Literary process and its categories. Chapter five. Artistic method, direction, style

The artistic method (literally "methodos" from the Greek - the path of research) is a set of the most general principles of aesthetic assimilation of reality, which is consistently repeated in the work of one or another group of writers, forming a direction, trend or school. There are objective difficulties in isolating the method. “The artistic method is an aesthetic and deeply meaningful category. It cannot be reduced either to formal methods of constructing an image, or to the ideology of the writer. It is a set of ideological and artistic principles of depicting reality in the light of a certain aesthetic ideal. The worldview organically enters the method when it merges with the artist's talent, with his poetic thinking, and does not exist in the work only in the form of a socio-political tendency "(NA Gulyaev). The method is not just a system of some views, even the most aesthetic ones. It is possible, in a very conditional form, to speak of a method as a view, but not an abstract, initial one, but about one that has already found itself in a certain material of this art. It is an artistic thought or artistic concept of these phenomena in connection with the general concept of life. Method is a category mainly artistic creation, and therefore, artistic consciousness. A method is a consistently implemented method of reflection, which presupposes the unity of the artistic re-creation of the material of reality, realized on the basis of the unity of the figurative vision of life, subordinate to the goals of revealing and cognizing the leading trends of contemporary life for the writer and the embodiment of his social ideals.

The category of the method is associated with the category of type of creativity, on the one hand, and the category of style, on the other. Already in the 5th century BC. e. Sophocles aphoristically designated two opposite types of artistic thinking: "He (Euripides) depicts people as they really are, and I as they should be." Under style usually understood as the individual uniqueness of the creative handwriting, the set of preferred techniques, the unity of individual and typical, common to many individuals, features of creativity. The most active style-forming factors in the artistic structure of a work relate to the plane of expression. But at the same time, style is also “a directly perceived complete unity of different sides and elements of works, corresponding to the content expressed in it” (GN Pospelov). The difference between style from other categories of poetics, in particular from the artistic method, is in its immediate concrete implementation: stylistic features seem to appear on the surface of the work as a visible and tangible unity of all the main moments of the artistic form.

Style “absorbs into itself without a trace the content and form of art, unites and guides everything in a work, from the word to the central thought” (Benedetto Croce). The linguistic approach to style assumes that the main object of research is language, language as the first and clearly distinguishable appearance and materiality of a literary work. This means that internal linguistic laws are highlighted. Style, artistic fabric are considered as a combination of different styles existing in addition to it in the language and predetermined styles - clerical-bureaucratic, epistolary, archaic, business, scientific presentation style, etc. But this approach does not explain the change in literary styles. Moreover, the style of a work of art cannot be reduced to a mechanical combination. Style is a stable community of the figurative system, means of artistic expression, which characterizes the originality of the work of a writer, an individual work, a literary trend, and national literature. Style in a broad sense is a cross-cutting principle of constructing an art form, imparting a tangible integrity to a work, a single tone and color.

What are the mechanisms of style formation? D.S. Likhachev proceeds from the fact ("Man in the Literature of Ancient Rus") that the artistic style combines both the general perception of reality inherent in the writer, and the artistic method of the writer, conditioned by the tasks that he sets for himself. That is, style is not what the writer chose in his work, but how he expressed it, from what angle.

You cannot explain style without considering its connection with the artistic method. The concept of the artistic method expresses the fact that historical reality determines not only the content of art, but also its innermost aesthetic laws. In the creative method, the practical attitude of people to their historical tasks and their understanding of life are aesthetically summed up, that special relationship between ideals and reality is formed, which determines the structure of artistic images. Thus, a mythological view of nature and social relations was at the heart of Greek fantasy and Greek art. The creative method of classical art demanded that the artist guess the perfect in the imperfect, so that he showed realized the entire harmonious completeness of the possibilities of the human spirit. The creative method of classical art indicated to the artist a more or less constant angle of the obligatory elevation of the image above reality, a more or less established direction in the artistic expression of a life phenomenon. Thus, he also gave rise to the style. The relationship between ideal and reality inherent in classical art turned out to be the key to understanding the classical style with its clarity and transparency, normativity, beauty, strict order, with its inherent harmonious balance of parts and the calmness of inner completeness, an obvious connection between form and function, the paramount importance of rhythm, with his naive laconicism and amazing sense of proportion.

Style is a pattern in the construction, connection and similarity of forms, which allows these forms to express not only the particular content of a given work, but also to reproduce the most general signs of a person's relationship to nature and society. Style is the general character of expressiveness of various forms. Style is a connection of forms that reveals the unity of artistic content (gothic style, baroque style, pseudo-classical style, rococo style, etc.). There are large styles, the so-called styles of the era (Renaissance, Baroque, Classicism), styles of different trends and trends and the individual styles of artists.

Style - a pointed stick for writing with a ball on the other end, which was used to erase what was written. Hence the popular expression: "Turn the style more often!"

“Style is a person” (J. Buffon).

"Style embalms a literary work" (A. Daudet).

"Style can be defined as follows: the appropriate words in the appropriate place" (J. Swift).

“Style is the physiognomy of the mind, less deceiving than the real physiognomy. Imitating someone else's style is like wearing a mask. The bombast of style is similar to grimacing ”(A. Schopenhauer).

The very relationship of method and style turns out to be different on different stages artistic development. As a rule, in the early periods of the development of art, the style was unified, all-embracing, strictly subordinate to religious and dogmatic norms, with the development of aesthetic sensitivity, the need for a single style (style of the era, the aesthetic code of culture) for each era is noticeably weakening.

In pre-realistic art, we observe the predominance of the general style, and in the realistic art, the predominance of individual styles. In the first case, the method, as it were, merges with a certain style, and in the second it is realized the more fully, the more abundant and dissimilar the styles growing on its basis are. In the first case, the method implements uniformity, in the second, a variety of styles. The dominance of the general style corresponds to the relatively simple artistic content. In ancient society, relations between people are still clear and transparent. In all types of art, the same mythological motives and plots are repeated. The scope of artistic content remains rather narrow. The difference in personal points of view fits within the boundaries of a single aesthetic tradition. All this leads to the cohesion of the artistic content, which led to the formation of a common style.

The dominance of the general style is decisively associated with the prevalence of idealization as a method of artistic generalization, and the dominance of individual styles is associated with typification. Idealization more easily connects dissimilar phenomena into a single style. In classical art, the form is inevitably more coherent, rigid, stable than in the realistic image. The general style subjugates the individuality of the artist. Only those personal gifts that meet the requirements of the general style are given scope and can develop. So, speaking about the general style Old Russian literature, D.S. Likhachev writes that features of folk collectivism are still alive in Old Russian literature. This is literature in which personality is muted. Many works include previous works in their composition, follow the traditions of literary etiquette created by several authors, which were subsequently amended and supplemented by correspondence. Thanks to this feature, a monumental epic beginning was concluded in the literature of Ancient Rus. This monumentality is enhanced by the fact that works in Ancient Russia are mainly devoted to historical themes... They have less fictional, imaginary, calculated for entertainment, for amusement. The seriousness of this literature is also connected with the fact that its main works are civic in the highest sense of the word. The authors perceive their writing as a service to the Motherland. The higher the ideals of ancient Russian authors, the more difficult it is for them to come to terms with the shortcomings of reality (historical monumentalism).

In the classicism of the 17th-18th centuries, the obligation of a common style is supported by the established and indisputable authority of antiquity, by the recognition of the decisive importance of its artistic images as objects of imitation. Aesthetic authoritarianism (rules) is replacing religious and mythological authoritarianism. It is necessary to consider the belonging of this work to the general style and then to discover those modifications, enrichments, innovations that depend on the individual style. The general style subjugates the artist, determines his aesthetic taste. Realism, on the other hand, changes the very type of aesthetic taste, including its ability to develop naturally. The realistic method is associated with a new era in which human relationships are becoming extremely confusing.

In the capitalist era, a complex mechanism of social, political and ideological relations is developed, things are personified, people are reified. The cognitive possibilities of art are expanding. The analysis is deeply embedded in the description, the sphere of artistic content becomes wider, a huge area of ​​life prose opens up. The artist no longer works with a life process that was previously processed by folk fantasy and included a collective assessment of the phenomena of reality. From now on, he must independently find the image of reality. Due to this, even a small change in the angle of view, the position of the observer, is enough to dramatically and significantly change the artistic content. Previously, this change led to the formation of personal shades within the boundaries of a single style, now it has become the basis for the emergence of individual styles. The diversity of assessments, aspects, views, approaches, degrees of historical activity among artists is of great importance. Individual attitude to reality and individual forms of expression.

– Selection

Art Direction - Grade

– Generalization

– Artistic incarnation

Classicism- artistic style and aesthetic direction in European literature in the art of the XVII - beginning. XVIII centuries, one of the important features of which was the appeal to the images and forms of ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard. As an integral artistic system, classicism was formed in France during the period of strengthening and flourishing of absolutism. Classicism receives a complete systemic expression in Poetic Art (1674) by N. Boileau, which summarizes the artistic experience of French literature of the 17th century. The aesthetics of classicism are based on the principles of rationalism, corresponding to the philosophical ideas of Cartesianism. They affirm the view of a work of art as an artificial creation - consciously created, reasonably organized, logically constructed. Having put forward the principle of "imitation of nature", the classicists consider it an indispensable condition for strict adherence to the unshakable rules that are drawn from the ancient poetics (Aristotle, Horace) of art and determine the laws of the artistic form that turns life material into a beautiful, logically harmonious and clear work of art.

The artistic transformation of nature, the transformation of nature into beautiful and ennobled is at the same time an act of its highest cognition - art is called upon to reveal the ideal regularity of the universe, often hidden behind the external chaos and disorder of reality. Reason, comprehending the ideal regularity, acts as the beginning "arrogant" in relation to the individual characteristics and the living variety of life. The classicist image gravitates towards the model, it is a special mirror, where the individual turns into the generic, the temporary into the eternal, the real into the ideal, history into myth, it is the triumph of reason and order over chaos and the fluid empiricism of life. This also corresponded to the social and educational function of art, to which the aesthetics of classicism attached great importance.

The aesthetics of classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into "high" (tragedy, epic, ode, their sphere - state life, historical events, myths, their heroes - monarchs, generals, mythological characters, religious devotees) and "low" (comedy , satire, fable), depicting the private everyday life of people of the middle class. Each genre has strict boundaries and clear formal features; no mixture of the sublime and the base, tragic and comic, heroic and ordinary is allowed. The leading genre of classicism was tragedy, addressing the most important social and moral problems of the century. Social conflicts appear in it as reflected in the souls of the heroes, who are faced with the need to choose between moral duty and personal passions. In this collision, a polarization of the public and private life of a person was outlined, which also determined the structure of the image.

Romanticism - one of the largest trends in European and American literature of the late 18th – first half of the 19th centuries, which gained worldwide significance and distribution. Romanticism was the high point of the anti-enlightenment movement. Its main socio-ideological prerequisites are disillusionment with the results of the Great French Revolution and with bourgeois civilization in general. Rejection of the bourgeois way of life, protest against the vulgarity and prosaicity, lack of spirituality and selfishness of bourgeois relations, which found their initial expression in sentimentalism and pre-romanticism, acquired a special acuteness among romantics. The reality of history turned out to be beyond the control of "reason", irrational, full of secrets and unforeseen events, and the modern world order turned out to be hostile to human nature and his personal freedom.

Disbelief in social, industrial, political and scientific progress, which brought new contrasts and antagonisms, as well as "fragmentation", leveling and spiritual devastation of the individual, disillusionment in society, which was foreshadowed, justified and preached the best minds(as the most "natural" and "reasonable") of Europe, gradually grew to cosmic pessimism. Taking on a universal, universal character, it was accompanied by moods of hopelessness, despair, "world sorrow" ("disease of the century" inherent in the heroes of Chateaubriand, Musset, Byron). The theme of the “lying in evil” “terrible world” (with its blind power of material relations, irrationality of destinies, longing for the eternal monotony of everyday life) has passed through the entire history of romantic literature, being embodied most clearly in the “drama of rock”, in the works of J. Byron, E. Hoffmann, E. Poe and others. At the same time, romanticism is characterized by a sense of belonging to a rapidly developing and renewing world, involvement in the stream of life, in the world historical process, a sense of hidden wealth and unlimited possibilities of being. "Enthusiasm" based on the belief in the omnipotence of the free human spirit, a passionate, all-encompassing thirst for renewal is one of the characteristic features of the romantic outlook (see the work of Nikolai Berkovsky "Romanticism in Germany", pp. 25–26).

