CULTURAL REVOLUTION It was directed: The Cultural Revolution envisaged: In the USSR in e. XX century the Cultural Revolution took place. It was aimed: 1. At changing the social composition of the post-revolutionary intelligentsia, 2. At a break with the traditions of the pre-revolutionary cultural heritage. The Cultural Revolution provided for: 1. Elimination of illiteracy, 2. Creation of a socialist system of public education and enlightenment, 3. Development of science, literature, art under party control.

Visual arts In the 30s, significant changes took place in the visual arts. Despite the fact that the Association of Traveling Exhibitions and the Union of Russian Artists continue to exist in the country, new associations appear in the spirit of the times - the Association of Artists of Proletarian Russia, the Association of Proletarian Artists, artist F. Shurpin 1930, artist G. Klutsis

Socialist Realism By the mid-30s. The method of socialist realism was declared to be an artistic method that was generally obligatory for Soviet art (the depiction of reality is not what it is, but what it should be from the point of view of the interests of the struggle for socialism). The decisive events in this sense were the creation in 1934 of the Union of Soviet Writers and a number of ideological campaigns. Nikolaev K. "Laying a railway track in Magnitogorsk"

M. Grekov. "Trumpeters of the First Cavalry Army", 1934 Tikhova M. "Sculptural laboratory of the Lomonosov porcelain factory"

THE ART OF POSTER During the civil war and intervention, political posters completely separated from other types of artistic graphics (advertising, posters, political drawings). The poster is characterized by a catchy visibility of the image, responsiveness, and general availability of content. This was very important for a country in which most of the population was illiterate. KUKRYNIKSY B. Efimov, M. Ioffe, 1936

ELEVATOR PAINTING Soviet easel painting is drawn to significant monumental forms and images. Painting is becoming wider in its plot and less sketchy in its manner. “Heroic generalization penetrates into the easel painting” One of the most significant representatives of easel painting of this period Boris Ioganson. He introduces into his works "a new revolutionary content, consonant with the era." Two of his paintings are especially popular: Interrogation of the Communists (1933) and At the Old Ural Factory (1937). "Interrogation of communists" "At the old Ural plant"

MONUMENTAL PAINTING In the years, monumental painting became an obligatory link in the entire artistic culture. It depended on the development of architecture and was firmly connected with it. The pre-revolutionary traditions were continued at this time by Eugene Lansere, painting of the restaurant hall of the Kazan station (1933) demonstrates his craving for a mobile baroque form. Deineka also made a great contribution to monumental painting at this time. His mosaics at the Mayakovskaya station (1938) were created using a modern style: the sharpness of rhythm, the dynamics of local colorful spots, the energy of angles, the conventionality of the images of figures and objects. Favorsky, a well-known graphic artist, also made a contribution to monumental painting: he applied his system of constructing form, developed in book illustration, to new problems. His paintings of the Museum of the Guardian of Motherhood and Infancy (1933, together with Lev Bruni) show his understanding of the role of the plane, the combination of frescoes with architecture, based on the experience of Old Russian painting.

LANDSCAPE Achieve a variety of stylistic directions: In the years the USSR began the era of the well-grounded method of socialist realism in art in general, and painting in particular. A variety of stylistic directions is achieved: 1. The lyrical line of landscape painting, 2. The industrial landscape.

PORTRAIT GENRE The development of a pictorial portrait in the style of the avant-garde of the "first wave" exhausted itself by the 1930s. In the portrait genre, the techniques and stylistics of a realistic solution to the image of a contemporary were again in demand, while the ideological, propaganda function of the portrait was declared as one of the main tasks. M. Nesterov "Portrait of Academician I. P. Pavlov" 1930 Nesterov M. "Portrait of the artists P. D. and A.D. Korin. ", 1930

VERDICT: The results of the transformations of the first years of Soviet power in the field of culture were far from unambiguous. On the one hand, certain successes were achieved in eliminating illiteracy, there was an increase in the activity of the creative intelligentsia, which was expressed in the organization of new and the revival of old societies and associations, the creation of values ​​in the field of spiritual and material culture. On the other hand, culture has become a part of state policy, falling under the control of the party and government apparatus.

