BIG LENINGRAD LIBRARY - ABSTRACTS - official and informal situations communication. Prepared and spontaneous speech.

formal and informal communication situations. Prepared and spontaneous speech.

Abstract on the topic:

Formal and informal communication situations.

Prepared and spontaneous speech.

Introduction 3

1. Speech situation. Types of situations 4

2. Prepared and spontaneous speech 6

Conclusion 9

References 10

Introduction

Speech is one of the types of human communicative activity, expressed either in audio form (oral speech) or in written form (written speech). Speech is a historically established form of communication, a way of forming and formulating thoughts through language in the process of communication. Or, to put it succinctly, we can say this: speech is language in action. Consequently, when considering the relationship between language and speech in the communicative process, the main thing in the concept of “speech” is the active principle.

It follows from this that although speech is a realization of language and is subject to its laws, it is not equal to language. In speech, linguistic units receive additional properties through selection, repetition, placement, combination and transformation of linguistic means. The speaker or writer is forced by the very tasks and possibilities of communication to make a choice from the multitude of words and other units available in the system - well-defined ones, required by a very specific “step” in the development and construction of speech. Speech always unfolds in time and is realized in space.

It reflects experience, bears the imprint of the individuality of the speaker or writing person. It is also determined by the context and situation of communication.

Speech is a relatively independent component of linguistic and speech communication, which has its own specificity, certain qualities, requiring special attention and study.

Abstract objectives:

Consider the features of official and informal speech;

Components of a prepared speech;

Characteristic features of spontaneous speech.

When writing the abstract I used educational literature on the research problem. The abstract consists of an introduction, main part, conclusion and bibliography.

1. Speech withsituation. Types of situations.

The topic is usually suggested to the author by life itself, its course, the interweaving of events, i.e. situation. The most important role in verbal communication is played by the speech situation, i.e., the context of communication. The speech situation is the first stage of the act of communication and, therefore, the first step of rhetorical action: preparation for an oral or written presentation.

Situations can be natural or artificial, specially staged. An example of a natural situation: A researcher is preparing for a scientific seminar, at which he will have to report to his colleagues on the results of an experiment for a month of work.

Artificial situations are usually related to learning: for example, students are asked to prepare for a discussion environmental problems; perhaps given approximate topic for selection; Schoolchildren were asked to propose pressing environmental topics themselves.

There can be an innumerable number of situations and topics; they constitute the flow of the spiritual life of people, societies, nations, humanity, which is called culture.

A speech situation is the specific circumstances in which speech interaction occurs. Any speech act acquires meaning and can be understood only in the structure of non-speech contact. The speech situation is the starting point of any speech act in the sense that it encourages a person to speech action one or another set of circumstances. Examples of speech situations: the need to answer questions, make a report on the results of work, write a letter, talk with a friend, etc. A speech situation consists of the following main components:

Participants of communication;

Places and times of communication;

Subject of communication;

Goals of communication;

Feedback between communication participants. Direct participants in communication are the sender and the addressee. But third parties can also participate in verbal communication in the role of observers or listeners. And their presence leaves its mark on the nature of communication.

The spatiotemporal context - the time and place in which verbal communication occurs - plays a significant role in verbal communication. The place of communication may be to a large extent determine the genre of communication: socialite talk at a party, at a party, at a banquet, a conversation at a doctor’s appointment in a clinic, a dialogue between a teacher and a student at a university during exams, etc. Depending on the participation of the time factor, canonical and non-canonical speech situations are distinguished.

Situations are considered canonical when the time of utterance (the time of the speaker) is synchronous with the time of his perception (the time of the listener), i.e., the moment of speech is determined when the speakers are in the same place and each sees the same as the other (ideally they have a common field of view); when the addressee is a specific person, etc.

Non-canonical situations are characterized by the following points: the time of the speaker, i.e. the time of utterance, may not coincide with the time of the addressee, i.e. the time of perception (writing situation); the statement may not have a specific addressee (a public speaking situation), etc. If, for example, a telephone speaker uses the word here, then it denotes only its space. In a letter, the subject of speech now determines with a word only his own time, and not the time of the addressee.
For a speech situation, the purpose of communication is extremely important (why something is being said in a given situation). Even Aristotle in “Rhetoric” paid great attention to the purpose of speeches different types: “For people who pronounce praise or blasphemy (epideictic speech), the goal is the beautiful and the shameful.” Kokhtev N.N. Rhetoric. - M., 1994. P. 12

The speaker’s goal in such a speech is to show the audience “what is good and what is bad,” to ignite in their hearts a love for the beautiful and a hatred for the shameful. “For litigants (who make a speech in court), the goal is just and unjust”; one accuses, the other defends or defends. The speaker's goal is to prove that he is right, that his point of view is fair.

“A person giving advice (a political speaker) has a goal of benefit and harm: one gives advice, encouraging him to do better, the other dissuades him, diverting him from the worst” Michalskaya A.K. Basics of rhetoric. - M., 1996. P. 262 In general, we can say that the goal of communication is the result that the addresser and the addressee want to receive as a result of their communication.

In verbal communication, two types of goals are usually distinguished: direct, immediate, directly expressed by the speaker and indirect, more distant, long-term, often perceived as target subtext. There are many varieties of both types of goals.
The main types of direct, immediate goals of communication are:

Broadcast;
-receiving the information;

Clarification of positions;
- support of opinion;
-discussion of the problem, search for the truth;
- theme development;
- explanation;
-criticism, etc.
These are the so-called intellectual goals, ultimately related to the cognitive and informational aspect of communication.

The speech situation dictates the rules of speech communication and determines the forms of its expression. These forms are different in conditions of direct or face-to-face communication. With active feedback (for example, dialogue) and with passive feedback (for example, a written order), they change depending on the number of participants and the nature of the situation (in everyday communication: a conversation with loved ones or private letters, etc., in business communication: report, lecture, discussion, negotiations, etc.). The speech situation helps to understand the meaning of the text, specifies the meaning of a number of grammatical categories, for example, categories of time, pronominal words like I, you, now, here, there, here, etc. It also allows you to correctly interpret the text, clarify its target function (threat , request, advice, recommendation, etc.), identify causal connections of this statement with other events, etc.