The depth and universality of disillusionment in reality, in the possibilities of civilization and progress is polarized against the romantic craving for the "infinite", for the absolute and universal ideals. Romantics dreamed not of a partial improvement in life, but of a complete solution of all its contradictions. The discord between the ideal and reality, characteristic of the previous trends, acquires an extraordinary acuteness and tension in romanticism, which is the essence of the so-called romantic double world. Rejecting the everyday life of modern civilized society as colorless and prosaic, the romantics strove for everything unusual. They were attracted by science fiction, folk legends, folk art, bygone historical epochs, exotic pictures of nature, life, way of life and customs of distant countries and peoples. They contrasted the base material practice with lofty passions (the romantic concept of love) and the life of the spirit, the highest manifestations of which for romantics were art, religion, and philosophy.

Romantics discovered the extraordinary complexity, depth and antinomy of the spiritual world of man, the inner infinity of human individuality. For them, man is a small universe, a microcosm. An intense interest in strong and vivid feelings, in the secret movements of the soul, in its "night" side, craving for the intuitive and the unconscious are the essential features of the romantic worldview. Equally characteristic of romantics is the defense of freedom, sovereignty, self-worth of the individual, heightened attention to the singular, unique in man, the cult of the individual. The apology of personality served as a kind of self-defense against the ruthless course of history and the increasing leveling of the person himself in bourgeois society.

The demand for historicism and the nationality of art (mainly in the sense of faithfully recreating the color of place and time) is one of the enduring conquests of the romantic theory of art. The endless variety of local, epoch-making, national, historical, individual characteristics had a certain philosophical meaning in the eyes of romantics: it was the discovery of the wealth of a single world whole - the universe. In the field of aesthetics, romanticism contrasted the classicist "imitation of nature" with the artist's creative activity with his right to transform the real world: the artist creates his own special world, more beautiful and true, and therefore more real than empirical reality, since art itself is the highest reality ... Romantics fiercely defended the creative freedom of artists, rejected normativity in aesthetics, which, however, did not exclude the creation of their own romantic canons.

From the point of view of the principles of artistic depiction, romantics gravitated towards fantasy, satirical grotesque, demonstrative convention of form, fragmentariness, fragmentaryness, and the finest composition; they boldly mixed the ordinary and the unusual, the tragic and the comic.

Realism, artistic direction in art, following which the artist depicts life in images that correspond to the essence of the phenomena of life itself and are created by typing the facts of reality. Affirming the importance of realism as a means of a person's knowledge of himself and the world around him, realism strives for a deep comprehension of life, for a wide coverage of reality with its inherent contradictions, recognizes the artist's right to illuminate all aspects of life without restrictions. The art of realism shows the interaction of man with the environment, the impact of social conditions on human destinies, the influence of social circumstances on the mores and the spiritual world of people. In a broad sense, the category of realism serves to determine the relationship of literary works to reality, regardless of the writer's affiliation to a particular trend. The origins of realism in Russia were I.A. Krylov, A.S. Griboyedov, A.S. Pushkin (in Western literature, realism appears somewhat later, its first representatives were Stendhal and Balzac).

The main features of realism. 1. Principle life truth, which guides the artist-realist in his work, striving to give the fullest reflection of life in its typical properties. The fidelity of the depiction of reality, reproduced in the forms of life itself, is the main criterion for artistry. 2. Social analysis, historicism of thinking. It is realism that explains the phenomena of life, establishes their causes and effects on a socio-historical basis. In other words, realism is inconceivable without historicism, which presupposes an understanding of a given phenomenon in its conditioning, in its development and connection with other phenomena. Historicism is the basis of the worldview and artistic method of the realist writer, a kind of key to understanding reality, allowing to connect the past, present and future. In the past, the artist seeks answers to topical questions of the present, while he comprehends the present as a result of the previous historical development. In realistic literature, the inner world and behavior of the heroes, as a rule, bear the indelible stamp of time. The writer often shows the direct dependence of their social, moral, religious ideas on the conditions of existence in a given society, pays great attention to the social and everyday background of the time. At the same time, in mature realistic art, circumstances are portrayed only as a necessary prerequisite for the disclosure of the spiritual world of people. 3. A critical picture of life. Writers deeply and truthfully show the negative phenomena of reality, focus on their exposure. But at the same time, realism is not devoid of life-affirming pathos, for it is based on positive ideals - sympathy for the masses, the search for a positive hero in life, belief in the inexhaustible possibilities of man. 4. The depiction of typical characters in typical circumstances, that is, the characters are depicted in close connection with the social environment that raised them, shaped them in certain socio-historical conditions. 5. The relationship between the individual and society is the leading problem posed by realistic literature. The drama of this relationship is important to realism. As a rule, the focus of realistic works is on outstanding personalities, dissatisfied with life, breaking out of their surroundings, but this does not mean that realists are not interested in people inconspicuous, merging with their environment, representatives of the masses (the type of a little person in Gogol and Chekhov). 6. The versatility of the characters' characters: their actions, deeds, speech, lifestyle and inner world, the "dialectic of the soul", which is revealed in the psychological details of her emotional experiences. Thus, realism expands the possibilities of writers in the creative assimilation of the world, in the creation of a contradictory and complex personality structure as a result of the finest penetration into the depths of the human psyche. 7. Expressiveness, brightness, imagery, accuracy of the Russian literary language, enriched with elements of colloquial speech, which realist writers draw from the common language. 8. Variety of genres (epic, lyroepic, dramatic, satirical). 9. Reflection of reality does not exclude fiction and fantasy, although these artistic means do not determine the basic tonality of the work.

MeTod HoodOfeminine- a system of principles governing the process of creating works of literature and art. Category M. x. was introduced into aesthetic thought in the late 1920s, becoming one of the basic concepts of the Marxist theory of artistic creation. The variety of artistic methods (classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, critical realism, etc.) cannot be squeezed into the framework of opposite political views (reactionary - progressive), or opposite philosophical worldviews (materialism-idealism), or simplified historical-artistic opposition (realism - anti-realism). It is necessary to consider the artistic method in terms of its own aesthetic nature. the nature of the artistic method is in dispute. Some scholars define it as a set of artistic techniques and means; others - as principles of the aesthetic relationship of art to reality, and still others - as a system of worldview guidelines for creativity. Mistakenly identify creative method with the aesthetic relationship of art to reality. Within the framework of one and the same method, different principles of this relationship are possible. So, for various theorists and practitioners of romanticism, art is either a reflection of the artist's subjective world, or an expression of the principle of romantic irony, or idealization of the past, or anticipation of the future, or an image of the desired. And, despite such a different understanding of the principles of the aesthetic relationship of art to reality, all these artists used the same artistic method - romanticism. On the other hand, the principles of aesthetic attitude to reality among representatives of different artistic methods sometimes coincide. in the XX century. there are romanticism, modernism, critical realism, socialist realism. This diversity is explained by the fact that there are different strata and spheres of social practice, different worldviews of artists and their orientation towards different traditions in previous art. The artistic method is the result of the active reflection of the object of art. The worldview and the chosen art tradition act as a prism between reality and the artist's way of thinking. Worldview positions and artistic and cultural orientations towards traditions are different for different schools and groups of artists. Hence, different methods arise in the same era.

- Method. The concept of the artistic method.

Method is a set of the most general principles of artistic thinking. They isolate the realistic art method and the unrealistic method. Different models are being formed.

1. Selection of facts of reality for the image.

2. Assessment.

3. Generalization - there are ideal models.

4. Artistic embodiment - a system of artistic techniques.

Method is a supra-epoch concept. Realism is always there, but it is different, different accents. Literary trends are the historical embodiment of an artistic method. Any direction has a theoretical support, a manifesto. The state of philosophy determines the views of writers. Realism grows out of Hegel. Enlighteners - French materialism. The literary direction is always heterogeneous. Example: critical realism. Fighting within the direction.

Hood world of the author. A special section of S. is S. of fiction (fictional speech). Its specificity is determined by the originality of the object itself. Since the language of literature, having become a phenomenon of art, does not cease to be a language in the usual sense of the word, and the artistic functions of the facts of language in literature are determined, in particular, by their stylistic properties, it is natural that the S. of artistic speech remains within the S. of language as linguistic discipline, uses the same concepts and categories, but is not limited to them in identifying the aesthetic function of language in literature. S. fiction finds out the ways of artistic application of language, the combination of aesthetic and communicative functions in it, and how language becomes a work of art in literature. The features of a literary text, methods of constructing different types of the author's narration and methods of reflecting the elements of speech of the described environment in it, methods of constructing a dialogue, the functions of different stylistic layers of language in artistic speech, the principles of selecting linguistic means, their transformation in fiction, ways of updating such aspects of the language are revealed. which are not essential in practical speech, etc. One of the tasks of historical secularism in this regard is to analyze the relationship of the language of fiction to the general literary and folk-spoken language at different stages of the development of language and literature. This makes it possible to outline the connections between the history of the literary language and the history of literature, to supplement with the proper linguistic characteristics such concepts as classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism. At the same time S. artistic speech seeks to reveal the aesthetic function of linguistic material in a specific artistic the system, in its connections with other elements of this systems... For this reason, the language of the writer and individual works of fiction in literary literature become the most important subject of research in literature, that is, the problem of the individual style is brought to the fore. C. artistic speech borders on poetics... This contact marks the boundaries of linguistic-stylistic analysis; they are due to the fact that the concept of the artistic style of a literary work includes, in the words of V.M. Zhirmunsky, not only linguistic means (constituting the subject of S. in the exact sense), but also themes, images, composition of the work, its artistic content, embodied by verbal means, but not limited to words. At the same time, not all linguistic features of a work turn out to be the subject of S. Thus, the study of the rhythm of a poetic text, the sound instrumentation of verse belongs to the field of poetics. The works of V.M. Zhirmunsky and V.V. Vinogradov played an important role in the development of S. : S. language, S. speech, S. fiction). A notable place in the history of Russian. S. is occupied by the works of L. V. Shcherba, B. A. Larin, L. A. Bulakhovsky, G. O. Vinokur, B. V. Tomashevsky, and others. how the most controversial questions are raised about the nature of stylistic meaning, the principles of describing the functional styles of language, the place of language artistic literature in stylistic the system literary language and the principles of its study, the problem of individual style, the role of statistical methods, etc.

2. HYPERBALL (from gr. gyperbolē - exaggeration, surplus) is a figurative expression, consisting in exaggerating the size, strength, beauty, meaning of what is described (My love, as wide as the sea, cannot be accommodated by the life of the coast). Hyperbole and litota have a common basis - a deviation from an objective quantitative assessment of an object, phenomenon, quality - therefore, they can be expressed in speech in linguistic units of various levels (word, phrase, sentence, complex syntactic whole), therefore, their attribution to lexical figurative means is partly conditional. Another feature of hyperbole and litota is that they may not take the form of a trope, but simply act as an exaggeration or understatement.

CAST (from gr. litótēs - simplicity) is a figurative expression that underestimates the size, strength, meaning of the described (- your spitz, adorable spitz, no more than a thimble. - Gr.). Litota is also called inverse hyperbola.

PERIPHRASE (from periphrasis - retelling) is a descriptive phrase used instead of any word or phrase. (More than once, burning to the ground and rising from the ashes, Moscow, even having remained a "porphyry widow" after Peter the Great, has not lost its significance; time).

What does the concept of "artistic method" mean in literature? What are its distinctive characteristics? What method have your favorite writers followed or are following? Do you want to distinguish symbolism from acmeism? This article is for you! It sets out the foundation that will help you feel confident in the vast literary space.

What is the art method?

This is one of the most important concepts in art. It means a set of general assessments, vision of the world and perception of certain things by writers. Thus, various directions in the literature arose. The nature of the vision of the surrounding reality depends on what method the creator adheres to.

The adherents of a certain artistic (creative) method are united by the idea of ​​ideals, human life, good and evil, and art in general. They target different target audience therefore, the existence of multiple literary methods is extremely important, as they satisfy the spiritual needs of people with different mindsets.

Distinctive characteristics

The main feature of the artistic method is the diversity of its forms. In the literature, there is a huge number of directions and their "mixtures", with the help of which we can look differently at an object and a phenomenon. Classicism, romanticism, realism, sentimentalism, naturalism, modernism, symbolism, acmeism, futurism, impressionism, expressionism, existentialism, postmodernism are the main trends that have their own individual strength and character.

What artistic methods exist in literature?

Every writer certainly has his own individual style expressions of thought, unlike anyone else, but it is intertwined with one specific direction, which is close to himself.

Let's move on from the general to the particular and look at the main artistic methods in literature, from the 17th century to the end of the 20th century.

Classical directions of the 17th - 18th centuries

Classicism was the first to emerge in the 17th century. It is characterized by educational morality, simplicity of presentation, a clear division into positive and negative heroes, "three unities" - place, time and action. Such famous writers as J. Racine, M. Lomonosov, G. Derzhavin worked in this direction. You can find the main features of classicism in "Ode to the capture of Khotin".