In 1934, at the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers, Maxim Gorky formulated the basic principles of socialist realism as a method of Soviet literature and art. This moment marks the beginning of a new era of Soviet art, with stricter ideological control and propaganda schemes.

Basic principles:

• - Nationality. As a rule, the heroes of socialist realist works were city and country workers, workers and peasants, representatives of the technical intelligentsia and military personnel, Bolsheviks and non-party people.
• - Ideology. Show the peaceful life of the people, the search for ways to a new, better life, heroic deeds in order to achieve a happy life for all people.
• - Concreteness. In depicting reality, show the process of historical development, which in turn must correspond to the materialistic understanding of history (in the process of changing the conditions of their existence, people also change their consciousness, their attitude to the surrounding reality).

In the years following this decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) on the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations, a number of major events were carried out aimed at the development of art in the direction required for the state. The practice of state orders, creative business trips, and the organization of large-scale thematic and anniversary exhibitions is expanding. Soviet artists create many works (panels, monumental, decorative) for the future VDNKh. This marked an important stage in the revival of monumental art as an independent one. In these works, it became obvious that the craving of Soviet art for monumentality is not accidental, but reflects "the grandiose prospects for the development of socialist society."

In 1918, in a conversation with K. Zetkin, Lenin defined the tasks of art in Soviet society: “Art belongs to the people. It must have its deepest roots in the very thick of the broad working masses. It should be understood by these masses and loved by them. It should unite the feeling, thought and will of these masses, raise them. It should awaken the artists in them and develop them. "

During the period under review, along with the already existing directions of art, several fundamentally new ones appeared, for example, avant-garde.

Within the framework of the style of monumentalism, sculpture is of the greatest interest. Like all other trends in Soviet art, the sculpture of the period had an agitational orientation and a patriotic content of plots. Lenin's plan for monumental propaganda, adopted in 1918, was of great importance for the development of sculpture. In accordance with this plan, monuments promoting new revolutionary values ​​were to be erected throughout the country. Prominent sculptors were involved in the work: N.A. Andreev (who later became the creator of sculptural Leniniana). Another prominent sculptor of this period is Ivan Shadr. In 1922 he created the statues "Worker", "Sower", "Peasant", "Red Armyman". The peculiarity of his method is the generalization of the image on the basis of a specific genre setting, powerful sculpting of volumes, expressiveness of movement, romantic pathos. His most striking work is “Cobblestone - an instrument of the proletariat. 1905 "(1927). In the same year, on the territory of the hydroelectric power plant in the Caucasus ZAGES, a monument to Lenin was erected by his own work - "one of the best." Vera Mukhina was also formed as a master in the 1920s. During this period, she created the project of the monument "Liberated Labor" (1920, not preserved), "Peasant Woman" (1927). Of the more mature masters, the work of Sarah Lebedeva, who created portraits, is noted. In her understanding of form, she takes into account the traditions and experience of impressionism. Alexander Matveev is characterized by classical clarity in understanding the constructive basis of plastic, the harmony of sculptural masses and the ratio of volumes in space ("Undressing woman", "Woman putting on a shoe"), as well as the famous "October" (1927), where the composition includes 3 nude men figures - a combination of classical traditions and the ideal of the "man of the era of the Revolution" (attributes - sickle, hammer, budenovka).

Art forms capable of "living" on the streets in the first years after the revolution played an important role in "shaping the social and aesthetic consciousness of the revolutionary people." Therefore, along with monumental sculpture, the political poster received the most active development. It turned out to be the most mobile and operational art form. During the Civil War, this genre was characterized by the following qualities: “the sharpness of the presentation of the material, an instant reaction to rapidly changing events, an agitational orientation, thanks to which the main features of the plastic language of the poster were formed. They turned out to be laconicism, conventionality of the image, clarity of silhouette and gesture. The posters were extremely common, printed in large print runs, and placed everywhere. A special place in the development of the poster is occupied by the ROSTA Satire Windows, in which Cheremnykh, Mikhail Mikhailovich and Vladimir Mayakovsky played an outstanding role. These are stenciled posters, hand-painted and with poetic inscriptions on the topic of the day. They played a huge role in political propaganda and became a new figurative form. The decoration of the festivities is another new phenomenon of Soviet art that had no tradition. Holidays included the anniversaries of the October Revolution, May 1, March 8 and other Soviet holidays. This created a new non-traditional art form, thanks to which painting acquired a new space and function. For the holidays, monumental panels were created, which were characterized by a huge monumental propaganda pathos. Artists created sketches for the design of squares and streets.