The choice of etiquette forms and a person’s speech behavior are closely dependent on the situation and must change in accordance with changes in this situation. What are the factors that determine the communicative situation, which must be taken into account by the subjects of communication in order to comply etiquette rules? These factors include:

1. Type of situation: formal situation, informal situation, semi-formal situation

In an official situation (boss - subordinate, employee - client, teacher - student, etc.), the most strict rules speech etiquette. This area of ​​communication is most clearly regulated by etiquette. Therefore, violations of speech etiquette are most noticeable in it, and it is in this area that violations can have the most serious consequences for the subjects of communication.

In an informal situation (acquaintances, friends, relatives, etc.), the norms of speech etiquette are the most free. Often verbal communication in this situation is not regulated at all. Close people, friends, relatives, lovers, in the absence of strangers, can tell each other everything and in any tone. Their verbal communication is determined by moral norms that fall within the scope of ethics, but not by etiquette norms. But if an outsider is present in an informal situation, then the current rules of speech etiquette immediately apply to the entire situation.

In a semi-official situation (communication between colleagues, communication within the family), etiquette norms are lax and vague, and here main role those rules of speech behavior that were developed in the process begin to play out social interaction this particular small social group: a team of employees of the laboratory, department, family, etc.

2. Prepared and spontaneous speech

Experienced speakers sometimes give brilliant speeches without preparation, but these are usually short speeches (welcomes, toasts, etc.). A lecture, report, political review, parliamentary speech, that is, speeches of large, serious genres, require careful preparation.

First, it is necessary to define and precisely formulate the topic; it must be relevant and interesting for the given audience. When choosing a topic, you should also think about the title of the lecture (report, message); it should not only reflect the content of the speech, but also attract the attention of future listeners and affect their interests. Titles must be specific. For example, from two options for titles - “The fight against corruption” and “Who takes bribes and how to fight it? " - the second one is preferable. Headlines can be appealing (“Let’s unite against the mafia!”), advertising (“How to lose weight without dieting and pills?”), but many topics receive individual names that accurately target potential listeners (“ Entrance exams to Moscow State University press", "Preparation of a new reform of Russian spelling and punctuation"). The speaker must clearly define for himself the purpose of the upcoming speech: he not only informs the audience by talking about certain events and facts, but also tries to form in them certain ideas and beliefs that should determine their future behavior. Ivanova S.F. Specifics of public speech. - M., 1998. P. 87

Any speech must pursue educational goals, and the speaker must, unnoticed by the listeners, introduce them to his moral ideals.

Preliminary acquaintance with the composition of the audience is of great importance. When preparing for a speech, the lecturer should find out who will come to listen to him (adults or children, young or old, educated or not, the direction of their education - humanitarian or technical; predominantly female or male composition of the audience, its national and religious characteristics). This is very important for determining not only the content of the speech, but also its style, the degree of popularity of the presentation, the choice of lexical and phraseological means and oratorical techniques to influence listeners.

The main component of preparing for a performance is the search and selection of material. Even if the speaker knows the topic of the upcoming speech well, he still prepares for it: he looks through specialized literature and periodicals in order to connect the topic with modern times and learn fresh facts related to the content of the speech. Depending on the theoretical preparedness of the speaker, he chooses forms of studying the material (selective or in-depth reading, skimming articles, reviews). In this case, you can refer to various reference books for statistical data, to textbooks, encyclopedic dictionaries, tables, maps. When studying specific material, it is necessary to take notes and compile a summary of what you read, prepare slides and photographs for display in the audience. Having studied the material well, they usually write either full text speech, or its summary, or theses or plan, which is best made detailed, extremely complete. Some experienced speakers refuse to take the written text of the speech with them, but hold in their hands a “cheat sheet” in which you can find the necessary reference material(numbers, quotes, examples, arguments). The audience will forgive you if you peek at such a cheat sheet, but will immediately dislike the speaker who begins to read his speech from beginning to end “from a piece of paper.”

On a piece of paper for such a “cheat sheet” you can select large fields and write down key words on them that will help you remember this or that thesis of the speech; here you can “suggest” aphorisms, paradoxes, proverbs, anecdotes that may be useful to maintain the interest of the audience if the listeners’ attention weakens.

In the process of preparing for a speech, it is recommended to rehearse it, look at yourself in the mirror, paying attention to your usual involuntary movements that accompany speech (mannerisms: brushing hair from the forehead, scratching the back of the head, swaying, moving shoulders, gesturing, etc.). Mastering the “language of movement” is an effective way to hold the audience’s attention. Complete immobility (numbness) of the speaker during a speech is unacceptable, but excessive gesticulation and grimaces have a detrimental effect on the speech, distracting the listeners.

The speaker's posture, gestures, and facial expressions should enhance the emotionality of his speech and have their own meaning. There is a whole science about symbolic meaning gestures, and we have practically mastered the meaning of one or another hand movement (greeting, call for attention, agreement, denial, rejection, threat, farewell, etc.), head turns, etc. The speaker's gestures and facial expressions must be natural and varied, and most importantly, they must be motivated by the content of the speech. On final stage preparation for a speech, you need to analyze it again and again, take into account the strengths and weak sides speeches and already in the audience rely on the positive.

Mastery of public speaking comes with experience. And yet you need to know the main “secrets” of oratory and learn to apply them in the audience.