In the next literary direction - sentimentalism - in the 18th century, wrote J. Rousseau, I. Goethe, N. Karamzin. In this direction, it is important to portray the state inner peace character, his mental anguish and sincere emotions. You can get to know more about this area by reading "Poor Lisa".

Romanticism appeared at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. Love, feelings, desires, suffering, escape from oppressive reality - all this is incredibly beautifully described in their works by D. Byron, V. Hugo, M. Lermontov. "The Demon" is a striking work that will give you a complete picture of this direction.

The everyday life of the 19th century

Realism, which emerged in the 19th century, describes the typical hero in a typical situation for the average person through colloquial vocabulary. This trend was subtly felt by C. Dickens, O. de Balzac, L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky, A. Chekhov, I. Turgenev. "Fathers and Sons" is an indicative novel that, without falsehood and pretense, tells about the difference between generations and their perception, this is the essence of realism.

Naturalism is an artistic method that emerged at the end of the 19th century. is distinguished by an accurate and objective depiction of fate, everyday life, everyday life, and a person's character. Representatives of this trend, such as M. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N. Nekrasov, believed that there are no unworthy topics for presentation, even typical human experiences are real art. "Who Lives Well in Russia" - a poem about the realities of peasant life and a difficult fate - an indisputable representative of naturalism.

Catchy and unusual methods of presenting thoughts of the 19th - early 20th centuries

Modernism - common name for such movements as symbolism, impressionism, acmeism, futurism, expressionism. To get an idea of ​​modernism, we will characterize all of the above areas.

• Symbolism arose in the 1870s, it differs from other directions in figurative vision, the secret meaning of objects and phenomena, the use of words with plural meanings. In this interesting and unusual direction, wrote, for example, Z. Gippus, V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, A. Blok. "Pharmacy, Street, Lantern" is a poem that is worth reading or refreshing in memory in order to understand the essence of symbolism.
• Acmeism is an artistic method followed only by our compatriots, for example O. Mandelstam, A. Akhmatova, N. Gumilev. There is no ambiguity in this direction, words have a precise meaning, and images are clearly seen; by force artistic word writers have rethought life processes that are flawed. "The gray-eyed king" - you need to immerse yourself in this poem in order to understand the logic of the poets of this trend.

• Futurism is the direction in which Russian and Italian creators worked. This catchy trend appeared at the beginning of the 20th century. Outrageous, bold decisions and non-standard construction of the poem, for example, a ladder, as in the case of V. Mayakovsky, a prominent representative of this trend. In addition to him, in this direction they created and broke the idea of classical art I. Severyanin, V. Khlebnikov, D. Burliuk. "Could you?" - an extravagant, unusual, inspiring, absolutely futuristic poem.

• Impressionism appeared in literature at the end of the 19th century, writers in this direction described in detail feelings, experiences and emotions, turned the moments of life into art. The brightest representatives of this trend can be considered G. de Maupassant, M. Proust. "Dear friend" - emotional and easy piece, after reading which, you will certainly become a fan of impressionism.
• At the beginning of the 20th century, gloomy expressionism spread in Germany. The main themes of this direction are death, destruction, loss, unattractiveness of the surrounding reality. F. Kafka and E. Zamyatin most clearly were able to convey the essence of this direction. "We" is the strongest anti-utopia of our compatriot, which does not give rise to a feeling of depression, but fully reveals all the above themes of expressionism.

Contemporary views on literature since the mid-20th century

Existentialism, which emerged in the middle of the 20th century in France, is based on ideas about the loneliness and tragedy of life, the insignificance of human ideals. J.P. Sartre, A. Camus were able to most confidently and clearly state this on paper. The Fall is a book in which you will not find sharp turns in the plot, but the subtle and intellectual dialogues will make you fall in love with existentialism.

Most modern direction- postmodernism - appeared in the second half of the 20th century, it is distinguished by the maximalism of performance, irony and a satirical attitude to what is happening. H. Murakami, V. Nabokov, K. Vonnegut saw the world through a satirical prism. The work "Slaughterhouse number 5" was written in the best traditions of postmodernism, it will immerse you in deep reflections on the value of life and views on it.

The importance of literary movements for modern man

The power of words can make a person look at certain things differently. Reading the works of writers who adhere to different artistic methods will make you a multifaceted person who knows how to critically look at any situation from different angles.

Method in the broadest sense of the word, its connection with creativity

All great writers are original and their words are unique. But at the same time, they often approach each other not only ideologically, but also in the most general principles of depicting life. This kind of closeness is easily found between Shelley and Byron, Dickens and Thackeray, between Nekrasov and Shchedrin, Bryusov and Blok. They are close to each other and ideologically (a sharply critical view of modern society, protection of the interests of the people), and aesthetically (similar ways of building an image). The ideological and aesthetic community inherent in a number of writers and directly expressed in their creativity is called the artistic method.

The "methodology" characteristic of a number of artists can only be judged by the results of their creative work. Only through a comparative analysis of the multitude of works of critical realists can one notice those similarities that make it possible to bring together the works of Balzac, Turgenev, L. Tolstoy, to see something in common in their ideological aspirations and creative principles.

It should be emphasized that the method is not a set of frozen laws and rules. It does not exist in the abstract, but, being historically conditioned, lives in creativity itself, is born and improves in the process of artistic comprehension of reality. Critical realism was not formulated by anyone when it found its artistic flesh in the works of Pushkin and Gogol. A realistic approach to depicting life paved its way in the struggle against the rationalistic dogma of classicism, the didacticism of the enlighteners, and the abstract sensibility of the sentimentalists. With each decade, he entered the consciousness of progressive writers deeper and deeper, and only then received a theoretical foundation in Belinsky's aesthetics.

In the same way, socialist realism was promoted by life itself. Found for the first time in the works of M. Gorky, he lived and developed in the work of writers of the post-October period (Mayakovsky, Furmanov, Gladkov, Fadeev, Sholokhov, etc.), and theoretically "legalized" was only in 1934.

It is impossible to see in the method a category "dwelling" somewhere above literature and art in the form of theoretically polished provisions once and for all, having studied and mastered which, the writer acquires a magical gift for creating perfect artistic values. The method is not developed in advance, much less decreed from above, as the detractors of socialist realism trumpet. It arises in the very artistic practice, develops along with the development of literature and society. His enrichment is due to the fact that life continuously sets new tasks for writers, makes them look for the best artistic solutions.

Worldview and artistic thinking are the components of the method

The method consists of two components - the ideological convictions of the author and his artistic thinking. Moreover, each of them, so to speak, has its own sphere of influence, manifests itself in different ways in creativity, although, ultimately, they act in the creative process in concert, as a single whole. Artistic thinking, expressed in the writer's ability to think in images, is reflected primarily in the creation of an artistic form. The author's ideological views reveal themselves most in the content of the work, but they also have a strong influence on its construction.

The worldview is the basis of the method. It serves as a compass for the artist in his work, gives him the opportunity to understand reality, its complex processes... But at the same time, the worldview factor, no matter how great its significance, does not provide all aspects of artistic activity. The deepest ideological concept will not turn into a phenomenon of art if it does not receive its own decoration. If ideology, figuratively speaking, constitutes the soul of a work, then artistic thinking forms its flesh, its visible, tangible features.

All genuine artists deal with reality. But they solve the problem of its artistic development in different ways. Some of them strive to capture the objective appearance of the depicted person, others - to express their attitude towards him. This is easy to see if we compare the first stanza of the seventh chapter of "Eugene Onegin" ("Persecuted by vernal rays ...") with Zhukovsky's poem "Spring Feeling" (1816). A.S. Pushkin created an objective picture of the awakening spring nature: still transparent forests covered with green fluff, drying and dressing in a colorful outfit of the valley, rustling herds, a bee flying out of the "wax cell" for "tribute to the field", etc. Pushkin does not openly express his "spring" experiences, his lyrical I, as it were, dissolved in the artistic fabric of the work.

V. A. Zhukovsky follows a completely different path. The main thing for him is to express his mood, generated by the spring. In his poem, in essence, there is no external picture, it is all aimed at revealing the author's inner world. This is not a landscape of nature, but of a soul.

Light, light breeze, What's so sweet, quietly blowing? What do you play, what do you brighten, Enchanted stream? What is the soul full of again? What had awakened in her again? What has returned to her with you, Migratory spring?

The first type of artistic thinking, characteristic of Pushkin and all realist writers, is fundamentally objective, and is usually called realistic; the second type, manifested in the poetry of Zhukovsky and other romantics, is characterized by the absorption of the objective by the subjective, and is conventionally called romantic.

The starting point in elucidating the epistemological nature of various types of artistic thinking is Lenin's theory of reflection, it provides a key to uncovering the features of a realistic or romantic depiction of life. Artistic knowledge is contradictory in its essence. Including the features of "objective reality", it also includes the tendency to "deviate" from reality. The artistic image contains both objective and subjective elements. It embodies not only objective truth, the logic of life, but also the subjective views of the writer, his perception of certain life phenomena.

Realistic and Romantic Thinking Types

The realist is guided in his work by real life. Depicting society, he deeply explores social relations people. His generalizations are the result of studying a particular social environment. Realistic art is objective in its essence and has tremendous cognitive value. The works of a realist truthfully reveal human characters generated by social and historical circumstances, and act as "documents of the era." Such objective principles of depicting reality unite all writers of a realistic orientation: they are characteristic of Cervantes, and for Fielding, and for Gogol, and for Sholokhov.

Romantics in their aesthetic manifestos and programmatic speeches emphasize the subjective nature of art, defend the right of a "genius" to freely handle life material, to violate its objective proportions, to change life in accordance with their ideals. The subjective approach to reality is the most characteristic feature of romanticism, characteristic of all romantic writers, regardless of their ideological positions. It manifests itself in Novalis, early Heine, Chateaubriand, Hugo, Shelley, Byron, Russian Decembrist poets, despite all the differences in their socio-political beliefs.

Consequently, the realistic and romantic types of thinking express two facets of the process of artistic cognition, which is unified in its essence, and therefore, as a rule, in literature they accompany each other. In absolutely pure form they are almost impossible to meet, as violent separation leads to destruction artistic image(an example is various forms of modernism). Even the most objective "realist" is unable to reflect reality like a mirror with apathetic indifference, just as the most subjective "romantic" is unable to escape from objective reality: it invades his creations to some extent.

However, in realistic and romantic art, subjectivity lives different lives. In realism, it manifests itself, firstly, in the presence of an aesthetic ideal, in that form of striving for the beautiful, without which genuine artistic activity is impossible, and secondly, as an assessment of the phenomena depicted by the author. The subjective impulses of the author do not violate the objective logic of the image here. In romanticism, the subjective principle expresses itself more broadly. It penetrates the entire fabric of the work, reflected in the principles of generalization, in all elements of the construction of the artistic form (in the plot, composition, pictorial means, etc.).

The type of artistic thinking is stable, but within it, artistic thought does not stand still. Its development is associated with the philosophical, sociological views of the writer. The fact that, for example, Homer or Sophocles were at the mercy of mythological representations of the world affected their depiction of human characters. Their characters are still static, devoid of internal inconsistency... In the work of Shakespeare, who freed man from the will of the gods, the picture is already different. Here the hero finds himself under the influence of real circumstances, he is responsible for his own destiny. He wages a continuous struggle with the surrounding reality, deeply experiences his sorrows and joys. His inner life is mobile, and this allows him to saturate the drama with intense psychologism.

In exactly the same way, the artistic thought of the realist writers of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries bears the imprint of their era, but in the principles of constructing an image between them, one cannot sweep out a significant difference. The development of literature is manifested not in the evolution of types of artistic thinking, but in the breadth and depth of reflection of life, which is directly related to the change in society itself and the increasing understanding by writers of the laws of the social process. Recognition of the variability of the types of artistic thinking logically leads to the denial of general, typological features in realistic and romantic art of different eras and peoples. Realists of different times differ significantly among themselves in the nature of their ideological views, but they are still close to each other in their realistic vision of the world. If such a typological community did not exist between the writers of a realistic orientation, then the continuity of traditions would be interrupted, it would be impossible to talk about any general principles of realistic knowledge of life.

The role of artistic thinking in the creative process should not be exaggerated. It is only a necessary prerequisite, a necessary condition for achieving artistic truthfulness, but it does not determine the degree of penetration of the writer into the depths of life, the breadth of his generalizations - all those qualities that give the writer's work features of greatness and immortality. “Speaking of Shakespeare,” wrote Belinsky, “it would be strange to admire his ability to represent everything with amazing fidelity and truth, instead of being surprised at the meaning and meaning that his creative mind gives to the images of his fantasy” *.