The following persons took part in the decoration of these holidays: Petrov-Vodkin, Kustodiev, E. Lansere, S.V. Gerasimov.

Soviet art history divided the masters of Soviet painting of this period into two groups:

• - artists who sought to capture the plots in the usual pictorial language of factual display;
• - artists who used a more complex, imaginative perception of modernity.

They created images-symbols in which they tried to express their "poetic, inspired" perception of the era in its new state. Konstantin Yuon created one of the first works dedicated to the image of the revolution (New Planet, 1920, Tretyakov Gallery), where the event is interpreted on a universal, cosmic scale. Petrov-Vodkin in 1920 created the painting "1918 in Petrograd (Petrograd Madonna)", solving in it the ethical and philosophical problems of the time. Arkady Rylov, as it was believed, in his landscape "In the Blue Space" (1918) also thinks symbolically, expressing "the free breath of mankind, bursting out into the vast expanses of the world, to romantic discoveries, to free and strong experiences."

New images are also traced in the graphics. Nikolai Kupreyanov "in a complex technique of wood engraving seeks to express his impressions of the revolution" ("Armored cars", 1918; "Aurora's volley", 1920). In the 1930s, monumental painting became an indispensable link in the entire artistic culture. It depended on the development of architecture and was firmly connected with it. The pre-revolutionary traditions were continued at this time by the former world of art Yevgeny Lansere - the painting of the restaurant hall of the Kazan railway station (1933) demonstrates his craving for a mobile baroque form. It breaks through the plane of the plafond, expanding the space outward. Deineka, who also at this time makes a great contribution to monumental painting, works in a different way. His mosaics at the Mayakovskaya station (1938) were created using a modern style: the sharpness of rhythm, the dynamics of local colorful spots, the energy of angles, the conventionality of the images of figures and objects. The topics are mostly sports. Favorsky, a famous graphic artist, also made a contribution to monumental painting: he applied his system of constructing form, developed in book illustration, to new problems. His paintings of the Museum of the Protection of Mothers and Infancy (1933, together with Lev Bruni) and the House of Models (1935) show his understanding of the role of the plane, the combination of frescoes with architecture based on the experience of ancient Russian painting. (Both works have not survived).

Constructivism became the dominant style in the architecture of the 1920s.

Constructivists tried to use new technical possibilities to create simple, logical, functionally justified forms, expedient designs. The projects of the Vesnin brothers can serve as an example of the architecture of Soviet constructivism. The most ambitious of them, the Palace of Labor, was never implemented, but it had a significant impact on the development of domestic architecture. Unfortunately, architectural monuments were also destroyed: only in the 30s. in Moscow, the Sukharev Tower, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Miracles Monastery in the Kremlin, the Red Gate and hundreds of unknown urban and rural churches, many of which were of historical and artistic value, were destroyed.

In connection with the political nature of Soviet art, many artistic associations and groupings are being created with their own platforms and manifestos. Art was in search and was diverse. The main groupings were AHRR, OST, and also "4 arts". The Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia was founded in 1922. Its core consisted of former Itinerants, whose manner had a great influence on the group's approach - the realistic language of everyday life of the late Itinerant movement, "going to the people" and thematic exhibitions. In addition to the themes of the paintings (dictated by the revolution), the AHRR was characterized by the arrangement of thematic exhibitions such as "Life and Life of Workers", "Life and Life of the Red Army."