A communicative task arises in cases when the speaker actively focuses his statement on a specific listener and sets himself some communicative goal: to inform, report, explain, convince, reassure, find out, etc. Ladanov I.D. Speech as the main means of communication. Ability to persuade. - M., 2004. P. 25 In this case, solving only the rational-expressive problem is not sufficient: an utterance that satisfies the speaker himself and basically adequately, from his point of view, conveys the thought, must undergo additional procedures. Thus, in order to facilitate the understanding of it by a specific listener, as well as to enhance its persuasiveness (taking into account, again, the characteristics of the addressee), it happens, for example, that it is necessary to more fully reveal the main components of a thought, to identify in more detail in verbal form the connections between them, to modify the style of the statement etc. The speaker cannot make sure that the communicative task is solved adequately without feedback, i.e., without relying on the reaction of the message addressee. And of course great importance here the speaker takes into account the age, professional, characterological, individual, personal and other characteristics of the communication partner.

The features of planning, control, and correction of the utterance by the subject of speech depend on many conditions, for example, on the size of the time gap between preparation and external speech implementation of the utterance (prepared and unprepared, spontaneous speech).
If the speaker has time to prepare a statement, he has the opportunity to develop his plan in detail, highlighting specific content elements, their connections and outlining the sequence of their presentation. You can choose the best version of the expression and even “test” your statement in your mind. Thus, if there is time to prepare an utterance, the speaker can plan not only its content (“what and “what to talk about”), but also choose the option for its external speech implementation (“how to speak”). This situation is typical for writing. In oral speech, characteristic of such cases of communication, there is no time pressure.
In unprepared (spontaneous) speech, we speak without preliminary thinking, for the first time and new content for ourselves, continuing to develop it in the very process of speech. Nozhin E.A. Oral presentation skills. - M., 1991. P. 128

In this case, all three tasks discussed above are combined in time. In a familiar situation of everyday communication, the subject, as a rule, begins speech, anticipating its content only in general terms. More often than not, he presents only the main gist of what he is about to present. How exactly this needs to be done (where to start, what elements of content to indicate in a word and in what sequence) is usually determined during the speech itself.

Under normal conditions of situational speech as significant elements While constructing a message, the speaker uses paralinguistic means of communication (intonation, gesture, facial expressions). When a speaker develops new content, he has almost no ready-made “blocks” that are an important support in stereotypical speech.

Therefore, here the rational-expressive task, combined with the mental one, acquires special importance and distracts the main efforts of the speaker. In such situations, the structure of the utterance is often distorted, and the communicative characteristics of speech deteriorate. Occasionally, especially in those acute situations communication, when the influence on the interlocutor or the success of joint activities depends on speech characteristics communication (for example, on the understandability of arguments), the solution of rational-expressive and communicative problems becomes the focus of the speaker’s consciousness.

Conclusion

A speech act as an expression of a specific communicative intention of the speaker is built from communicative components that have different communicative functions. Communicative meanings can form sentences as speech acts certain type, serve as the basis for the start of a speech act and modify the components of speech acts within one type.

In the classical understanding of the difference between oral and written speech, it is believed that the mechanisms of generation and perception of oral and written speech are not the same. When generating written speech, there is time to think about the formal plan of the statement, so the degree of its structure is high. When reading, you can always stop and think more deeply about what you read. This allows both the writer and the reader to translate the necessary information from random access memory into the long term. Sound oral speech represents a certain flow, which only when it is produced can be interrupted by the speaker, and the listener must follow the speaker in time. This speech is spontaneous, one-time, it can no longer be repeated in the form in which it was already pronounced. Oral speech always individual.

In the genres of written and oral speech there are various alternations or mixtures, interpenetration of elements of book and spoken language. The targeting of “written-oral” statements is very diverse. Statements can relate to direct and indirect situations, they can be both thoughtful and spontaneous, prepared and unprepared, official and unofficial.

The conditions for successful communication are a complex, multidimensional category, which is a synthesis of linguistic, cultural, psychological and social knowledge. Successful communication involves mastering not only language and linguistic skills, but also skills associated with knowledge of the patterns of speech communication in the unity and interconnection of all its components: structural and content organization of communication activities; sociocultural norms and stereotypes of verbal communication; material and spiritual culture of the language being studied, etc. This knowledge and skills general plan must be supplemented with skills of a particular nature: the speaker’s knowledge of speech strategies and tactics characteristic of certain genres of communication, mastery of dialogue techniques, the ability to “read” the nonverbal behavior of the interlocutor, etc.

Bibliography:

1. Kokhtev N.N. Rhetoric. - M.: Education, 1994

2. Mikhalskaya A.K. Fundamentals of rhetoric: Thought and word. - M.: Education, 1996.

3. Ivanova S.F. Specifics of public speech. - M.: Knowledge, 1998.

4. Nozhin E.A. Oral presentation skills. - M.: Education, 1991

5. Soper P.S. Fundamentals of the art of speech. - M.: Progress, 2000.

6. Ivin A.A. The art of thinking correctly. - M.: Bustard, 2002.

7. Formanovskaya N.I. Speech etiquette t culture of communication. - M.: Publishing house NORMA, 1999.

8. Badmaev B. Ts. Speech, conversation - always communication. M.: Education, 1993.

9. Ladanov I. D. Speech as the main means of communication. The ability to persuade // Practical management. M., 2004.

10. Lvova S.I. Language in speech communication. M.: Bustard, 2001.

Example from written text: “Distracting slightly from domestic issues, I would like to note that, as the modern experience of the Scandinavian region and a number of other countries has shown, the issue is not at all about the monarchy, not about the form political organization, but in the division of political power between the state and society"(“Star”. 1997, No. 6). When this fragment is reproduced orally, for example in a lecture, it will, of course, be changed and may have approximately the following form: “ If we abstract from domestic issues, we will see that the issue is not at all about the monarchy, it is not about the form of political organization. The whole point is how to divide power between the state and society. And this is confirmed today by the experience of the Scandinavian countries».