* (V.G.Belinsky. Poly. collection cit., vol. 6, pp. 424-425.)

It is well known that writers belonging to the same type of artistic thinking and possessing equal talent; reach different results in his creative practice. The greatest successes are achieved by those who penetrate deeper into the secrets of life, better understand the tendency of social development.

Interaction of artistic thinking with worldview. Defining the artistic method

Artistic thinking has historically combined with various forms of ideology. Romantics and realists, similar in the characteristics of their talent, conniving approach to life, can express the views of different classes of society. For example, the educators of the 18th century. - Diderot and Lessing - were associated with the progressive bourgeoisie, who acted in the struggle against feudalism on behalf of the people; L. Tolstoy reflected the mood of the patriarchal peasantry; M. Gorky was the spokesman for the interests of the proletariat - but they were all supporters of realistic principles of depicting reality.

One type of artistic thinking, combined with different worldviews, can form several artistic methods. On the basis of a realistic approach to depicting reality, Renaissance realism, educational realism, critical realism, and socialist realism emerged as separate methods. Romantic thinking gave birth to more than romanticism late XVII I - early 19th century, but also different forms decadent art that took shape in the era of imperialism (symbolism, acmeism, surrealism, etc.).

The artistic method carries stable (typological) and historically changing features. For example, critical realism has features that make it akin to educational and socialist realism - these are, first of all, the general principles of building an image, but at the same time it differs significantly from them in its ideological orientation. If critical realists pursue critical, denunciatory goals with their creativity, then enlighteners and socialist-minded writers consider reality from the point of view of enlightenment and socialist ideology.

The transitions from one method to another within the realistic type of thinking constitute the history of realism, which, given the common principles of depicting life, characteristic of realists of different eras, focuses on the ideological and aesthetic originality of their work, on the new that they introduced into art, into realistic ways of fighting for the realization of human ideals.

The artistic method is one of the most important categories of aesthetics. Hence the close attention of philosophers and literary critics to him. The essence of artistic methodology is highlighted in many works of Soviet researchers. Often inaccuracies are allowed in the interpretation of this issue. There are two main ones: some theorists reduce the method to a form of artistic reproduction of life, others identify it with the writer's ideological position.

The artistic method is an aesthetic and deeply meaningful category. It cannot be reduced either to formal methods of constructing an image, or to the ideology of the writer ... It is a set of ideological and artistic principles of depicting reality in the light of a certain aesthetic ideal. The worldview organically enters the method when it merges with the artist's talent, with his poetic thinking, and does not exist in the work only in the form of a socio-political tendency.

Literary direction, current, school

Writers who are related in the way they write are not always really aware of their closeness. Many of them worked with a certain amount of unconsciousness, not realizing their creative attitudes. Only at a later stage of historical development, when the aesthetic theory achieved great success, literary trends began to be created, uniting groups of writers who were similar in the type of their artistic thinking, but far from always coinciding in their ideolopic views. So, for example, the romanticism of the end of the XVIII-first quarter XIX v. extremely contradictory in its ideological nature, he united writers different in their social views, but nevertheless related in their aesthetic aspirations. Romantics (both progressive and conservative) opposed, whether against imitation of foreign models, defended the principles of distinctive art. All of them asserted the primary role of "genius", inspiration and fantasy in the creative process, fought against rationalistic dogma and the normative nature of the classicists' aesthetics.

Direction can be talked about where writers are aware theoretical basis their activities, proclaim it in their manifestos, program speeches, defend them in the fight against adherents of other aesthetic convictions. For example, there were realists in the Middle Ages (authors of fables, Schwanks, short stories, etc.), and in the Renaissance (Boccaccio, Rabelais, Cervantes, Shakespeare, etc.), but realism as a trend began to take shape for the first time in educational literature XVIII century, when the principles of realistic art were formulated in the works of Diderot, Lessing and other enlighteners. In the same way, romantics have always existed, but romanticism with its own program and both slogans was formed only at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries.

In certain circumstances, within the framework of one literary trend, groups of writers are often formed, related both in aesthetic and socio-political views. Such an ideological and aesthetic community is usually called a literary trend. So, for example, in French romanticism there were, on the one hand, V. Hugo, J. Sand, who stood on progressive positions, and on the other, Chateaubriand, Vigny, Lamartine, who adhered to conservative political convictions. This kind of differentiation can be made in the romantic literature of any country.

Between representatives of different currents within the same direction, there is usually a struggle that captures not narrow questions of poetics and stylistics, but the fundamental problems of aesthetics, concerning primarily the content of art, its ideals and social purpose. Well-known are the performances of the Decembrist poets who fought for the art of high civic ideas and feelings, against the elegiac poetry of Zhukovsky, or the struggle of Byron and Shelley against Coleridge and especially Southey.

The literary movement, which includes the closest creative followers of any outstanding writer, is usually called a literary school. Its representatives are like-minded people on all essential issues of artistic creation. For example, supporters of the "natural school" (Turgenev, Panaev, Grigorovich, V. Sollogub, etc.), a realistic trend that arose in Russia in the 1840s, were distinguished by such a unity of views on the tasks of art. Developing the traditions of their teacher Gogol, they fought for the critical orientation of literature, for its democratization, for the artistic study of social relations, for the image of a person, moreover, representing the "mass", in unity with the social environment.

Literary works that have arisen on the basis of one type of artistic thinking, in the same or even different ideological atmosphere, contain a number of common features that are manifested in the principles of creating an artistic form. This aesthetic community is called style.

Style in the broadest sense of the word

It is well known that the works of Byron and Shelley on the one hand, Wordsworth and the meaning of Coleridge on the other, differ significantly from each other in their ideological orientation, the content of their social and aesthetic ideals. But at the same time, they also have something in common, which makes itself felt in similar ways of constructing images, in the similarity of poetic language, etc.

Byron and Shelley are united with the poets of the "lake school" by a type of artistic thinking that specifically reveals itself in the well-known stylistic unity of these romantics of different worldviews. Style is an expression of the closeness of the writers in their artistic aspirations, which are often far from each other in their ideological positions. It is the common style that allows us to speak of romanticism as a definite typological phenomenon.

What exactly is this stylistic similarity manifested in? It is not typical for a romantic to strive to create objectively, in accordance with the inner qualities of the depicted phenomena. For him, something else is much more important - to express the world of his subjective feelings and ideals.

There is no objective characterization in the works of romantic writers. The romantic image is always closely merged with the soul of the author, bears the imprint of his personal perception of life. Subjective coloration is worn and pictorial means in romantic literature - metaphors, comparisons, epithets, etc.

The artistic thinking of romantics is distinguished by a gravitation towards contrasts, towards the depiction of exceptional heroes who have unusually strong passions and act in unusual life circumstances. The romantic style is replete with symbols, alogisms, hyperboles and other conventional forms of poetic depiction.

Likewise, the realists, with all their individual differences have a lot in common in their work. All of them depict a person not abstractly, but in unity with the social environment, considering him as a product of certain social circumstances. Their heroes are not mouthpieces of ideas, but human individuals possessing their own behavior, their appearance, their habits, their gait, their own language, etc. Events in realistic works do not develop according to a previously invented scheme, they occur as it happens in reality. unintentionally, often by accident. The actions of the characters here are objectively motivated, explained by the logic of character development and living conditions.

Individual method and individual style

The words "method" and "style", in addition to their broad meaning, which was mentioned above, also have a narrower meaning, expressing the originality of the worldview and artistic thinking of one or another author. It is well known that Pushkin, Turgenev, L. Tolstoy, as representatives of the method of critical realism and realistic style, have not only points of contact. At the same time, they differ significantly from each other, being unique artistic individuals. What is the difference between method and style in their broad and narrow sense? When identifying the "methodological" and stylistic commonality inherent in a number of writers, be they realists or romantics, only the type of their worldview and type of thinking are taken into account. And this is quite natural, since if generalization will capture their individual characteristics, then there can be no talk of any typological similarity between them. When A. S. Pushkin, I. S. Turgenev, L. N. Tolstoy are brought under one "methodological roof", only typical features in their ideology and in the principles of depicting reality are taken into account. Everything that is individual in their work is omitted, since it leads to their separation, and not to unification.

For critical realists of the XIX-XX centuries. characterized by a sharp critical look at their contemporary society, sympathy for the people, the height of the moral, aesthetic ideal. As artists of the word, they create their works, relying on life, deeply and objectively revealing the most complex connections between man and the social environment. These are the typical features of the worldview and artistic thinking of writers, which make it possible to classify them as masters of the method of critical realism.

However, each of the critical realists still possesses his own view of the world, social, moral issues, and so on, which is unique to him. In the same way, each of them, while maintaining a typological commonality, is very peculiar in reproducing reality.

A. S. Pushkin, exposing the "savage lordship", believed in the progressiveness of the enlightened nobility, called, in his opinion, to lead the people's struggle for their emancipation. Pushkin has a strong belief in the power of reason, moral example, and words. He is a typical spokesman for the ideas of noble revolutionaries.

I. S. Turgenev is close to Pushkin and denial of serfdom, and recognition of the civilizing role of progressive people from the nobility. In many ways, he retains a bright outlook on life, on the future of Russia, he believes in the transforming role of beauty and moral principles. But at the same time, Turgenev's worldview, especially late years, complicated by disturbing thoughts about the tragic fate of man, of all living things on earth.

LN Tolstoy is the most ruthless critic of the feudal and bourgeois system. Having moved to the position of the patriarchal peasantry, he tears off "all and all kinds of masks" from contemporary society, rejecting the culture of the masters, the official church, and legal institutions. However, Tolstoy's criticism is weakened by the idea of ​​non-resistance to evil by violence, a lack of faith in the fruitfulness of revolutionary methods of changing life.

In the same way, there are significant differences in the artistic depiction of reality between Pushkin, Turgenev and L. Tolstoy. It is known that "Belkin's Tales" seemed "naked" to Tolstoy, not psychologically complex enough. Turgenev, in turn, did not accept Tolstoy's psychologism, his aspirations to study the psychological process ("the dialectic of the soul"). Turgenev himself revealed the psychology of his heroes mainly through actions and actions. These writers did not agree on everything in the ways of creating the image. Turgenev concentrated the traits of many people in one character. L. Tolstoy usually chose as a prototype one personality most often familiar to him. Many of his characters embody the moral quest and features of the author himself. Comparison of Pushkin, Turgenev and L. Tolstoy in order to reveal the originality of their views and artistic thinking could be continued, because the ideological and artistic positions of these writers, with all their typological commonality, are deeply individual and unique.

Soviet artists are no exception in this case. They cope with each other only in the type of their worldview and in the general principles of depicting reality dictated by the artistic method, at the same time diverging in their adherence to the image different spheres life. Quite naturally, Soviet writers differ from each other in the characteristics and degree of their talent, in the depth of understanding of social processes and human characters. Differences of this kind are explained by many reasons (the level of talent and ideology, knowledge of the world, mental makeup, etc.), but the very fact of their existence is not subject to any doubt. Is it identical, for example, the work of prose writers Fadeev and Paustovsky, poets Mayakovsky, Tvardovsky, Mezhelaitis, playwrights Pogodin, Arbuzov and Vishnevsky? Each of them, being a Marxist-Leninist, still has his own favorite areas of life, his own angle of view, which leaves an imprint on the artistic features of their works.

Thus, the individual methodology of the writer is a richer phenomenon than the method in a broad sense. While incorporating the typology of worldview and artistic thinking inherent in the authors of one literary trend, it at the same time includes everything that is individual in their worldview and the way of reproducing life. The individual method provides polyphony, multicolor artistic creativity. Without individual identity, literature and art would be tiresomely monotonous and eventually lose their emotional impact.

The individual methods of our writers are the source of the multicoloredness of socialist realism. It is precisely in the peculiarities of the world outlook and reflection of life characteristic of socialist realists that one should look for the reason for the ideological and artistic diversity of the realistic art of our days. It is extremely diverse not only in form, but also in content. His works by no means repeat one another, as detractors of socialist culture abroad say.

Hence, individual method is based on all the wealth of the writer's worldview, which, along with typological features, contains a number of individually unique features. The stable typological certainty inherent in the views of one or another author is precisely expressed in the style of his work. In stylistic analysis, the focus of the researcher is not the artist's ideological platform, not the content of his ideals, but only the very principle of his approach to solving certain social and aesthetic issues *.

* (For more details, see the work of A. N. Sokolov "Theory of Style" (Moscow, 1968, p. 105, etc.))