The main masters and works of the group: Isaac Brodsky ("Lenin's speech at the Putilov factory", "Lenin at Smolny"), Georgy Ryazhsky ("The Delegate", 1927; "Chairwoman", 1928), portrait painter Sergei Malyutin ("Portrait of Furmanov", 1922 ), Abram Arkhipov, Efim Cheptsov ("Meeting of the village cell", 1924), Vasily Yakovlev ("Transport is getting better", 1923), Mitrofan Grekov ("Tachanka", 1925, later "To the Kuban" and "Trumpets of the First Horse", 1934 ). The Society of Easel Painters, founded in 1925, included artists with less conservative views in terms of painting, mainly students of VKHUTEMAS. These were: Williams "Hamburg Uprising"), Deineka ("At the construction site of new workshops", 1925; "Before descending into the mine", 1924; "Defense of Petrograd", 1928), Labas Luchishkin ("The ball flew away", "I love life "), Pimenov (" Heavy Industry "), Tyshler, Shterenberg and others. They supported the slogan of the revival and development of easel painting, but they were guided not by realism, but by the experience of contemporary expressionists. Of these, they were close to industrialization, city life and sports. The Four Arts Society was founded by artists who were previously part of the World of Art and the Blue Rose, who were careful about the culture and language of painting. The most prominent members of the association are Pavel Kuznetsov, Petrov-Vodkin, Saryan, Favorsky and many other outstanding masters. The society was characterized by a philosophical background with adequate plastic expression. The Society of Moscow Artists includes former members of the associations "Moscow Painters", "Makovets" and "Bytie", as well as members of the "Jack of Diamonds". The most active artists: Pyotr Konchalovsky, Ilya Mashkov, Lentulov, Alexander Kuprin, Robert Falk, Vasily Rozhdestvensky, Osmerkin, Sergei Gerasimov, Nikolai Chernyshev, Igor Grabar. The artists created "thematic" paintings using the worked out "Jacks of Diamonds" and so on. trends of the avant-garde school. The creativity of these groups was a symptom of the fact that the consciousness of the masters of the older generation was trying to rebuild itself to new realities. In the 1920s, two large-scale exhibitions were held, which consolidated the trends - to the 10th anniversary of the October Revolution and the Red Army, as well as the "Exhibition of Art of the Peoples of the USSR" (1927).

The leading sphere of development of literature in the 20s. undoubtedly is poetry. In terms of form, literary life has largely remained the same. As at the beginning of the century, literary circles set the tone for her, many of which survived the bloody hard times and continued to operate in the 1920s: symbolists, futurists, acmeists, etc. New circles and associations are emerging, but the rivalry between them now goes beyond the artistic sphere and often takes on a political connotation. The associations RAPP, "Pass", "Serapionovy brothers" and LEF were of the greatest importance for the development of literature.

The RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers) took shape at the I All-Union Conference of Proletarian Writers in 1925. It included writers (among the most famous A. Fadeev and D. Furmanov) and literary critics. The predecessor of the RAPP was "Proletkult" - one of the most massive organizations, founded in 1917. They treated almost all writers who were not part of their organization as "class enemies". Among the authors who were attacked by the RAPP members were not only A. Akhmatova, Z. Gippius, I. Bunin, but even such recognized “singers of the revolution” as M. Gorky and V. Mayakovsky. The ideological opposition to the RAPP was the literary group Pereval.

The Serapion Brothers group was created in 1921 at the Petrograd House of Arts. The group included such famous writers as V. Ivanov, M. Zoshchenko, K. Fedin and others.

LEF is the left front of the arts. The positions of the members of this organization (V. Mayakovsky, N. Aseev, S. Eisenstein and others) are quite contradictory. Combining futurism with innovation in the spirit of the proletarian cult, they came up with a very fantastic idea of ​​creating a kind of "production" art, which was supposed to fulfill the utilitarian function of providing a favorable atmosphere for material production in society. Art was viewed as an element of technical construction, without any subtext, invention of psychologism, etc.

