culture (IV-III millennium BC). Thus, finds of amber far from the places where it is usually mined indicate that exchange was already practiced at that time, although in rare cases.

The exchange contributed to the growth of labor productivity. Exchange and the monetary relations determined by it played a large role in the decomposition of primitive communal property. The emergence of private property, the emergence of merchants and slave labor, the introduction of metallic money, interest and usury characterize the economic beginning of civilization. Private property does not arise as a result of violence, but as a consequence of higher labor productivity. Thus, private property, exchange, etc. reflected the growth of productive forces.

In the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. The Slavs of the Dnieper region used an iron fork, a plow with an iron share, knew the main grains and used domestic animals." Residents of the southern regions switched to plowing with winter and spring grains in the first half of the 1st millennium AD, the northern ones - a little later, and in some places already in the Middle Ages.Agricultural tools, plowshares, iron logging axes, etc. were improved.

Traveler Ibrahim Ibn Yakuba in the middle of the 10th century. wrote about the Slavs: “They sow in two seasons, in summer (winter crops) and spring (spring crops) and reap two harvests.” 4. It is reasonable to assume that this level of agriculture could have developed as a result of long-term evolution. Along with the growth of productive forces, albeit slow, property and social inequality developed in tribal unions, and class relations and statehood relations arose. This process was more intense among the southern Slavic tribes, in whom the elements of slave relations were more developed. In the period preceding the formation of the feudal Kievan state, the Eastern Slavs had three types of economic relations: decaying primitive communal, patriarchal slaveholding and emerging feudal.

Back in the 1st millennium BC. e. a long period of disintegration of tribal relations began among some ancient tribes inhabiting the territory of the USSR; slave states arose in Transcaucasia, Central Asia and the Northern Black Sea region: Urartu, the Parthian state, Scythia, the Bosporan state, Olbia and Chersonese, etc.

All peoples have gone through a stage such as slavery to one degree or another. This does not mean, of course, that all peoples survived slave-owning formations. By the beginning of our chronology, the tribes and nationalities inhabiting the territory of the USSR had very different levels of economic life. Simultaneously with the ancient slaveholding states, the territory of the country was occupied by numerous Slavic, Finno-Ugric, Letto-Lithuanian, Sarmatian and other tribes, which still preserved the remnants of the primitive communal system; Some tribes were engaged in hunting, others - fishing, others - cattle breeding and agriculture. Slave states had a certain relationship with the surrounding tribes: they traded and obtained through wars, trade and slave raids.

The transition from the primitive communal system to a new (already class) formation took place on the territory of the USSR among individual peoples differently and at different times. Thus, in Central Asia and Transcaucasia, the Northern Black Sea region, slave relations arose in the period BC; among the Eastern Slavs, as a result of the decomposition of the primitive system, they formed in new era transitional state-tribal associations.

The decomposition of the primitive communal system among the Eastern Slavs coincided with the destruction of the ancient slave system. The slave system did not become dominant among the Slavs, as well as among some other peoples - Germans, Arabs, etc. Of course, slavery as the first form of class society, namely patriarchal slavery, was encountered for a long time among our distant ancestors. Byzantine and later Arab writers left us some evidence about this; in addition, the ancient Russians written monuments they also talk about the existence of slave relations (in written sources Kievan Rus slaves are found under various names: serfs, servants, obel, slave, etc.) in the pre-Kiev, Kievan and even post-Kiev periods. The presence of slavery in Kievan Rus is reflected in treaties with the Greeks, chronicles, “lives”, “Russian Truth”, etc.

Among the Eastern Slavs, feudal relations arose as a result of the decomposition of the primitive communal system, among other nationalities of our country - as a result of the crisis of slaveholding formations.

As already noted, elements of slaveholding relations among the Slavs were more pronounced in the southern regions, which were in closer contact with the Black Sea slaveholding states. In 969, Svyatoslav told his mother and boyars: “I don’t like to sit in Kyiv, I want to live in Pereyaslavl on the Danube, there is the middle of my land, all the good things flow there: from the Greek land - gold, wine, various fruits, from the Czech Republic and from Hungary - silver and horses, from Rus' - furs and wax, honey and slaves."