Style is an artistic expression of a type of worldview, which manifests itself in the way of constructing an image, of all elements of an artistic form. The stylistic "handwriting" determines not the talent of the performance, but that special point of view from which the writer considers social and aesthetic problems. It is quite right to speak, for example, about the realistic or romantic type of composition, about the realistic or romantic nature of a particular genre (novel, poem, story, etc.), poetic language, etc. , romantic - an artistic form has been created, but it does not at all reflect its ideological orientation, - what purposes it serves. All these questions are directly under the jurisdiction of the method, the basis of which is the views of the writer, considered in all the richness of their individually unique and typological features.

Style of the piece

The worldview of a writer is usually very complex and often contradictory. Being, for example, realistic in its essence, it can include romantic elements and, conversely, in romantic views there may be realistic tendencies. In this regard, in the work of the same writer, works that are different in their style coexist. For example, N. V. Gogol in a realistic style creates "Old World Landowners" and in a romantic sense - "Taras Bulba". Both stories are included in the same collection. The first denies the vulgar existence of "nebokoptiteli", in the second, in the name of higher patriotic goals, life is idealized Cossack freemen fighting the Polish masters. However, in this case, both works are the fruit of the same worldview. The same variety of styles is found in the works of Turgenev, Dostoevsky, Garshin and a number of other writers. They wrote things that were not only realistic, but also romantic in their content. The romantic outlook is clearly visible in "Three Meetings", "Ghosts" by Turgenev, in "Dream funny person"Dostoevsky, in some of Garshin's stories, etc. It happens that even one work contains different stylistic layers - realistic, where life is depicted as it really is, and romantic, where romantic natures live or the author's dreams come true about the “other world.” Many romantic novels and poems are built on the principle of antithesis, for example, The Miller of Anjibault by J. Sand (the village bourgeois Bricolin, - romantic dreamers Marcel Blanchemont and Henri Lemor), etc. But they are all sustained in the spirit of the romantic concept of reality.

Therefore, multiple styles can exist within a single method. This is due contradictory nature the artist's worldview, the tasks that he sets himself in each specific case, the peculiarities of his mental make-up and other reasons.

In textbooks on the theory of literature, the named categories are placed in different thematic sections, although in their specificity they should be in one scientific block: artistic method - direction - flow. However, for example, L.I. Timofeev unites only "method and direction", P.K. Volynsky proposes to study "style, literary direction and artistic method", N.А. Gulyaev combines "artistic method, direction, style", G.N. Pospelov builds his own triad, which consists of "styles, artistic systems and literary movements." At the same time, the scientist recommended abandoning the convergence of the categories "direction" and "flow", which are often used as synonymous concepts.

The artistic method, direction and literary trend have the right to exist, and the hierarchical sequence indicates the degree of aesthetic significance of each category: first the method, then the direction, the lowest stage belongs to the literary trend.

Term; the difference between the artistic method and the creative method; realism and romanticism - aesthetic categories of the method

The term "method" (gr. - path; in the sense of the path of cognition) is used not only in literary criticism, the selection of the objects under study is characteristic of any science. Exact disciplines discover and explain the laws of nature, bypassing the emotional assessment of the scientist's personality. Art without the application of the artist's personality loses its meaning.

In reference dictionaries and scientific developments, words and phrases "artistic method" and "creative method" are often used as nominations of a single series. Meanwhile, they differ in meaning and need clarification and canonization.

The "artistic method" is characterized by a stable and repetitive system, the way in which material is selected and embodied by a large group of writers. The ideological and aesthetic dominant of the artistic method is considered to be its stable functioning in all historical and literary eras, it does not exhaust its value in a separate historical period of time.

The science of literature must separate the category of "artistic method" from the concept of "creative method". The concept of the "creative method" is associated exclusively with the practice of an individual writer, his individuality, unique stylistic manner. So, "artistic method" is an aesthetic category, and "creative method" is characterized by a paradigm of narrow meaning.

Literary theory has identified two types of artistic methods: a) realistic; b) romantic. Regarding realism, all scholars accept it unconditionally (the exception is the modernists, who freed themselves from the dictatorship of realism). The situation with romanticism is much more complicated. Some critics attribute it to the method, others to the literary direction. We include romanticism in the system of the artistic method.

realism as an artistic method

Coincidence and non-coincidence of the truth of life and the truth of art; typical characters and circumstances; reliable and conditionally allegorical forms of reflection of life; fidelity of detail; techniques borrowed from modernist art

Realism (lat. - material) in fiction has been functioning for several millennia. L.I. Timofeev and other specialists in the field of realism have built the following typology of realistic literature: antique realism, medieval realism, Renaissance realism, educational realism. As you can see, realism has existed for a long time, and it received its terminological status only in the first half of the 19th century. Literary critics drew attention to the coincidence of the artistic style of writers who lived and worked at different times, and were united by a common worldview, subject matter, and the pathos of their work. This identity was taken as the basis for the definition of the artistic method.

Inherent in realism is what critics have called the "truth of life." This method reveals the real reality, only much clearer and more beautiful than it. Most often, a realistic work performed in different genres, especially in a novel, creates the illusion of being, a vivid picture of everything that is happening. However, the illusion should not be overestimated in two respects.

I. One should not think that realistic art duplicates the surrounding world, that a true image is a substitute for life, like documentary newsreels. Taken from earthly existence, the plot only in its appearance repeats reality, however, artistic authenticity is significantly accessible and picturesque.

II. The artistic method can be in forms of factual validity. After all, realism is not just plausibility. In some of his experiments, conventionally - allegorical forms are not alien to him. It happens that truth and plausibility coincide, but it also happens that the truth arises on a false basis. What are typical characters and typical circumstances? Here it is necessary to remember about Shakespeareization artistic world... Realism presupposes the artist's fidelity to details, in turn, concretely - the historical characters of the characters are realized in such a way that they become socio-historical authenticity. Thus, life in Dead Souls is fragmented to the smallest detail, and general significance is attached to these details. The author used the microcosm, in which he established the laws of the macrocosm, this manifested itself in the ability to see the big in the small. The realistic method explores past and present life. At one time, the so-called socialist realism made an attempt, violating the laws of artistry, to include in its system utopian pictures of future happiness for all, ignoring the past and the tragedy of the present. It is known how it all ended. An equally important quality of this artistic method is that the art of mastering reality, growing on its soil, is close to being called "scientific research." It is on the basis of realism that the most effective relations and mutual transitions between science and art are formed, the truth of life portrayed by the writer almost always rises to the heights of encyclopedicism. At the same time, the artistic study of the activities of society and man can outstrip the scientific one: sociologists obtained more information from Balzac's novels than from the works of economists of that time; the physicist who creates the theory of relativity is inspired by the discovery of the writer, and not by the works of the brilliant German mathematician. The historicism of realistic art expands the author's possibilities of penetrating into the spirit of the era and into the microcosm of the cosmos of the human soul (Grigory Skovoroda).

The novel genre turns into a specific form scientific research society, since a special logic of the realistic whole is at work here, a logic that presupposes a large sphere of contradictory intersection of truth and fiction, poetic and scientific. Balzac opened an abyss of economic secrets. His novels are a tool for studying life at the level of a scientist - economist. His strength lies in the fact that he was a brilliant artist and this is the secret of his economic knowledge. Hippolyte Teng believed that literature is a delicate and precise instrument that fixes and evaluates the most imperceptible processes and changes taking place in the social organism.

In a realistic work, firstly, the situation forms the typical character of the hero, and the system of events is, as it were, the logical development of the character; secondly, the social nature of reliable circumstances is actively acting, acting both as an external environment and as social relations; thirdly, artistic details are faithfully reproduced.

In the XX century, realism as an artistic method assimilates categories modernist literature, expands the topic due to technical advances (aviation, cinema, telephone ...), uses narrative techniques unusual for past eras ("iceberg", "stream of consciousness"), creates new genre forms (musical novel, novel - script, bestseller, thriller, blockbuster, gonzo, comic, kitsch ...).

Classical literary criticism of the 20th century has designated several universal types of realism, among which the following stand out: a) critical realism of the 19th century; b) the realism of the 20th century, which reduced the intensity of outright accusatory pathos; c) typological systems of realism, functioning in different historical and literary eras; d) magic realism, which is not an artistic method, but only an offshoot from it, and is closest to literary trends. The artistic method acts as a historically conditioned, steadily repeating unity in the work of a significant part of the writers, who are drawn together by a common interpretation of problems, an aesthetic ideal, and a life process.

In the theory of realism, some doubts are raised by the category of the "typical", which seems to run counter to individualization, depriving the artistic method of the exclusive right. Is the behavior of Hamlet, Don Quixote or old man Santiago so typical? The typical in the methodology does not exclude the factor that is unique, historically and aesthetically unrepeatable.

As a result, we offer a conventional and memorable formula for the artistic method: truth of life + philosophy + aesthetics. This synthesis brings realism to life in art for all time.

romanticism AS AN ARTISTIC METHOD

Terminological varieties; exclusive as a model for the development of life; artistic historicism; romantic irony; romantic personality

The opinions of literary critics about romanticism are fundamentally different. One group of scholars classifies romanticism as an artistic method, while another sees elements of a literary trend in this category. Both those and other their conclusions are thoroughly argued, so there will be no mistake if you follow one of the acceptable scientific versions.

Romanticism was born in Western Europe in the late 18th - early 19th centuries simultaneously in all the literatures of this cultural region. The prerequisite for the activation of romanticism was a protest against the aesthetics of classicism and unpretentious enlightenment realism.

The concept of "romanticism as an antithesis to realism" was put forward by A.N. Sokolov. If in realism "typical characters and typical circumstances" function, then in romanticism exceptional circumstances are autonomously formed in which the exceptional characters of literary heroes manifest themselves.

Romanticism reflects life through fiction, grotesque, symbol, hyperbole. The character's biography practically remains undeveloped and mysterious, his position is significantly schematized. According to his worldview, the hero does not accept the reality around him, he protests, rebel against personal, social and cosmic circumstances. Romantic writers have a keen interest in history. Thanks to romanticism, the genre of the historical novel appeared, and the term "artistic historicism" came into scientific use. This method established two types of historicism: a) in the center of the work is the hero - a historical person who finds himself in contrived conditions; b) the main character is fictional, but he acts in concrete - historical events.

The foundations of the theory of romanticism were created by German scholars in the 19th century. So, in the writings of representatives of the Jena school (brothers Schlegel, Tik, Novalis, Fichte), a concept was developed romantic irony... It boils down to several provisions: a) irony helps to rise above the squalor of life; b) asserts a brilliant virtue; c) reveals the highest spiritual activity.

Jena theorists classified the romantic personality on a number of exceptional grounds. For Novalis, the ideal character is the passive, static, contemplative hero; Fichte has his own view of the romantic "I" - this is a thinking nature, its exceptional qualities are not given at all initially, they are realized in the process of thinking; F. Schlegel sees in the romantic "I" a creator, an artist, and only in this perspective can a hero claim to be a unique personality; Tick ​​indicates the possibility of degradation of the "I" when it descends to everyday life, so the hero must be a genius, a madman; Wackenroder defended the right of a romantic person to create exclusively for himself or a small circle of art lovers.

Representatives of the Heidelberg school of romantics (brothers Grimm, Brentano) paid attention to the problem of romantic circumstances, which consist of several indicators.

I. Romantic environment. It becomes exclusive only when it is native, national, best of all - native medieval. Here it is strongly suggested to study folklore according to a scientific method (certification of the collected material; information about the information carrier; place of collection of oral works; educational qualification of the keeper of folk wisdom).

II. Race as an indicator of exceptional circumstances. The race promotes from its midst a personality of genius, while it should be elevated to a cult. Attention is paid to genealogical premises, which also shape circumstances.

III. The spirit of the ancestors, the call of the blood of the departed (the dead keep alive) strives to fulfill its duty to contemporaries. The invisible substance also forms a romantic environment.

IV. Teaching about local flavor... Its essence boils down to the following: the writer is obliged to see and convey the unique signs inherent only in this nation, era, small homeland. The role of exotic space on the formation of a bright personality is taken into account.

Critical Realism of the 19th Century characterized by such indicators that bring it closer to the realism of ancient, medieval, Renaissance, educational. A similar typology is established in romanticism - antique romanticism, medieval romanticism ... This type of creativity is objectively characteristic of all eras. But the measure of their objectivity (historicism) is different. They understand the essence of social processes in different ways.

The romantic type of circumstances recreates the spirit of the era with its symbolic forms, indicating the ideal or ugly tendencies of the time, opens and plunges into the world that reality could become. Hence the abundance of symbolism, limitation and understatement of actions, which tend to recreate the pathetic and culminating moments. The fantastic - legendary plot is subordinated to the same tasks.