Of great importance for the development of Russian literature of the twentieth century. played the poetry of V. Ya. Bryusov, E. G. Bagritsky, O. E. Mandelstam, B. L. Pasternak, D. Bedny, "peasant" poets, the brightest representative of which was Yesenin's friend N. A. Klyuev. A special page in the history of Russian literature is the work of poets and writers who did not accept the revolution and were forced to leave the country. Among them are such names as M. I. Tsvetaeva, Z. N. Gippius, I. A. Bunin, A. N. Tolstoy, V. V. Nabokov. Some of them, realizing the impossibility for themselves to live away from their homeland, subsequently returned (Tsvetaeva, Tolstoy). Modernist tendencies in literature were manifested in the work of E. I. Zamyatin, the author of the anti-utopian science fiction novel "We" (1924). Satirical literature of the 20s represented by the stories of M. Zoshchenko; novels by co-authors I. Ilf (I. A. Fainzilberg) and E. Petrov (E. P. Kataev) "Twelve Chairs" (1928), "The Golden Calf" (1931), etc.

In the 30s. there are several major works that have gone down in the history of Russian culture. Sholokhov creates the novels "Quiet Don", "Virgin Land Upturned". Sholokhov's work has received worldwide recognition: he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his literary merits. In the thirties M. Gorky completed his last epic novel “The Life of Klim Samgin”. The work of N. A. Ostrovsky, the author of the novel "How the Steel Was Tempered" (1934), was very popular. A. N. Tolstoy ("Peter I" 1929-1945) became a classic of the Soviet historical novel. The twenties and thirties were the heyday of children's literature. Several generations of Soviet people grew up on the books of K. I. Chukovsky, S. Ya. Marshak, A. P. Gaidar, S. V. Mikhalkov, A. L. Barto, V. A. Kaverin, L. A. Kassil, V. P. Kataeva.

In 1928, hunted by Soviet criticism, MA Bulgakov, without any hope of publication, begins to write his best novel, The Master and Margarita. Work on the novel continued until the writer's death in 1940. This work was published only in 1966. At the end of the 80s, the works of A.P. Platonov (Klimentov) "Chevengur", "Pit", "Juvenile Sea" were published ... The poets AA Akhmatova and BL Pasternak worked on the table. The fate of Mandelstam (1891-1938) is tragic. The poet of extraordinary strength and great pictorial accuracy was among the writers who, having once accepted the October Revolution, could not get along in Stalin's society. In 1938 he was repressed.

In the 30s. The Soviet Union is gradually beginning to fence itself off from the rest of the world. Many Russian writers remained behind the "Iron Curtain", who, in spite of everything, continue to work. The poet and prose writer Ivan Alekseevich Bunin (1870-1953) was a writer of the first magnitude. From the very beginning Bunin did not accept the revolution and emigrated to France (the story "Mitya's Love", the novel "The Life of Arseniev", the collection of stories "Dark Alleys"). In 1933 he was awarded the Nobel Prize.

In the early 30s. the existence of free creative circles and groups came to an end. In 1934, at the I All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers, the "Union of Writers" was organized, into which all people who were engaged in literary work were forced to join. The Writers' Union has become an instrument of total control over the creative process by the authorities. It was impossible not to be a member of the Union, because in this case the writer was deprived of the opportunity to publish his works and, moreover, could be prosecuted for "parasitism". M. Gorky stood at the origins of this organization, but his chairmanship in it did not last long. After his death in 1936 A. A. Fadeev became the chairman. In addition to the "Union of Writers", other "creative" unions were organized: "Union of Artists", "Union of Architects", "Union of Composers". A period of uniformity began in Soviet art.

The revolution has unleashed powerful creative powers. This also affected the development of domestic theatrical art. Many theatrical collectives arose. An important role in the development of theatrical art was played by the Bolshoi Drama Theater in Leningrad, the first artistic director of which was A. Blok; V. Meyerhold, theater. E. Vakhtangov, Moscow Theater. Mossovet.

The mid-1920s saw the emergence of Soviet drama, which had a tremendous impact on the development of theatrical art. The largest events of the theatrical seasons 1925-1927. became "Storm" V. Bill-Belotserkovsky in the theater. MGSPS, “Love Yarovaya” by K. Trenev at the Maly Theater, “Rift” by B. Lavrenev at the theater. E. Vakhtangov and at the Bolshoi Drama Theater, "Armored train 14-69" V. Ivanov at the Moscow Art Theater. Classics occupied a firm place in the repertoire of theaters. Attempts to re-read it were made both by academic theaters (“Ardent Heart” by A. Ostrovsky at the Moscow Art Theater) and by “leftists” (“The Forest” by A. Ostrovsky and “Inspector General” by N. Gogol at the V. Meyerhold Theater).