Oral speech, like written speech, is standardized and regulated, but the norms of oral speech are completely different: “Many so-called flaws in oral speech are the functioning of unfinished statements, poor structure, the introduction of interruptions, auto-commentators, contactors, reprises, elements of hesitation, etc. . - is a necessary condition success and effectiveness of the oral method of communication" ( Bubnova G. I. Garbovsky N. K. Written and oral communications: Syntax and prosody M., 1991. P. 8). The listener cannot retain in memory all the grammatical and semantic connections of the text. And the speaker must take this into account, then his speech will be understood and meaningful. Unlike written speech, which is constructed in accordance with the logical movement of thought, oral speech unfolds through associative additions.

Written speech is distinguished by the fact that in its very form speech activity find a certain reflection of the conditions and purpose of communication, for example piece of art or a description of a scientific experiment, a vacation application, or a news item in a newspaper. Hence, written speech has a style-forming function, which is reflected in the choice of linguistic means that are used to create a particular text that reflects the typical features of a certain functional style. The written form is the main form of existence of speech in scientific, journalistic, official business and artistic styles.

So, the differences between oral and written speech most often come down to the means of expression. Oral speech is associated with intonation and melody, non-verbalism, it uses a certain amount of “its own” linguistic means, it is tied more to the conversational style. Writing uses alphabetic and graphic notations, often bookish language with all its styles and features, normalization and formal organization.

when the speech being produced was practiced in one way or another, especially long before its utterance or for a long time. Depending on the quality of such training, the degree of preparation, the nature, characteristics of the supporting speech material, the degree of its use and combination with one’s own productive beginning, prepared and partially prepared speech are distinguished.

Examples of this include retelling what was read (for example, a story), listened to (for example, a report, radio broadcast), speaking from notes (partially prepared speech), from short notes thought out in advance, orally reproducing something memorized (poems, prayers, etc.) or well thoughtful and mentally spoken. This also includes, with some reservations, oral simultaneous translation of speech in another language. Wed. also the student's answer in the exam: he prepared for the exam at home, studying the entire volume educational material according to the course, and if he answers immediately by pulling out a ticket, then it will be a partially prepared speech; if, in addition, he specifically thinks through the specific questions of the ticket, sitting at the table for half an hour before answering, this will be an actual prepared speech. Of course, the artist’s speech on stage is prepared. The speech of a teacher giving a lecture without looking at the notes can be called prepared and unprepared. If he gave a lecture on this topic already dozens of times, over the course of 20 years, he learned it almost by heart (this is nothing more than preparedness). But at the same time, he adds a lot of new information to this memorized basis each time - fresh facts, clarifying reasoning, details, etc. (and this means that elements of unpreparedness and impromptu are added to the speech).

When speaking in a prepared manner, there is no sufficient degree of independence or, in another case, spontaneity. It is based on keywords, remembered thoughts-statements, text structures and their parts, captured style, etc. - in someone else’s speech work or in your own, previously compiled.

Prepared speech is most often associated with the monologue form. But a dialogical speech can also be prepared in advance - both from the side of only one interlocutor, and from both sides. For example, if business man prepares very carefully for important negotiations and works out in detail in advance all possible turns of the planned communication, formulating optimal responses to any version of the partner’s speech. A correspondent going to conduct an interview determines in advance a system of questions for the interviewee; The latter is not so rarely given these questions in advance so that he can think about them and answer better. The same applies to the investigator interrogating the accused (although during the interrogation there may be moments of unprepared speech). In such cases, the culture of speech is manifested precisely in the fact of preliminary work on the future communicative act; if such preparation is not carried out, then this leads to a violation of the rules of the corresponding speech genre, a deviation from the required degree of culture of speech communication.

It should be borne in mind that prepared speaking (prepared speech) should not always be treated with more or less disdain. There are also types of it that can show the high speech culture of the subject. Speaking on the basis of oral information or obtained from reading can be, for example, an indicator of the level of development of the subject, since the retelling can be primitive, inadequate, incomplete ( low level speaking), and, conversely, accurate, meaningful, analytical, etc. (high level of speaking).

Features of oral speech for the addressee

Oral speech is spoken speech. Each person has his own, unique features of the speech apparatus.

Oral speech is spoken speech

Depending on one's temperament, a person speaks quickly, slowly or at an average pace.

• Speech rate may change and depend on emotional state speaker.

Psychologists say that slow speech is especially difficult to perceive, although sometimes only such speech can contribute to the fulfillment of the task for both the listener and the speaker. At the same time, there are communication situations when a fast pace of speech is necessary, for example in the work of announcers.

• Timbre of speech(the difference in sound vibrations that helps distinguish one sound from another) also characterizes oral speech .

Different timbres of speech may be perceived differently by listeners. Thus, a very high-pitched, shrill voice is more likely to cause an unpleasant reaction from listeners.

• Voice volume also affects the listener's perception and is regulated by various situations.

• Intonation(raising or lowering tone) is another characteristic of oral speech.

With the help of intonation, a person manages to convey the slightest shades of feelings. Unexpressive intonation can make it difficult to understand and communicate. Sound characteristics oral speech is supplemented by gestures and facial expressions, which makes oral speech more expressive.

Depending on various communication situations, oral speech can be prepared or unprepared. Unlike a friendly conversation, a report, speech, or response in class requires serious, thoughtful preparation from the author.

Oral speech - prepared and unprepared

• For unprepared oral speech is characteristic: repetition of thoughts, words, intermittency, speech errors, inconsistency of presentation, etc.

• Prepared oral speech more harmonious and logical in composition, the possibility of stylistic and speech errors appearing in it is much less.

For auditory perception, as already mentioned, tempo, timbre, volume, intonation are important, and for visual perception - facial expressions, gestures, appearance, clothing, hairstyle - all of these together make up features of oral speech for the addressee .

• age,
• social affiliation,
• level of education,
• mood of the audience, etc.

If an oral presentation has been prepared, then the author, of course, has thought through its composition and course, selected the necessary examples, and found means of verbal imagery.