A visible element must also be added to the romantic type of circumstance. It is about the role of the author, which always consists in capturing, captivating the reader, in order to infect him with his aspirations, his ideas about a real person and real life... It is often difficult to distinguish an idealized hero from an author; he is a part of his soul, a mouthpiece of ideas. Speaking about subjectivity, it is necessary to remember that it, like subjectivity in lyrics, must be separated from subjectivity. The subjective in romanticism is also objective, it includes in its sphere everything that is called the fate of the heart, the history of the human soul. We can say that romanticism is a continuous lyricization, an impulse to the high, the ideal. Romantic lyricization develops on an ideal poetic basis. However, not all lyricism is romantic. Therefore, it is extremely difficult to film a romantic work. The works of A. Dovzhenko and S. Parajanov can be called successful in this regard. Poetic cinema is constantly in search of its own paradigm. There is a romantic artist in the true sense of the word, and there are writers whose artistic vision grows on the basis of “removing” the sublime principle.

In the second half of the 20th century, a new teaching - neo-romanticism - appears. Realism is also being renewed, but the artistic method (realism and romanticism) is determined by stable and historically stable features.

Dogmatic literary criticism has divided romanticism into several types: "progressive", "revolutionary", "reactionary", "religious". These nominations have lost their scientific significance.

Romanticism as an artistic method understood the shortcomings of the aesthetics of the materialists - contemplators and began to cultivate the problem of the subjective factor in the literary process. A romantic writer is obliged, like a realist, not to "imitate" nature, but to creatively transform it, not to copy the phenomena of life, but to express his feelings and ideals through the prism of the aesthetics of the exceptional.

LITERARY DIRECTION AS AESTHETIC REALITY

Baroque, classicism, sentimentalism, naturalism, symbolism, socialist realism, existentialism, modernism

Literary trends are developing on an acceptable philosophical basis and aesthetic ideal, which made it possible to ensure a relatively long life in art. They function within one century, and only after that they lose their meaning and drop out of the artistic process, becoming a historical and literary fact.

In the textbooks of the XX century, the history of the struggle of violent "Vissarions" against literary trends with the undoubted victory of the realistic (and romantic) artistic method was insistently investigated. Indeed, heated battles with the participation of "vigilant" politicians and critics "in civilian clothes" took place around literary trends, but the theory of literature established that after 70-100 years of functioning, literary trends themselves leave the aesthetic arena. And this is natural. The reason for this can be considered the fact of loss in its formula of such a category as "truth of life." The model of the literary movement preserves the philosophical platform and aesthetics. We offer the following, quite understandable scheme: philosophy + aesthetics = literary direction.

Literary trends began to appear at a time when aesthetic thought reached its high development, and artists began to unite according to the type of creativity and common aesthetic convictions. Several artistic directions can function in one literary era. The most famous are baroque, sentimentalism, classicism, naturalism, symbolism, socialist realism, existentialism, modernism.

BAROQUE AS A LITERARY DIRECTION

Term; the birthplace of the baroque; philosophical basis (ancient humanism and medieval theologism); theme and poetics of the baroque

The term "baroque" (Italian - strange, bizarre; Portuguese - "baroque perrola" - irregularly shaped pearl) is being refined, and its meaning is filled with new meaning. In the 20th century, the origin of this nomination began to be associated with the Latin "mnemonic" designation of the fourth type of the second figure of scholastic syllogism. This was originally a term used to describe "bad taste" in post-Renaissance art. The scientific status of the term "baroque" began to be asserted by Western European philologists in the 18th century, its status was largely fixed by art historians and theorists of architecture. "Baroque" in the science of literature became widely known in the second half of the 19th century (G. Carducci, E. Porembovic).

The history of the formation of the literary baroque begins in the middle of the 16th century in Italy and develops until the end of the 17th century. In the 17th century, this trend flourished in Spanish poetry and drama; at the same time, the "Ukrainian baroque", on the traditions of which the work of N.V. Gogol, V. Narezhny and other writers of the "Ukrainian school". The US theoreticians R. Welleck and O. Warren wrote about this: “The Baroque style spread to the art of all Eastern Europe, including Ukraine,” barely touching on Moscow literature (Welleck R. And Warren O. Theory of Literature, p. 71). This is Rosviyanyi Morok!

Literary genres, in which the baroque was most fully manifested, are associated with the names of great writers: in Italy - the poetry of T. Tasso and D. Marino, the fabulous novellas by D. Basile ("Pentameron"); in Spain - the sonnets of Gongora, the tragedies of Calderon, the dramas of Tirso de Moline, the satire of Quevedo, the rogue novel (M. Aleman "Guzman", L. Velez de Guevara "Lame Demon"); in England - poetry by John Donne, dramas by D. Webster; in Germany - the tragedies of A. Griffius, the lyrics of Fleming, the folk novel by Grimmelshausen; in France - the work of Agrippa d "Aubigne, S. Sorel; in Poland - the poetry of V. Pototskiy; in Ukraine - the lyrics and scientific treatises of the poets - theologians Ioannikiy Galyatovskiy, Anthony Radivilovskiy, M. Sakovich, drama by Feofan Propokovich.

The philosophical basis of the "bizarre" trend is ancient humanism and medieval theologism. The synthesis of pagan mythology and Christian symbolism made it possible to create artistic masterpieces in art and literature.

Poetics of the Baroque. Using the grotesque and mythology, enveloping the events of the unreal in allegorical dreams, the writers include in the system of antitheses such phenomena as asceticism and hedonism, abstract fiction and realistic concreteness, historical fact and the declarative nature of its interpretation. It is indicative that stylistic narrative drawings also impress with oppositional techniques. Here, vulgar simplicity and refined complexity, mobility and static presentation of events, picturesqueness and decorativeness, ornamentalism and integrity of the pictures depicted, naturalness and theatricality coexist. Supporters of the literary direction of the Baroque deliberately overload the text with emblematisms, refined and simple-minded comparative figures. The authors paid much attention to metaphorical speech, usually it was built according to the schemes of baroque wit.

In poetic genres, poets traditionally used ready-made formulas that were polemically rethought and created a space for creative dialogue. Writers demonstrate encyclopedic knowledge, use unique and exotic extra-literary material.

In the art and literature of the Baroque, the themes of sadness, lack of faith, the fragility of life are leitmotifically mastered, the ideas of tragic doom are cultivated. Literary heroes go through the path of painful suffering, find themselves in the closed world of the terrible, inevitable, fragile. Artistic topography is localized by gloomy castles, towers, rocks.

Dark evil is mastered by the following genres: the tragedy of fear, satirical drama, sad and fatal sonnets. Baroque to a certain extent ignores fictional prose (novels and stories) due to the epic narrative chronotope, which is unable to convey the dynamics of painful passions that fell to the lot of literary heroes.

LITERARY DIRECTION CLASSICISM

Term; the birthplace of classicism; rationalism as a philosophical basis for the direction; theory and poetics of classicism: three unities; conflict between duty and feelings

Classicism (from Lat. - exemplary) as a literary trend appears in Italy in the 16th century. It was at this time that antique theater, being a counterbalance to the "barbaric" medieval drama. Therefore, the most complete embodiment of classicism received, first of all, in the art of theater. Imitating the ancient drama, which was rightly called classical, perfect, exemplary, classicism uses the experience of the ancient masters of the stage.

This trend manifested itself universally and vividly in the 17th century in France, where absolutism began to dominate, establishing a balance in society between aristocrats and representatives of the middle class. The flourishing of classicism in France is associated with social and ideological prerequisites. The literary direction is the result of the efforts of state (royal) politics. The ruling elite financially approved the work of writers, poets, playwrights with competitive prizes and life pensions, cultural workers were awarded awards, honorary titles and other incentives.

The basis of artistic classicism is the philosophy of rationalism of Descartes. He prioritized reason, as a result of which truth was achieved not by experience, but by speculative constructions.

The pioneer of French aesthetic classicism was Malherbe, who advocated the purity of the French literary dialect without the dominance of provincialisms and "dead" classical languages. Artistic creativity must obey a single organizing will of reason, leading the artist to clarity, accuracy, noble simplicity (R. Samarin). Malerba's sonnet "Cardinal Richelieu" is considered to be a programmatic one in this respect; the author develops an odic motive for praising the title character. The actions of the cardinal are exaggerated, he is endowed with a “great soul”, the hero has done “great work” and confidently leads France to a brighter future, while France itself has become noticeably younger during this period. The king, thanks to Richelieu, will conquer the whole world. The sonnet contains the ideology of artistic classicism.

Boileau is rightly called the theoretician of the literary movement of classicism. In the poetic treatise " Poetic art”(1674), he established the rules of literary genres, introduced the philosophical method of Descartes into art. Boileau argued that the mind creates a beautiful, high, perspective worldview. By "reason" he understood adherence to the ancient aesthetics "lost" during the Middle Ages. In the process of the work of the "mind", this gap between cultures is reduced. At the same time, rationality becomes the property of not only the ruling elite, but also the townspeople who live surrounded by libraries, theaters, and educational institutions. Boileau called on poets to study and glorify the urban cultural layer, calling it the pride of the nation.

The concept of "three unities" becomes the pinnacle of the teachings of classicism. Theorists of this trend believed that ancient artists created their masterpieces according to the rules known to them in advance, they must be discovered, studied and then successfully applied in their work. Experiments in this direction led the classicists to the idea that high tragedy and low comedy rest on three aesthetic unities: time, place, action. The time of events in a drama should not exceed a day (24 hours), therefore, there are no long excursions into the past or a forecast into the future. The place where the action takes place is localized and static: where dramatic stories begin, end there; no movement in space was allowed; the scenery imitating the color of the space did not change. The unity of action is associated with the moving eventual canvas of the drama; it was subordinated to one depicted picture, history, fact. The classicists did not allow plot branches in the plays.

Theorists of classicism divided literary genres into high and low. They referred to the first tragedy, ode, epic, myth, genres of spiritual (religious) poetry. "High" genres developed themes of national or historical significance. "Low" genres - comedy, satire, fable, fairy tale, landscape sketch - must master the private life, everyday concerns of "ordinary mortals" and people of the middle strata of society. The contemptuous attitude of the classicists to such genres as burlesque, everyday realism, carnival scenes, songs is noted. All of them were credited to the category of lightweight and crude arts. (Recall that socialist realism also forbade and persecuted such genres as sonnet, gazelle, spiritual poetry). Rationalist aesthetics denies fantasy, an exception is made on ancient mythology, which belonged to "reasonable" (wise) literature. High genres focused on antique literary plots, middle - "new" - a novel, epic - lyrical forms, low - fablio, farces, anecdotes. High aesthetics does not accept a subjective principle in low genres, which supplants the aesthetics of rationality.

The classicists created the doctrine of literary heroes. In the epic and tragedy, the bearers of good and evil were kings, generals, historical figures; the heroes of comedies were townspeople, merchants, lawyers, the bourgeois; actors satire and farce were becoming commoners. The characters of the characters were static: the ideal hero from beginning to end retains his position, the spokesmen of the dark beginning also do not change and fix their negative purpose.

The problem of the conflict was solved in the aspect of the ideological confrontation between reason and feelings, the clash of personal and state interests. Private desires faded into the background, preference was given to the homeland and the ruler of the state.

The views of the classicists on the category of beauty in art. The source of beauty, according to the teachings of Boileau, was and remains the harmony of the Universe, it is based on a spiritual act. Here the idea of ​​"imitation of nature" is developed, a kind of analogue to the ancient "mimesis", and only justice should rule in art and society. Boileau argued: "There is nothing more beautiful than nature."

Classicism as a literary movement dominated in France during the 17th century; in other literatures, it occasionally declared itself in the 18th century.

SENTIMENTALISM AS A LITERARY DIRECTION

Term; the philosophical teachings of P. Gassendi, Berkeley, Hume; the cult of the senses; genres of literature of sentimentalism

Some scholars attribute sentimentalism (French - feeling) to the literary movement (KLE, M.L. Tronskaya), others rightly believe that this phenomenon functioned as a literary trend for aesthetic reasons. The terminological designation was fixed by Lawrence Stern, taking it into the title of the novel "Sentimental Journey". And in this literary direction, the "truth of life" is replaced by the philosophical doctrine of sensationalism; the chronicle of the existence of sentimentalism in art also covers almost one century.

The birthplace of sentimentalism was England. Sentimentalism in the 18th century acted as an assertion of personal values ​​and the importance of human feelings. The idea of ​​the primacy of mood opened up the prospect of deepening psychological self-expression and a new understanding of nature: the landscape turned out to be not only a form of admiration, but also an object of empathy, which demanded from the writers an emotionally colored word that dramatically changed the meaning of beauty even at the lexical level. Sentimentalism gives preference to confidential genre forms (epistle, idyll, travel, confession, poem, notes). Writers - sentimentalists took as a basis the creative method of S. Richardson.