Writer of the second half of the 6th century. n. e. Mauritius the Strategist, speaking about the Slavs, noted: “Their captives do not remain in eternal slavery, like other peoples, but they are assigned a certain time, after which it is up to them to choose either to remain with them as freemen or to return to their own by paying a ransom »

The most important source of slavery was captivity, but already in the 11th century. some captive slaves were "seated" on the ground. There were other sources of slavery that our ancient legal proceedings know. The short "Russian Truth" devotes 6 articles to slavery - servitude, and the lengthy one - 31. The treaties between Rus' and Byzantium mention the "polonyannik", "servant price", etc.;

Yaroslav’s “Russian Truth” speaks about serfs, and “Yaroslavich’s Truth” speaks about serfs and slaves. Slaves belonged not only to secular slave owners, but also to church ones: slaves of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery, episcopal slaves. Theodosius, the son of a landowner, “goes with his slaves to the village to do all sorts of diligence” 5.

There were not so many slaves labor force, how many export goods. And in written sources they most often appear as a product.

However, slave relations did not dominate in Rus', not only in the Kiev period, but also earlier, at the stage of intensive decomposition of the primitive communal system and the transition to feudalism. Some Soviet historians (P.P. Smirnov, B.I. Syromyatnikov and others) argued, following V.O. Klyuchevsky, that the basis of production relations in Kievan Rus was slave relations. Archaeologist M.I. Artamonov characterized the social relations of the pre-Kiev period as follows: “In any case, these relations are closer to slaveholding than to any others.” P.P. Smirnov believed that the genesis of Kievan Rus must be sought in slaveholding relations, that feudal Rus' can be correctly understood only on the condition that this stage of development of the society of Kievan Rus is preceded by the stage of slave development of the society of Kievan Rus.

We have already noted the presence of elements of slavery among the Slavs, especially in the southern regions of the country, but there is no sufficient basis to draw a conclusion about the leading role of slave-owning relations even in these areas. Due to historical conditions among the Eastern Slavs, slavery did not turn into a special social formation. However, patriarchal slavery existed not only at the early stage of feudalism, but also at a later time, during the period of feudal relations. And although its significance gradually faded away, it survived in the boyar and princely estates until approximately the 15th century. Feudal relations among the Eastern Slavs arose not from a slave-owning formation, but on the basis of the decomposition of the primitive communal system. But slavery, the sources of which were captivity, debt, self-sale, birth from a slave, still played famous role in the economy of the Eastern Slavs both in the conditions of the primitive community and later, in the conditions of feudalism.

Slavery is the first form of exploitation and Ancient Rus'. Gradually, the “primitive aristocracy” (princes, boyars, etc.) turned into the ruling class, which was opposed by the free community members, who, however, gradually fell into economic dependence. Like the Germans, the Eastern Slavs “...did not bring this dependence to fully developed slavery: neither to the ancient form of slave labor, nor to eastern domestic slavery.”

Some historians explain the lack of a slave-owning mode of production among the Slavs by the influence that their relationship with Byzantium had. 6 Of course, it would be wrong to deny the influence of Byzantium, but the reason for the evolution and emergence of new economic relations should be sought within society itself.

Some Soviet historians explain the absence of a slave-owning formation in Ancient Rus' by the fact that the East Slavic tribes in the pre-feudal period allegedly did not reach a sufficiently high level of socio-economic development, i.e. the development of crafts, cities, trade, etc. We cannot agree with this statement, it is illogical and does not stand up to criticism. If economic development The Eastern Slavs were not enough for the emergence of slavery, then there was even less reason for the emergence of a higher type of relationship - feudal.

In fact, in Rus' there was high level development of productive forces. So, among the Slavs at the end of I

millennium AD e. iron and iron tools already occupied a prominent place both in production (craft, agriculture) and in military affairs, and the emergence of slave-holding relations among other peoples coincided with the Bronze Age.

The most important reason that prevented the transformation of patriarchal slavery into a slave-owning formation in Rus' was the rural community. The rural community, at a certain level of productive forces, in particular with low labor productivity, in the conditions of Eastern Europe with its harsh natural conditions, did not contribute to the widespread use of slave labor in production.

Among the Slavs, the process of intensive transition from primitive communal relations and the formation of classes culminated in the creation of the largest Kyiv feudal state.

Primitive communal system.

Primitive communal system is the first, longest stage in the development of human society. It is characterized by collective ownership of the means of production and tools of labor, the equal right of all members of the community to the products of labor and equal treatment of work. The main occupations of the population were hunting and gathering. This type of farming is called consuming or appropriating. Go to producing economy begins at the end of primitive times, when cattle breeding and agriculture appear.