If drama theaters restructured their repertoire by the end of the first Soviet decade, the main place in the activities of opera and ballet groups was still occupied by the classics. The only major success in reflecting the contemporary theme was the staging of R. Glier's ballet “Red Poppy” (“Red Flower”). L.V. Sobinov, A.V. Nezhdanova, N.S. Golovanov, troupe of the Moscow Art Theater, Chamber Theater, Studio. E. Vakhtangova, Quartet of Old Russian Instruments

The musical life of the country in those years is associated with the names of S. Prokofiev, D. Shostakovich, A. Khachaturyan, T. Khrennikov, D. Kabalevsky, I. Dunaevsky and others. Young conductors E. Mravinsky and B. Khaikin came to the fore. Musical ensembles were created, which later glorified the national musical culture: the Quartet them. Beethoven, the Grand State Symphony Orchestra, the State Philharmonic Orchestra, etc. In 1932 the Union of Composers of the USSR was formed.

Along with the actors of the older generation (M. N. Ermolova, A. M. Yuzhin, A. A. Ostuzhev, V. I. Kachalov, O. L. Knipper-Chekhova), a new revolutionary theater emerged. The search for new forms of stage expressiveness is characteristic of the theater, which worked under the direction of V.E. Meyerhold (now the Meyerhold Theater). On the stage of this theater were staged plays by V. Mayakovsky "Mystery-Buff" (1921), "Bedbug" (1929) and others. A major contribution to the development of the theater was made by the director of the 3rd Moscow Art Theater Studio E. B. Vakhtangov ; organizer and director of the Chamber Theater, reformer of the performing arts A. Ya. Tairov.

One of the most important and interesting phenomena in the history of culture of the 20s. was the beginning of the development of Soviet cinema. Documentary cinematography is developing, which has become one of the most effective tools for ideological struggle and agitation, along with the poster. An important milestone in the development of fictional films was the film by Sergei Mikhailovich Eisenstein (1898 - 1948) "Battleship Potemkin" (1925), which was one of the world's masterpieces. The Symbolists, Futurists, Impressionists, Imagists, etc. fell under a barrage of criticism. They were accused of "formalistic twists", that their art was not needed by the Soviet people, that it was hostile to socialism. Composer D. Shostakovich, director S. Eisenstein, writers B. Pasternak, Yu. Olesha and others were among the "aliens". Many art workers were repressed.

political culture totalitarianism ideology

The 30s are one of the most interesting pages in the history of the Soviet state. This is the time of the conquests of the Arctic, the storming of the stratosphere, the time of the first five-year plans and unheard-of victories in labor, the time of gigantic construction unfolding throughout the country. Then they built a lot, solidly and beautifully. The outlines of the buildings conveyed the businesslike and courageous mood of their builders. New buildings appeared on the map of the Union, the centers of old cities were bordered by new districts. Factories and workers' settlements were built, numerous rivers were blocked by dams of hydroelectric power stations. Bowls of stadiums grew in city parks. Among the old houses on wastelands there were buildings, called by the will of time and the talent of architects to change the traditions of past life. One of the striking examples of this entire huge construction site is Moscow.

Let's take a trip around Moscow in the 1930s and see how many changes have taken place in it over the years. The waters of the Moskva River and Yauza dressed in granite throughout the city. The city center has completely changed its appearance: the squares have expanded, freed from old, dilapidated houses. In the very center of the capital, at the corner of the former Okhotny Ryad and Gorky Street, according to the project of the architect A. Langman, the house of the USSR Council of Ministers was built. The strict proportions of the building, reminiscent of a slender parallelepiped, a clear and rhythmic relationship between window openings and wall planes, give the building a business-like and calm look. Wide vertical stripes of white stone cladding on the smoky facade create the impression of solemnity, emphasizing the state significance of the building.