• rearrange your performance, if necessary,
• omit any parts
• return to what was said earlier,
• to focus on an important thought, in his opinion,

although during an oral presentation the author does not always have the opportunity to correct what has already been said. The immediate emotional response of the audience indicates an immediate reaction to the words of the author. Mutual understanding between the speaker and the listener brings great pleasure to the speaker.

This is evidenced, in particular, by the hero of Chekhov’s story “A Boring Story.” The hero of the story, an old professor, calls the student audience a hundred-headed hydra that must be tamed. An experienced lecturer, he notices the fatigue of the audience in time:

“This means attention is tired. Taking this opportunity, I make some pun. All one and a half hundred faces are smiling broadly, their eyes are sparkling cheerfully, the sound of the sea can be heard for a short time... I laugh too. My attention is refreshed and I can continue.”

See our presentation on the topic

Written and oral speech differ in the means of verbal expression

Speech is mostly monologue, because involves the statement of one author about the topic chosen by him.

Oral speech is dialogical and involves the participation of interlocutors (at least two) in revealing the topic. Sometimes the author chooses the form of dialogue in writing, but this happens much less often.

Participles and participles are widely used in written speech. participial phrases, phrases with verbal nouns.

In oral speech they are replaced by sentences With various types of subordinate clauses, verbal constructions.

The volume of sentences in oral and written speech is also different. In oral speech, incomplete and unexpanded proposals, and in volume they are, as a rule, much smaller than in writing.

Materials are published with the personal permission of the author - Ph.D. O.A. Maznevoy

^ Inductive method– presentation of material from specific to general. The speaker begins his speech with a particular case, and then leads the audience to generalizations and conclusions. Deductive method– presentation of material from general to specific. At the beginning of the speech, the speaker puts forward some provisions, and then explains their meaning in specific examples, facts. Analogy method– comparison of various phenomena, events, facts. Usually the parallel is drawn with what is well known to the listeners. ^ Concentric method– arrangement of material around the main problem raised by the speaker. The speaker moves from a general consideration of the central issue to a more specific and in-depth analysis of it. ^ Step method– sequential presentation of one issue after another. Having considered any problem, the speaker never returns to it. Historical method– presentation of material in chronological order, description and analysis of changes that have occurred over time.

1. Formal and informal communication situations. Prepared and spontaneous speech.

In an official situation (boss - subordinate, employee - client, teacher - student, etc.), the strictest rules of speech etiquette apply. This area of ​​communication is most clearly regulated by etiquette. Therefore, violations of speech etiquette are most noticeable in it, and it is in this area that violations can have the most serious consequences for the subjects of communication.

In an informal situation (acquaintances, friends, relatives, etc.), the norms of speech etiquette are the most free. Often verbal communication in this situation is not regulated at all. Close people, friends, relatives, lovers, in the absence of strangers, can tell each other everything and in any tone. Their verbal communication is determined by moral norms that fall within the scope of ethics, but not by etiquette norms. But if an outsider is present in an informal situation, then the current rules of speech etiquette immediately apply to the entire situation.

A speech situation is the specific circumstances in which speech interaction occurs. The speech situation consists of the following main components:

Participants of communication;

Places and times of communication;

Subject of communication;

Goals of communication;

Feedback between communication participants. Direct participants in communication are the sender and the addressee. But third parties can also participate in verbal communication in the role of observers or listeners. And their presence leaves its mark on the nature of communication.

experienced speakers sometimes give brilliant speeches without preparation, but these are usually short speeches (welcomes, toasts, etc.). A lecture, report, political review, parliamentary speech, that is, speeches of large, serious genres, require careful preparation.

1. Functional styles of the Russian literary language. Colloquial speech. Examples.

Every functional style modern Russian literary language- this is a subsystem of it that is determined by the conditions and goals of communication in a certain area social activities and has a certain set of stylistically significant linguistic means. In accordance with the spheres of social activity in the modern Russian language, the following functional styles are distinguished: scientific, official business, newspaper journalistic, artistic and colloquial.

Scientific style

The sphere of social activity in which the scientific style functions is science. Leading position in scientific style takes monologue speech. This functional style has a wide variety of speech genres; The main ones among them are: scientific monograph and scientific article, dissertations, scientific and educational prose (textbooks, educational and teaching aids, etc.), scientific and technical works (various kinds of instructions, safety regulations, etc.), annotations , abstracts, scientific reports, lectures, scientific discussions, as well as genres of popular science literature.

The scientific style is realized mainly in written form of speech.

The main features of the scientific style are accuracy, abstraction, logic and objectivity of presentation. It is they who organize into a system all the linguistic means that form this functional style, and determine the choice of vocabulary in works of the scientific style. This functional style is characterized by the use of special scientific and terminological vocabulary, and recently international terminology has occupied more and more space here (today this is especially noticeable in economic speech, for example, manager, management, quoting, realtor, etc.). A peculiarity of using vocabulary in a scientific style is that polysemantic lexically neutral words are not used in all of their meanings, but, as a rule, in one (count, body, strength, sour). In scientific speech, compared to other styles, abstract vocabulary is used more widely than concrete vocabulary (perspectives, development, truth, presentation, point of view).

The lexical composition of the scientific style is characterized by relative homogeneity and isolation, which is expressed, in particular, in the lesser use of synonyms. The volume of text in a scientific style increases not so much due to the use of different words, but rather due to the repeated repetition of the same ones. In the scientific functional style there is no vocabulary with colloquial and colloquial coloring. This style, to a lesser extent than journalistic or artistic ones, is characterized by evaluativeness. Evaluations are used to express the author's point of view, make it more understandable and accessible, clarify an idea, attract attention, and are generally of a rational rather than emotionally expressive nature. Scientific speech is distinguished by the accuracy and logic of thought, its consistent presentation and objectivity of presentation. Scientific style texts provide strict definitions of the concepts and phenomena under consideration; each sentence or statement is logically connected to previous and subsequent information. In the syntactic structures in the scientific style of speech, the detachment of the author and the objectivity of the information presented are maximally demonstrated. This is expressed in the use of generalized personal and impersonal constructions instead of the 1st person: there is reason to believe, it is believed, it is known, one can say, one must pay attention, etc. This also explains the use in scientific speech of a large number of passive constructions, in which the real producer of the action is indicated not by the grammatical form of the subject in the nominative case, but by the form of the minor member in the instrumental case or is omitted altogether. The action itself comes to the fore, and dependence on the manufacturer is relegated to the background or is not expressed at all by linguistic means. The desire for logical presentation of material in scientific speech leads to the active use of complex union proposals, as well as constructions that complicate a simple sentence: introductory words and phrases, participial and adverbial phrases, common definitions, etc. The most typical complex sentences are those with clauses of cause and condition.