Population of the territory of our country. Sites of ancient people. Paleolithic. Mesolithic. Neolithic.

The separation of man from the animal world began more than 3 million years ago.

The first stage in the development of human society was called the Stone Age (since stone tools predominated during this period). The Stone Age is divided into Early Paleolithic (Acheulian), Middle Paleolithic (Mousterian), Late (Upper) Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic.

The most ancient sites on the territory of our country belong to the Acheulean and Acheulian periods - these are finds in the Altai Territory (on the bank of the Ulalinka River), in the Amur Region (near the village of Kumara), etc. The settlements of ancient people were small in number, the tools of labor were roughly processed stone. Traces of fire are found in Late Acheulean sites.

At the end of the Acheulean era, the climate changed dramatically - the great glaciation began. In an effort to adapt to new living conditions, people are improving tools and settling into previously undeveloped territories.

Middle Paleolithic sites were discovered in the Crimea, the Caucasus, Central Asia, the Middle and Lower Volga, and southern Ukraine. One of the most famous finds of the Mousterian period is the burial of an 8-9 year old boy discovered in 1938 in the Teshik-Tash grotto in Central Asia.

According to a number of researchers, during this period of time the primitive herd was replaced by a primitive community.

During the Upper (Late) Paleolithic period, the glacier began to retreat. Settlement into new territories continues - sites of ancient people reach Yakutia and the Arctic. The main occupation of the population remains hunting, but it is beginning to develop fishing. Conditions arise for a more permanent settlement. During the Late Paleolithic period, art and the first religious ideas arose. In this regard, the rock carvings discovered in the Kapova Cave in Bashkiria are interesting.

The end of the Upper Paleolithic and the beginning of the Mesolithic coincided with the end of the Ice Age. The invention of the bow and arrow dates back to this time. Tools of labor change significantly - so-called microliths appear - small flint products - arrowheads, insert blades, etc. Conditions are developing for the emergence cattle breeding. Of the archaeological finds of this time, the most interesting is the burial of two boys discovered in 1969 on the river. Sungir near the city of Vladimir.

The transition to the Neolithic on the territory of our country began first in Central Asia. The depth of the changes that occurred during this period allows us to talk about Neolithic revolution. The transition to producing farm. Although hunting and gathering remain the main occupations of the population, cattle breeding And agriculture. A new technique for making tools appears - sawing, grinding, drilling. The origins of ceramics and weaving date back to this time. One of the most significant achievements of the Neolithic Revolution was the invention of the wheel.

The Neolithic is characterized by a developed tribal system . In the clan community, all members were related to each other by consanguinity. The clan was headed by the oldest members of the community (“elders”). The remaining members of the clan were completely subordinate to the elders. The first associations of clans - tribes - arise, and a tribal elite begins to emerge. These associations were quite unstable - the rapid growth of the population, the extensive nature of the economy, which required significant mobility, lead to the mobility of tribal unions that quickly emerged and quickly disintegrated.

Start of metal processing. Decomposition

primitive communal system. Formation of class

society and statehood.

The first metal used by man was copper. Initially, metal tools were rarely used, and the use of stone continued mainly. This period - the Copper-Stone Age - is called the Chalcolithic.

Relatively few Copper-Stone Age cultures have been discovered on the territory of our country. One of the earliest is the agricultural culture of Anau (IV century BC).

On the territory of Ukraine and Moldova in the third vol. BC e. There was an agricultural Trypillian culture, in whose settlements metal tools were also discovered. In the later burials of this culture, signs are noticeable wealth inequality. Wealth inequality- this is the concentration in the hands of a certain group of people of significant material values and political power, one of the main reasons for social differentiation.

Gradually, along with copper, bronze began to be used - an alloy of copper with tin or other additives. TO Bronze Age include the Abashevskaya (in the Volga region) and Fatyanovskaya (in the Volga-Oka interfluve) archaeological cultures.