English sentimentalism used the philosophical doctrine of sensationalism (Latin - feeling, sensation) of Berkeley and Hume, which recognized human sensations as a starting point. It is appropriate to name here and French philosopher XVII century P. Gassendi, who investigated sensory experience as the main source of universal knowledge. The book "Code of Philosophy" states that there is nothing in the mind, "which would not be in the feelings."

The initial contribution to literary sentimentalism was made by the English poet John Thomson, who introduced dreams of a rural idyll into the plot of his didactic poem The Seasons (1730). Lyrical sketches of subjective pictures of nature are given in the poetry of E. Jung ("Night Thoughts"), T. Gray ("Elegy"), O. Goldsmith ("The Abandoned Village"). In the second half of the 18th century, English sentimentalists turned to prose genres. These are novels created by S. Richardson, L. Stern, T. Smollett. Prose writers use themes and plots of medieval legends, which contributed to the creation of the "Gothic novel", the forerunner of which was Anna Radcliffe (1764 - 1823). The event basis of the new genre was designated by murder, "skeleton in the closet", mysterious ghosts, werewolves, vampires. Anna Radcliffe was especially popular with the novels "Udolph's Mysteries" and "The Italian", in which a world of the terrible and mysterious was created, where the hero is a villain, with a strong will and indomitable passions.

EXISTENTIALISM AS A LITERARY DIRECTION

Term; the philosophy of Siren Kierkegaard; postulates of artistic existentialism

The term "existentialism" (Latin - existence) reflects the desire to comprehend human life the way it is given to consciousness.

The philosophical system of this direction was formed in the 19th century and its creator was the Danish scientist Siren Kierkegaard (1813 - 1855). This teaching was a kind of antithesis to the philosophy of the ideal of things. For S. Kierkegaard, things turn into evil, they torture and impose their will on man. The main signs of existentialism existed even in the period of the mythological consciousness of Homo sapiens. Interest in the philosophy of existence does not fade; on the contrary, it is growing in the 21st century.

Existentialism as a literary movement emerged in the 20th century. A significant contribution to the aesthetics and philosophy of this doctrine was made by French writers, among whom are J. - P. Sartre and A. Camus.

Brief information about the life and work of Siren Kierkegaard. He was born in Copenhagen. His father in early years accused the Almighty of injustice, then abandoned the romantic rebellion and became a major merchant and God-abiding citizen. In childhood, Siren begins to engage in introspection, feeling the split of his soul into rebellion and obedience. Strict parents gave their son a religious upbringing. He was considered a late child: his father was 56, and his mother was 44 years old. At the age of seventeen, Siren entered the theological faculty of Copenhagen University, and in 1841 delivered his first sermon in Lutheran Church... The biographical episodes of Kierkegaard cited here will later become the subject of close study by many scientists. It was believed that the mental discord and the further fate of the philosopher are associated with his late birth, in fact, he was the son of an old man.

Next biographical moment: Siren saw the death of his siblings. Of the seven children, only two survived. It is significant that in the diaries of the scientist, and they made up fourteen volumes, there are records only about the father, as for the mother, there is not even a mention of her. And this mysterious circumstance is interpreted in its own way by historians - existentialists. Thus, Augustus Vetter, in his book Piety as Passion, explains the complex of attachment to the father and indifference to the mother by the fact that there has been a violation of the category of biological happiness: the son must inherit the maternal principle, and the daughter must inherit the paternal principle. And as an example, the names of the "happy" in their work of Goethe and Kant and the "unhappy" - Nietzsche, Schopenhauer are cited; Kierkegaard is also included among them. Later, this scheme of biography will take its place in the teachings of Z. Freud, who will create his theory of the Oedipus and Electra complexes.

The works of S. Kierkegaard "All or Nothing" (translated as "Either - Or"), "Fear and Awe", "Repetition", "Philosophical Crumbs", "The Concept of Fear", "Stages life path”,“ Life and the Power of Love ”,“ Disease and Death ”.

The philosophical system of S. Kierkegaard, which is successfully mastered by Western writers of the 20th and early 21st centuries, is aimed at cognizing a person, with his behavioral impulses and structures, feelings of despair, often overtaking a mortal.

Let's designate the defining postulates of existentialism.

I. The world is immutable, and a person in it is a meaningless creature, on earth he is an outsider (A. Camus). The cosmos has no purpose, and human pains, suffering for the universe do not mean anything. There was an alienation of man from nature, in fact, according to S. Kierkegaard, such closeness never existed. This is not a fiction of a philosopher. Let us turn to Omar Khayyam: “We will leave without a trace - neither name nor accept. This world will stand for another thousand years. We weren't here before - we won't be here after. There is no harm or benefit from this. "

II. The tragedy of human loneliness. The cause of the tragedy lies in the consciousness that man is mortal, he understands his limit, his finitude. The philosophy of loneliness and tragic being fits into the following sphere: circle - center - periphery. God is placed in the circle, it is he who fences off the personality (periphery) from society (center). His formula for loneliness (the book “Either - Or”) is based on the antithesis: “I can be here, but I don’t want to; I want there, but I can't; here and there I am unhappy. " Almost Georgian toast.

III. Man and fear. The category of fear has always been cultivated by all religions of the world, institutions of power and the family. The Danish philosopher reached a different level of interpretation of fear and awe. In his work "Sickness and Death" he wrote: "There is no person in the world who would not fall into despair for some reason, who would not feel at least a little despair, there is no person in whose innermost depths some kind of anxiety would not lurk , anxiety, disharmony, some kind of fear of the unknown or of something that he does not even want to realize ”. The theory of fear can be summarized in a succinct manner. Fear, apprehension refer to creative matter. As long as a child does not know fear, he perceives the world locally: a room, toys, parents. All this is blinders, a veil, since the child during this period has not yet taken shape as a person. As soon as the soul has let in fear, and every person remembers this time and event, he will accompany him until his death. And now the limits of his world are expanding to cosmic proportions. Fear becomes the most important impulse for creativity.

IV. Individual consciousness. Personality, according to the teachings of existentialism, does not reckon with the desires, morality, happiness of others. The inevitable and spontaneous development of an idea does not depend on activity, on society, the universal spirit manifests itself in people spontaneously. Their actions, thoughts, fates are uncontrollable, although they perceive themselves as creators of their own happiness. The people and the individual do not create history, this "history of the idea" is organized by itself, subordinating generation after generation to their inevitable will. A single life turns into an adventure of each individual in the ocean of life.

Vi. Riot theory. S. Kierkegaard rejects the historical, social, religious premises of any collective protest. There are no positions on the "bottom" and "top" here. The scientist paradoxically directed the problem towards biology. Rebellions, military actions, social and national cataclysms are the essence of the natural physiological need of human nature. The activation of events goes something like this: the most timid, weak and crushed person must rebel once in his life. This is an axiom. And there comes a year, month, day, hour when the desire for protest covers many and then chaos and riots come. In this regard, not a single, even the best, idea will be safe as long as there is a person who dares to openly declare his “no”. That is why new philosophical teachings and ideas should be treated with extreme caution.

Vii. Demonic influence of one person on another. This thesis has not lost its significance in the philosophy and literature of the 21st century. It is difficult to explain people's attachment, what secret force attracts or repels them, again on a psychological level. S. Kierkegaard dwelled on two aspects of this global problem. The first moment is “Music as a medium of demonic sensitivity”. This idea is illustrated on the material of the literary Don Juan. In the book "The Concept of Fear" S. Kierkegaard comes to the conclusion that the Don Juan theme was born of the Christian worldview, it is inconceivable within pagan or Eastern cultures. The scientist wrote: "It is not known when exactly Don Juan's idea arose: it is only reliable that it belongs to Christianity and through Christianity to the Middle Ages." Christianity, in contrast to ancient paganism, introduced erotic sensitivity and anxiety into the world. By denying and prohibiting it, theologians for the first time created a precedent unknown to paganism. The ban on sensuality awakens global interest in it. And Don Juan affirms this idea, which, probably, was born from the biblical Eve. Hence the thought of the demonic follows: I forbid, therefore I permit. The ancient world did not know heightened sensuality because it was not opposed by polytheism. Therefore, a pagan does not know the tense relationship between lovers, for him this is a natural, natural beginning. Having entered into conflict with the spiritual world, love in the Middle Ages takes shape in a demonic image and acts as a temptation. S. Kierkegaard believes that Don Juan is a seducer by nature. His love is not spiritual, but sensual and, therefore, wrong. Don Juan passion is directed not towards one person, but towards everyone, that is, a person seduces everyone. And although the Greek heroes and gods in their love affairs resemble the deeds of Don Juan, the very idea of ​​amorous temptations for classical literature is completely alien, since the erotic principle is devoid of a demonic principle. V antique era the human body was not a sinful object, it was a secret book, and it served as the subject of "reading" and research. In the essay "Silhouettes" S. Kierkegaard completes the image of Don Juan, showing the destructive power of his erotic genius (the East, let us note in passing, curbed its Don Juan with the institution of a harem). The most acceptable form of expression of Don Juan's idea is music. Mozart's opera "Don Juan" (work by S. Kirkegaard "Musically - erotic") made it possible to conclude: "Music is a demonic" manifestation of voluptuousness (see also: Malis Y. G. Legend of Don Juan from a biological point of view. - SPb., 1908).

The second point, explaining the nature of demonic attraction, is designated by S. Kierkegaard more specifically: "Tragic guilt as a source of demonic aestheticism." The category of "tragic guilt" was developed in the aesthetics of Aristotle. S. Kierkegaard approaches the problem by referring to the historical personality of Nero.

In the 20th century, French writers expanded the concept of the demonic influence of one person on another. This problem is given a worthy place in the works of J. - P. Sartre, A. Camus, O.G. Marcel, M. Proust. So, J.-P. Sartre established the laws of attraction - repulsion, born at the level of a biological executioner and his victim: where two people appear, a relationship between a leader and a follower, a vampire and a donor, an executioner and a victim is tied up between them. At the same time, the provoking side, and this is the paradox of existentialism, is the victim: the executioner becomes a victim of his victim.

In the treatise "Being and Nothingness" J. - P. Sartre outlined another kind of demonic. He believes that there is a call, a mysterious rapprochement between a murderer and a fallen woman, a prostitute. Each of the carriers of their guilt, no matter how far away, will find each other, their paths will cross. So the unknowable demonic magic ordered, for example, in the fates of Raskolnikov and Sonya Marmeladova. These plot schemes are successfully exploited by French and American cinema. Shakespeare's heroes, subject to the tragedy of incest, entered the demonic zone.

Jean - Paul Sartre put forward one of the most mysterious categories of existentialism: “Man will regret being born. And the person will regret not being born. " However, this philosophical absurdity of existence was known to the ancient and medieval literature... So, in 242 rubaiyat Omar Khayyam sounded the motive of happiness from non-birth:

In this monastery, in which there are two doors,

Given to us from the ages of longing and loss,

Therefore, it is good who was not born at all,

He did not measure our sorrow with his soul.

In this rubai, a demonic reality is created, which the existentialists designate as "exit from time", "exit from space" and "not - entry into human time - space". There comes an opportunity to drop out of a given historical moment or get into another space with its unknown labyrinths. In the traditions of existentialism, the heroes of A. Platonov (the stories "Dzhan" and "Taksir") also argue. Here's a sample of existential dialogue:

• “It’s good for those who died inside their mother,” said Gulchatay.
• - In your belly? Nazar asked. - Why didn't you leave me there? I would die and I would not be here now, and you ate and drank and thought about me as if I were alive.

Let us summarize the concepts of existentialism by J. - P. Sartre and A. Camus. In the scientific treatise Being and Non-Being (1943), the author of the novel Nausea considers the following categories: randomness and meaninglessness of being; the helplessness of reason (however, this thought was expressed by Ecclesiastes - "Because there is much sorrow in much wisdom; and whoever increases knowledge, increases sorrow"); the fragility of existence and the inevitability of death give rise to the idea of ​​the absurd (it is absurd that we were born, it is absurd that we will die); constant anxiety from the "shadow of death". Hence the "melancholy", "dizziness", "nausea". A person in an absurd world turns out to be abandoned, weak and lonely ("A fragile creature, lost in the woeful ocean of the finite, lonely and weak, upon which nothingness falls at every moment"); the randomness and meaninglessness of being ("The man was not asked about this. It seems that he was thrown here. Who? - Nobody. Why? So simple, no way"); confusion of the mind, it is unable to understand what is right and what is wrong ("There is no truth among us ... Duality and contradictions surround us, and we hide from ourselves"), the only truth is "my personal existence"; being is also hostile to man ("Being is a viscous, thick, fermenting mess"; "Being in itself is excessive, blinding, viscous; it always threatens to be trapped"). J. - P. Sartre refers to the saying of Zarathustra that "only in the desert does the hermit find revelation." The main sign of existence for the author of the book “Being and Nothingness” is constant anxiety, which is generated by the “shadow of death”.