Texts in the scientific style of speech can contain not only linguistic information, but also various formulas, symbols, tables, graphs, etc. Almost any scientific text can contain graphic information.

Formal business style

The main area in which the official business style of the Russian literary language functions is administrative and legal activity. This style satisfies the need of society for documenting various acts of state, social, political, economic life, business relations between the state and organizations, as well as between members of society in the official sphere of their communication. Texts of this style represent a huge variety of genres: charter, law, order, instruction, contract, instruction, complaint, recipe, various kinds of statements, as well as many business genres (explanatory note, autobiography, questionnaire, statistical report, etc.). The expression of legal will in business documents determines the properties, main features business speech and socially organizing language use. Genres of official business style perform informational, prescriptive, and ascertaining functions in various fields activities. Therefore, the main implementation of this style is written. Despite the differences in the content of individual genres and the degree of their complexity, official business speech has common stylistic features: accuracy of presentation, which does not allow the possibility of differences in interpretation; detail of presentation; stereotyping, standardization of presentation; the obligatorily prescriptive nature of the presentation. To this we can add such features as formality, rigor in the expression of thoughts, as well as objectivity and logic, which are also characteristic of scientific speech.

The function of social regulation, which plays the most important role in official business speech, imposes on the corresponding texts the requirement of unambiguous reading. An official document will serve its purpose if its content is carefully thought out and its language is impeccable. It is this goal that determines the actual linguistic features of official business speech, as well as its composition, rubrication, paragraph selection, etc., i.e. standardization of the design of many business documents. The lexical composition of texts of this style has its own characteristics associated with the indicated features. These texts use words and phrases of the literary language that have a pronounced functional and stylistic connotation (plaintiff, defendant, job description, supply, researcher, etc.), among them a significant number of professional terms. Many verbs contain the theme of prescription or obligation (prohibit, allow, decree, oblige, assign, etc.). In official business speech, the highest percentage of infinitive use is observed among verb forms. This is also due to the imperative nature of official business texts.

Typical for business language are complex words formed from two or more words. The formation of such words is explained by the desire of business language for accuracy and conveying meaning and unambiguous interpretation. The same purpose is served by phrases of a “non-idiomatic” nature, for example, destination, higher educational institution, joint stock company, housing cooperative, etc. The uniformity of such phrases and their high repetition lead to the clichédness of the linguistic means used, which gives the texts of an official business style a standardized character.

Official business speech reflects not individual, but social experience, as a result of which its vocabulary is extremely generalized in semantic terms, i.e. everything concrete and unique has been eliminated, and foreground the typical is put forward. For an official document, the legal essence is important, therefore preference is given to generic concepts, for example, to arrive (to arrive, to fly, to come, etc.), vehicle (bus, plane, etc.), etc. When naming a person, nouns are used, denoting a person based on a characteristic conditioned by some attitude or action (teacher T.N. Sergeeva, witness T.P. Molotkov, etc.).

Business speech is characterized by the use of verbal nouns, which in formal business style more than in other styles, and participles: arrival of a train, serving the population, taking action; given, indicated, above-named, etc.; Denominative prepositions are widely used: in part, along the line, on the subject, in order to avoid, upon reaching, upon returning, etc.

Newspaper and journalistic style

The newspaper-journalistic style functions in the socio-political sphere and is used in oratory, in various newspaper genres (for example, editorial, report, etc.), in journalistic articles, and in periodicals. It is implemented both in written and oral speech. One of the main characteristic features of this style is the combination of two trends - the tendency towards expressiveness and the tendency towards standard. This is due to the functions that journalism performs: informational and content function and the function of persuasion, emotional impact. They have a special character in a journalistic style. Information in this area of ​​public activity is addressed to a wide circle people, all native speakers and members of a given society (and not just specialists, as in the scientific field). For the relevance of information, the time factor is very important: information must be transmitted and become publicly known as soon as possible, which is not at all important, for example, in an official business style. In the newspaper-journalistic style, persuasion is carried out through an emotional impact on the reader or listener, therefore the author always expresses his attitude to the information being communicated, but it, as a rule, is not only his personal attitude, but expresses the opinion of a certain social group of people, for example some party, some movement, etc. The function of influencing the mass reader or listener is associated with such a feature of the newspaper-journalistic style as its emotionally expressive nature, and the speed of transmission of socially significant information is associated with the standard of this style. The tendency towards a standard means the desire of journalism for rigor and information content, which are characteristic of scientific and official business styles. For example, the standard for newspaper-journalistic style includes steady growth, wide scope, official visit, etc. The tendency towards expressiveness is expressed in the desire for accessibility and figurativeness of the form of expression, which is characteristic of artistic style and colloquial speech - features of these styles are intertwined in journalistic speech. The newspaper-journalistic style is both conservative and flexible. On the one hand, journalistic speech contains a sufficient number of cliches, socio-political and other terms. On the other hand, the desire to convince readers requires more and more new linguistic means to influence them. All the riches of artistic and colloquial speech serve precisely this purpose. The vocabulary of the newspaper-journalistic style has a pronounced emotional and expressive coloring and includes colloquial, colloquial and even slang elements. Here we use lexical and phraseological units and phrases that combine functional and expressive-evaluative connotations, for example, dumbing down, yellow press, accomplice, etc.; they not only show that they belong to the newspaper-journalistic style of speech, but also contain a negative assessment. Many words acquire a newspaper-journalistic connotation if they are used in a figurative meaning (This article served as a signal for discussion). Newspaper and journalistic speech actively uses foreign words and elements of words, in particular the prefixes a-, anti-, pro-, neo-, ultra-, etc. It is thanks to the means mass media Recently, the active dictionary has been significantly expanded foreign words, which are part of the Russian language: privatization, electorate, denomination, etc. The functional style under consideration not only attracts the entire stock of emotionally expressive and evaluative words, but also includes in the sphere of evaluation even proper names, titles literary works and so on. (Plyushkin, Derzhimorda, Man in a Case, etc.). The desire for expressiveness, imagery and, at the same time, brevity is also realized with the help of precedent texts (texts familiar to any average member of a society), which today is an integral part of journalistic speech.