Obviously, during this period there was a separation of agriculture and cattle breeding. The role of male labor has increased, and patriarchy is being established. The separation of the military and clan aristocracy begins. At the same time, family ties begin to weaken. The separation of a monogamous family begins. Tribal alliances are becoming more permanent and numerous. In the most developed areas, it is beginning to take shape military democracy. Military democracy- This is a form of tribal organization in which power is concentrated in the hands of military leaders, but elements of primitive democracy are preserved. All issues of tribal life are resolved at a meeting consisting of combat-ready men of the tribe. At the end of a military democracy, the power of the leader becomes hereditary. "By this time, the outlines of individual ethnic groups are already quite clearly outlined. Some researchers believe that at this time the Slavs separated from the Indo-European community.

At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. The production of iron tools begins. This made it possible to spread agricultural crops to the north and increased labor productivity.

Individual families are increasingly beginning to emerge from patriarchal clans, and the clan community is being replaced by neighbor's Neighborhood Community- this is a settlement of people who are not related by family ties, but occupy a certain, limited territory, collectively cultivating the land; Each family has the right to its share of community property.

Greek colonization of the Northern Black Sea region. Scythians.

At the end of the 7th - beginning of the 6th century BC. e. Greek colonization of the Northern Black Sea region begins.

In the first half of the 6th century. BC Olbia was founded on the right bank of the Bug-Dnieper estuary. Other Greek colonies - Chersonesus (founded in the 5th century BC in the region of modern Sevastopol), Feodosia, Panticapaeum (modern Kerch) - in eastern Crimea, Phasis (Poti), Dioscurias (in the region of modern Sukhumi), Pitiunt (Pitsunda) - on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, Tanais - at the mouth of the Don, Phanagoria - at the mouth of the Kuban, etc.

In its political structure, Olbia was a Greek polis. Supreme power belonged to the people's assembly, which annually elected officials in charge of individual branches of government. The economic basis of the economy was agriculture and trade. Scythians settled in the vicinity of Olbia and in the city itself. Their relations with the Greek population of the colony were apparently peaceful.

Another large state developed around Tauride Chersonesos. The territories of the Heraclean Peninsula and the western coast of Crimea in the area of modern Evpatoria came under his rule. The political structure of Chersonesos was also polis. Commercial agriculture developed in Chersonesos. In the vicinity of Chersonesos lived the Tauri, relations with whom were quite tense.

In the first half of the 6th century. BC e. The Bosporan state begins to take shape around Panticapaeum. It united other city-states under its rule - Tanais, Phanagoria, and subsequently Feodosia. In the 4th century. BC e. The Bosporan state included the territory of the entire Kerch Peninsula, its borders reached the mouth of the Don. Initially, elements of democracy were preserved in the Bosporan state, as in other city-policies, but at the beginning of the 5th century. BC. a monarchy emerges. Local tribes - Meotian and Scythian - submitted to the authority of the Bosporus.

However, the heyday of the Greek colonies was relatively short-lived.

In the 3rd century. BC e. The Greeks begin to be supplanted by the Scythians.

The Scythians are a group of Iranian-speaking tribes that inhabited the lands from the mouth of the Danube, the Lower Bug and the Dnieper to the Sea of Azov and the Don from the 7th century. BC e. They were described by many ancient authors, but Herodotus wrote most in detail about the Scythians. Some of the Scythians led a sedentary lifestyle and were engaged in agriculture (“Scythian plowmen”), others remained nomads. In the 4th century. BC e. The Scythians begin to develop statehood. Living in close proximity to the Hellenes, the Scythians adopted a lot from their culture, but they themselves had a noticeable influence on the Greeks.

In the 3rd century. BC e. from the Dnieper region and from the Danube, the Scythians begin to displace the Sarmatians 1. Retreating to the Crimea under the onslaught of the Sarmatians, the Scythians created a new state with its capital in Scythian Naples. Having moved to Crimea, the Scythians entered into confrontation with Chersonesus and the Bosporan kingdom. In 110 BC. e. The Scythian state was defeated by the troops of Mithridates VI Eupator. Soon Bosporus, Chersonese, and then Olbia were included in the Pontic kingdom. After the death of Mithridates (in 63 BC), the Bosporian state managed to temporarily regain its former influence in the Black Sea region, but not for long.

In the II century. Alan tribes invade the Northern Black Sea region 2. At the beginning of the 3rd century. they are supplanted by the Goths 3. The struggle began between the Goths and Alans. After some time, the Huns 4 enter the fight. In 375, the Huns, led by Balamir, conquered the Alans and defeated the Goths. The Bosporan cities were destroyed.

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