Another French Nobel laureate, Albert Camus, in his philosophical treatise The Myth of Sisyphus, proves the idea of ​​the absurdity of existence. Sisyphus A. Camus differs from the mythical in that he, condemned to eternal meaningless labor (does not see the results of his work), finds consolation in his own inflexibility and contempt for circumstances, he does not rebel, the next ascent to the top is perceived as conquering many heights, which "is able to fill the heart of a person" and therefore "it is necessary to present Sisyphus happy."

Many works have been written about the philosophy of existentialism, among them the books undoubtedly stand out for their deep meaning: P.P. Gaidenko. The Tragedy of Aestheticism (Moscow: Art, 1970), Kossak Jerzy. Existentialism in Philosophy and Literature (Moscow: Politizdat, 1980), Evnina E.M. Modern French Novel (Moscow: Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1962).

The philosophy of existence, established and discovered by Siren Kierkegaard, provided the literary direction with stability in the artistic process. Many of its representatives have been awarded the Nobel Prize. And yet, existentialism will not be able to develop into an artistic method and ensure itself eternal life in art, although Western literature and culture successfully and productively use the philosophical discoveries of S. Kierkegaard.

OTHER LITERARY DIRECTIONS

Naturalism; symbolism; socialist realism; modernism

Naturalism (lat. - nature) as a literary trend was formed in France in the second half of the 19th century and spread to European countries and the United States. The methodology of naturalism is distinguished by the utmost reliability of the depiction of events, characters and the fate of heroes. And all this is passed through physiology and socially - material environment.

The creator of artistic naturalism was Emile Zola, however, his teachers - the brothers Jules and Edmond Goncourt - constantly challenged the priority of the author of "The Womb of Paris". E. Zola outlined the theoretical provisions of this literary trend in the work "Experimental Novel" (1880) and in a number of critical works. He opposed fiction, steadily asserted the writer's right to depict all physiological and social aspects. human activity... E. Zola recommended replacing artistic fiction with protocol authenticity, working under the dictation of life, not inventing plots, but taking them from the streets, markets, family troubles.

Representatives of naturalism removed the attractive halo from the ideal, they denied the educational function of literature. Sometimes naturalism was called "scientific realism" (brothers Goncourt), investing in this concept the words of G. Flaubert: "I believe that great art should be scientific and impersonal" pathos. Such an approach to the tasks of literature made it possible to objectively assess human dignity... The events depicted must obey the "flow of life" scenario.

Naturalists believed that society should be studied in the same way that a natural scientist studies the laws of nature. As for the doctrine of the "theory of the environment", here we are talking about the environment of everyday life (everyday life).

The philosophical basis of naturalism was the teaching of the French scientist Auguste Comte (1798 - 1857) about positivism, he created a theory of three stages of the intellectual evolution of mankind: a) theological; b) metaphysical; c) scientific. O. Comte believed that the artist should investigate the “average person”, the representative of the black mass, he also opposed fiction, and he represented the typical as something between statistics and a photograph. The reasons for the rise and fall of a literary hero should be sought and studied in his heredity.

Symbolism (French, from Greek - sign, symbol) refers to the "European literary - artistic direction... "(KLE, vol. 6, column 831). The term "symbolism" was introduced into wide use by J. Maures, who substantiated its aesthetic significance in the Manifesto of Symbolism (1886). He also formulated the goals and objectives of this direction: "The poetry of symbolism seeks to embody the Idea in a tangible form, which, however, is not an end in itself, but, serving the expression of the Idea, maintains a subordinate position." In France, the program magazines "Symbolism", "Pages about Art", "White Journal" are published. French symbolism is rooted in the poetry of Charles Baudelaire.

The philosophical basis of symbolism is the teachings of A. Schopenhauer (1788 - 1860) ("The world as will and representation") and E. Hartmann (1842 - 1906) ("Philosophy of the subconscious"). The doctrine of symbolism was reduced to a search for deep meaning in everyday and everyday things, in which the secret of the Idea is hidden and it can only be learned with the help of art, music and poetry. The author's sense of mystery (article by Stefan Mallarmé "Mystery in Poetry", 1896) becomes the muse of the creative process.

The Symbolists established their connection with the religion of the Middle Ages, saw in ancient art a similar methodology in the methods of conveying the abstract through the concrete (the symbol of power is Zeus, the sign of power is Hercules).

The subject of idealization among the Symbolists was "nothingness", "nothing", verbal - musical suggestion (S. Mallarmé). The Symbolists created a new form of verse called "vers libre"; discovered the "alchemy of vowels" (A. Rimbaud sonnet "Vowels"), improved the traditions of Charles Baudelaire in the field of odorism and synestheticism: the poetics of aroma, colors, sounds, tastes. The symbolic literary movement clearly declared itself once again in the 20s of the XX century.

Socialist realism as a literary trend. In the former Soviet Union, socialist realism was cultivated as "the highest, qualitatively new stage in the history of world art" (NA Gulyaev). Dogmatic literary criticism elevated this trend to the category of an artistic method, predicting immortality for it. "Literature of Socialist Realism" by G.N. Pospelov also perceived it as a stage in the development of world literature; L.I. Timofeev theoretically substantiated the idea that "socialist realism" is undoubtedly an "artistic method"; finally, the "leading role of the party in the development of the literature of socialist realism" is affirmed (P.K. Volynsky). For seven decades, in theoretical developments, socialist realism was implanted and advertised as the ultimate artistic method. A powerful totalitarian ideological machine worked to approve this idea: on the one hand, an incentive system in the field of theory and artistic thought (orders, awards, trips abroad, preferential family and living conditions) helped; on the other hand, the most severe coercive apparatus and even the physical elimination of dissidents who deviated from the attitudes of the "truthful", historically concrete depiction of reality in its obligatory revolutionary development. However, it didn't work out. Time has confirmed that the false (self-styled) artistic method ignores the "truth of life", since it depicts a poster, ceremonial ("Walk, Russia!", "Dance, Russia!") Reality, which in fact it could not be; imposes the philosophy of wise leaders. For all aesthetic and ideological indicators, this "bloody wheel" is a literary trend. In the history of the forcible introduction of socialist realism, one can see the echoes of the classicism of the 17th century, however, the kings did not allow themselves to destroy so many figures of literature and art. Objectively, socialist realism exhausted itself already in the 80s of the XX century, regardless of the "perestroika" ideology. The gambit was a violation of the truth of life and artistic truth.

Modernism as a literary trend. The term "modernism" (French - modern, new) began to take root in art and literature in the XX century. At first, this direction caused strong opposition in almost all countries, so it is difficult to talk about a serious approach to the study of modernism. Then critical passions began to gradually subside, and at the end of the 20th century, the science of literature began to tolerate modernism and postmodernism. This is a complex phenomenon, it is large-scale in the sense that it includes both literary trends (naturalism, symbolism, socialist realism) and literary trends (tachism, dadaism, abstractionism, imagism, futurism ...). The two-volume book by S.E. Mozhnyagun "On modernism", which provides answers to the question: "What is modernism?" in the following chapters: "Modernism as a creative method", "Modernism as a worldview", "Theory of empathy", "Stream of consciousness", "Words and things", "Eternal truths of idealism ...".

LITERARY CURRENTS

Futurism, Imagism, Tachism, Dadaism, Surrealism, Acmeism ...

Literary currents develop only on aesthetic basis, excluding the "truth of life" and the philosophical platform from their program, therefore, they remain short-lived in the system of the artistic process, and one should not wage a "decisive struggle" with them, they function and leave the literary process according to the law of art. Literary currents form small, active operating groups writers, related in the type of creativity, who are adherents of their own aesthetic concepts and promote their programs in articles, manifestos, statutes. However, this energy of personalities does not stand up to the test for a long time.

Literary currents originate and form in the 20th century. A prerequisite for the emergence of certain trends is the rejection of ideological and philosophical instructions. When studying the polyphony of currents, it is necessary to take into account the fact that the intellectual nature develops dynamically and manifests itself in various forms in different epochs. Literary theorists should abandon an aggressive and extremely negative attitude towards trends and trends. The convictions undermine the value of the global artistic process. A literary critic is obliged to investigate, understand and explain why “bad” literary movements appear alongside “good” realism, and for what reason there are so many bright and talented artists in a creative environment alien to realism.

Literary trends and trends also reproduce reality, but their vision of the "truth of life" is refracted through the prism of similarities and differences that are observed in the writing technique itself, in experimental types of generalization, style, in genre experiments.

Imagism (English Imajo - image) as a trend emerged at the beginning of the twentieth century. Its theorists were the English critic T.E. Hume, who founded the School of Imagism club in 1909, as well as prominent writers - R. Aldington, TS Eliot, D.H. Lawrence, J. Joyce. The method of the Imagists was distinguished by the technique of combining metaphors and images. Having created a "catalog of images", the Imagists opened up freedom for verse as a synthesis of rhythms and colors, with which one can express the secret of the "chaotic world" (KLE, vol. 3, column 107).

Surrealism (French - superrealism) belongs to the avant-garde movement that arose in France in the 10s of the twentieth century. The term "surrealism" was coined by the poet G. Apollinaire in the play "Sostsy Tiresias" (1918). He believed that the first surrealist was the man who invented the wheel. “Leading its lineage from the Marquis de Sade, J. Nerval and further through A. Rembeau, ... to P. Reverdi, surrealism relied on the tradition of romantic-anarchic rebellion in artistic thinking ...” In 1924, the writer A. Breton published the “Manifesto of Surrealism” , in which it is argued that artistic creation refers to the "dying revelation", "tragic prophecy" and the total loneliness of man. Surrealism gives recommendations on how an "ordinary person" can "turn into a clairvoyant, and a number of writing techniques that allow you to fix the points of the subconscious." For the surrealists, the category of beauty consists in a combination of "stunning" connections of incompatible (but quite specific) things and concepts "of the following still life:" Fine, like a chance meeting on the table for autopsy of an umbrella and a sewing machine. " These amalgams "create an atmosphere of magical arbitrariness." Note that similar techniques were previously discovered by oriental poets in the gazelle genre (“bloody rivers of tears” flow from the eyes of a lover. See: Mikhailichenko BS Techniques of abstractionism and surrealism in a gazelle-sonnet portrait / Masulakhoi philology. - Samarkand .: SamSU , 2003. - S. 134-139). Surrealists use "automatic writing", a quick recording of the first words that come to mind, impressions, scraps of speech. In the new poetry appeared "automatic texts" (KLE, vol. 7. - Column. 313-317). In painting, Salvador Dali achieved world fame.

Dadaism (French - "horse", in children's language "horse", more precisely, incoherent babble) is ranked among the modernist literary movement. It originated in Switzerland in 1916. Its creator is considered to be a French poet, Romanian by origin, T. Tzara. Dadaists gathered in one of the cabarets in Zurich, and teased the audience with their scandalous performances. They believed that "art is dead", since the instinct of a destroyer, not a creator, is embedded in man. The reason for this is civilization, which by its rationality has created tragic prerequisites. Therefore, the Dadaists called for a return to primitive society, which was consistent with the philosophy of "eternal return". The Dadaists killed "good taste" with vulgar sonnets, onomatopoeic poems ("Hadyi beri bimba ..."). This is a kind of rebellion against monumental classical literature, where all the places have already been taken, and their unattainable model fetters the creative energy of young artists. Perhaps this circumstance explains L. Tolstoy's denial of geniuses in art and literature (see: KLE, vol. 2, column 498; Moznyagun S. "On modernism". - M .: Art, 1974. - S. 51- 53).

Futurism (lat - future) originated in Italy in 1909. Its recognized leader is F. Marinetti, who is reproached for cooperation with the ruling elite. In their manifesto, the Futurists proclaimed the birth of a new art, consonant with the "skyscraper-industrial-automobile" culture. Artists of the word idealized highly developed technology, industry and the image of a "mechanical man". World and local wars were the object of art for the futurists; they were interpreted in the light of "the only hygiene of the world." Futurists rejected linguistic norms and created their own "abstruse" poetic speech.

We offer a diagram that illustrates the pictures of the artistic method, literary trends and trends

The literary process (Latin processus - moving forward) means the transition of artistic creativity from the past qualitative state to a new qualitative state in a specific historical era... The literary process includes almost all aesthetic categories studied by the science of literature: genera, methods, trends, trends, genres, versification systems, styles, ... contradictory and logical questions posed by reality. It takes into account national literary traditions, social and cultural-historical features of the world spiritual heritage, the degree of consciousness, enlightenment, culture. See: I. Ten and F. Brunetier's theories.

Progressive movement occurs on the basis of the achievement and deepening of the works of predecessors, the evolutionary and "accelerated" development of verbal art.