The syntax of the newspaper-journalistic style of speech also has its own characteristics associated with the active use of emotionally and expressively colored constructions: exclamatory sentences of various meanings, interrogative sentences, sentences with appeal, rhetorical questions, repetitions, dismembered constructions, etc. The desire for expression determines the use of constructions with conversational coloring: constructions with particles, interjections, constructions of a phraseological nature, inversions, non-union sentences, ellipses (omission of one or another member of the sentence, structural incompleteness of the construction), etc.

Art style

The artistic style of speech as a functional style is used in fiction, which performs a figurative-cognitive and ideological-aesthetic function. To understand the features of the artistic way of understanding reality, thinking that determines the specifics artistic speech, you need to compare it with scientifically cognition, determining character traits scientific speech. Fiction, like other types of art, is characterized by a concrete figurative representation of life, in contrast to the abstract, logical-conceptual, objective reflection of reality in scientific speech. A work of art is characterized by perception through the senses and re-creation of reality; the author strives, first of all, to convey his personal experience, his understanding and comprehension of a particular phenomenon. The artistic style of speech is characterized by attention to the particular and random, followed by the typical and general. World fiction- this is a “recreated” world, the depicted reality is to a certain extent the author’s fiction, which means that in the artistic style of speech the subjective moment plays the main role. The entire surrounding reality is presented through the author's vision. But in a literary text we see not only the world of the writer, but also the writer in this world: his preferences, condemnations, admiration, rejection, etc. This is associated with emotionality and expressiveness, metaphor, and meaningful diversity of the artistic style of speech. As a means of communication, artistic speech has its own language - a system of figurative forms expressed by linguistic and extralinguistic means. Artistic speech along with non-artistic speech constitute two levels national language. The basis of the artistic style of speech is the literary Russian language. The word in this functional style performs a nominative-figurative function. Lexical composition and functioning of words in artistic style speeches have their own characteristics. The number of words that form the basis and create the imagery of this style, first of all, includes figurative means of the Russian literary language, as well as words that realize their meaning in the context. These are words with a wide range of usage. Highly specialized words are used to a small extent, only for artistic authenticity when describing certain aspects of life. In the artistic style of speech, the verbal ambiguity of a word is very widely used, which opens up additional meanings and shades of meaning, as well as synonymy at all linguistic levels, thanks to which it becomes possible to emphasize the subtlest shades of meaning. This is explained by the fact that the author strives to use all the riches of language and style, to create a bright, expressive, figurative text. The author uses not only the vocabulary of the codified literary language, but also a variety of visual means from colloquial speech and vernacular.

The emotionality and expressiveness of the image come to the fore in a literary text. Many words that appear in scientific speech as clearly defined abstract concepts, in newspaper and journalistic speech - as socially generalized concepts, in artistic speech they carry specifically sensory ideas. Thus, the styles functionally complement each other. For example, the adjective lead in scientific speech realizes its direct meaning (lead ore, lead bullet), and in artistic speech they form an expressive metaphor (lead clouds, lead night, lead waves). Therefore, in artistic speech an important role is played by phrases that create a kind of figurative representation.

Artistic speech, especially poetic speech, is characterized by inversion, i.e. changing the usual order of words in a sentence in order to enhance the semantic significance of a word or give the entire phrase a special stylistic coloring. The syntactic structure of artistic speech reflects the flow of figurative and emotional impressions of the author, so here you can find a whole variety of syntactic structures. Each author subordinates linguistic means to the fulfillment of his ideological and aesthetic tasks. In artistic speech, deviations from structural norms are also possible, due to artistic actualization, i.e. the author highlighting some thought, idea, feature that is important for the meaning of the work. They can be expressed in violation of phonetic, lexical, morphological and other norms. This technique is especially often used to create a comic effect or a bright, expressive artistic image.

Colloquial style

The colloquial style functions in the sphere of everyday communication. This style is realized in the form of casual, unprepared monologue or dialogical speech on everyday topics, as well as in the form of private, informal correspondence. Ease of communication is understood as the absence of an attitude towards a message of an official nature (lecture, speech, answer to an exam, etc.), informal relations between speakers and the absence of facts that violate the informality of communication, for example, strangers. Conversational speech functions only in the private sphere of communication, in everyday life, friendship, family, etc. In the field of mass communication, colloquial speech is not applicable. However, this does not mean that the colloquial style is limited to everyday topics. Conversational speech can also touch on other topics: for example, a conversation with family or a conversation between people in informal relationships about art, science, politics, sports, etc., a conversation between friends at work related to the speaker’s profession, conversations in public institutions, such as clinics, schools, etc. The form of implementation of spoken language is predominantly oral. The colloquial and everyday style is contrasted with book styles, since they function in certain areas of social activity. However, colloquial speech includes not only specific linguistic means, but also neutral ones, which are the basis of the Russian language. Therefore, this style is associated with other styles that also use neutral language means. Within the literary language, colloquial speech is opposed to the codified language as a whole (speech is called codified because it is in relation to it that work is being done to preserve its norms, for its purity). But codified literary language and colloquial speech are two subsystems within the literary language. As a rule, every native speaker of a literary language speaks both of these varieties of speech.

The main features of the colloquial style are the already mentioned relaxed and informal nature of communication, as well as the emotionally expressive coloring of speech. Therefore, in colloquial speech all the riches of intonation, facial expressions, and gestures are used. One of its most important features is its reliance on the extra-linguistic situation, i.e. the immediate context of speech in which communication takes place. In colloquial speech, an extra-linguistic situation becomes an integral part of the act of communication.

The colloquial style of speech has its own lexical and grammatical features. A characteristic feature of colloquial speech is its lexical heterogeneity. Here you can find the most diverse thematic and stylistic groups of vocabulary: general book vocabulary, terms, foreign borrowings, words of high stylistic coloring, and even some facts of vernacular, dialects and jargons. This is explained, firstly, by the thematic diversity of colloquial speech, which is not limited to everyday topics, everyday remarks, secondly, the implementation of colloquial speech in two tones - serious and playful, and in the latter case it is possible to use a variety of elements.

Syntactic constructions have their own characteristics. Constructions with particles, interjections, and phraseological constructions are typical for colloquial speech. Conversational speech is characterized by emotionally expressive assessments of a subjective nature, since the speaker acts as a private person and expresses his personal opinion and attitude. Very often this or that situation is assessed in a hyperbolic way: “Wow! Wow!"

It is typical to use words in a figurative sense, for example: “Your head is such a mess!”

The word order in spoken language is different from that used in written language. Here the main information is concentrated at the beginning of the statement. The speaker begins his speech with the main, essential element of the message. To focus the attention of listeners on the main information, intonation emphasis is used. In general, word order in colloquial speech is highly variable.

Colloquial speech- a functional style of speech, which serves for informal communication, when the author shares his thoughts or feelings with others, exchanges information on everyday issues in an informal setting. It often uses colloquial and colloquial vocabulary.

The usual form of implementation of the conversational style is dialogue; this style is more often used in oral speech. There is no preliminary selection of language material. In this style of speech, extra-linguistic factors play an important role: facial expressions, gestures, and the environment.

The conversational style is characterized by emotionality, imagery, concreteness, and simplicity of speech. For example, in a bakery it doesn’t seem strange to say: “Please, with bran, one.”

The relaxed atmosphere of communication leads to greater freedom in the choice of emotional words and expressions: colloquial words are used more widely ( be silly, talkative, talkative, giggle, cackle), vernacular ( neigh, weakling, awsome, disheveled), slang ( parents - ancestors, iron, world).

Another example is an excerpt from a letter from A. S. Pushkin to his wife, N. N. Pushkina, dated August 3, 1834:

It's a shame, lady. You are angry with me, not deciding who is to blame, me or the post office, and you leave me for two weeks without news of yourself and the children. I was so embarrassed that I didn't know what to think. Your letter reassured me, but did not console me. The description of your trip to Kaluga, no matter how funny it may be, is not funny to me at all. What kind of desire is there to drag yourself to a nasty little provincial town to see bad actors playing a bad old opera badly?<…>I asked you not to travel around Kaluga, yes, apparently, that’s your nature.

This passage shows the following linguistic features of a conversational style:

the use of colloquial and colloquial vocabulary: wife, trudge, bad, drive around, what kind of hunt, the conjunction “yes” in the meaning of “but”, particles “already” and “not at all”, the introductory word “visible”;

a word with an evaluative derivational suffix gorodishko;

inverted word order in some sentences;

lexical repetition of the word nasty;

appeal;

presence of an interrogative sentence;

use of personal pronouns 1st and 2nd person singular;

using verbs in the present tense;

the use of the absent plural form of the word Kaluga (to drive around Kaluga) to designate all the small provincial towns.

Elliptical pronunciation of some words. These include, for example, the sound forms of the following words: Now[just in a minute, right now], thousand[thousand], Means, at all in the meaning of introductory words [meaning, beginning, nasch; in general, generally], I say,speaks[grue, grit], Today[sednya, senya, senya].

In morphology, as in phonetics, there are no special differences from the codified literary language in the set of units itself. Nevertheless, there is some specificity here. For example, there are special colloquial vocative forms (such as Dad!,Mom, and mom!). Statistical studies of recordings of live conversational speech have shown that in this subsystem the most common non-nominal and semi-nominal vocabulary is: conjunctions, particles, pronouns; the frequency of nouns is lower than that of verbs, and among the verb forms the least common are gerunds and participles. Wed. colloquial: Bring a book lies on the table(v. book-letter: Bring a book, lying on the table); Words that perform the function of a predicate in a personal sentence. These include, for example, interjection-verb words (such as la-la, bang, shu-shu-shu, cf.: And they sit in the corner and shu-shu-shu between themselves); predicative evaluations (such as no ah, so-so, not that, Wed the weather was no ah; She sings so-so). Analytical adjectives (units like air, auto, tele, beige and many more etc.), having greater independence in colloquial speech. Wed: (conversation in the mail) A. What kind of envelopes do you want? B. To me air and simple//; Did you find the book? Sber?

In terms of lexico-style, colloquial texts are heterogeneous: in them one can find, first of all, words associated with everyday life, everyday life, the so-called bytovisms ( spoon, saucepan, frying pan, comb, hairpin, rag, broom etc.), words that have a pronounced colloquial, often reduced, connotation ( snag, get into trouble, dirty etc.), stylistically neutral words that make up the main vocabulary of the modern literary language ( work, rest, young, now, no time and many more etc.), special terminological vocabulary and, conversely, individual jargon inclusions. This stylistic “omnivorousness” of colloquial speech is explained primarily by its wide thematic range.

Conversational texts are characterized by a high degree of expression. through repetitions and interjections (I really, really liked it)