The first stations of the Moscow metro are strict and expressive in terms of decoration. Over one

high ceilings lie quietly on four-sided columns with aprons, bright vaults spread over others. A steady electric light bathes the polished stone cladding. Glass, ceramics, metal, wood with their forms give the architecture of underground metro lobbies airiness, elasticity and warmth. The stations are all different, although they are similar in style.

The vault of the Airport station (architects V. Vilensky and V. Ershov), like an open canopy of a parachute, is dissected by swift white lines - slings. The multifaceted white columns of the underground vestibule of the Kropotkinskaya station (the former Palace of the Soviets, architects A. Dushkin and J. Lichtenberg) expand under the vault, forming bowls in which light sources are hidden. Thanks to this, the internal space seems to increase, and the appearance of the station becomes more strict. Almost all the stations of the Moscow metro these years attract by the expediency of their strict, business-like architecture. There is nothing superfluous in them, almost every architectural detail solves both artistic and technical problems at the same time.

In the 30s, many of our architects sought to subordinate the appearance of buildings to their functional purpose. Here is the building of the editorial office and publishing house "Pravda" by architect P. Golosov. Its walls are cut with wide stripes of windows: after all, light and sun are a great help to both the literary employee and the printer. The glass lines of the windows made the bulk of the plant slender and more welcoming.

Each architectural structure has its own place in the ensemble of the city. Far visible, hiding or emphasizing the appearance of the surrounding buildings, the openwork silhouette of the Crimean bridge over the Moscow River by architect A. Vlasov. This handsome bridge connects the surface of the river, the massif of the Central Park of Culture and the panorama of the city. His body is suspended on two garlands of steel plates, vigorously and freely cutting the air, and from this it seems as if the bridge is weightless, as if it is woven from thin shiny threads.

Palace of Culture of the Moscow Automobile Plant. Likhachev, created by the architects Vesnin brothers, is located in a park, turned into a sports town, at a steep cliff descending to the Moskva River (see article "The Vesnin Brothers Architects").

Construction in Moscow was then carried out according to a unified plan for the reconstruction of the capital, adopted in 1935. For other cities of the country - Leningrad, Novosibirsk, Sverdlovsk, Kharkov, Baku, Tbilisi, Yerevan, Dushanbe, etc. - their general reconstruction plans were also developed.

And of course, the architecture of these years could not do without its constant "comrades-in-arms" - sculpture and painting. Monumental sculpture and painting played an important role in the ensembles of metro stations, the Moscow Canal, and the All-Union Agricultural Exhibition in Moscow. Mosaics by A. Deineka on the plafond of the Mayakovskaya metro station seem to tell about one day of the country (see article “A. A. Deineka”).

E. Lancere made a significant contribution to the development of monumental painting. His paintings on the plafonds of the Moscow hotel restaurant create the illusion of a large space: it seems that not the ceiling, but the high vault of heaven opens up before the gaze of a person in the hall.

Among the works of monumental painting of the 30s

The murals of the Moscow Museum of the Protection of Motherhood and Infancy, made by V. A. Favorsky and L. A. Bruni, stand out. In them, the artists embodied the harmony of the new man, the earthly beauty of his feelings. The sculptures by V.I.Mukhina placed in the museum were also in tune with the paintings.

Many architectural structures of the 30s cannot be imagined without sculpture. The symbol of this community was the famous sculptural group of V. I. Mukhina "Worker and Collective Farm Woman" (see ill., Pp. 328-329), which adorned the Soviet pavilion at the World Exhibition in Paris.

In the 30s, numerous sculptural monuments appeared, which were included in the ensembles of squares and streets in different cities. The sculptors V. I. Mukhina and I. D. Shadr worked on the projects of the monuments (see the articles "V. I. Mukhina" and "I. D. Shadr"), S. D. Merkurov and M. G. Manizer (1891 - 1966), N.V. Tomsky (b. 1900) and S.D. Lebedeva (1892-1967). In the 30s, the widespread implementation of the plan of monumental propaganda, which was conceived by Lenin and began to be carried out in the first years of the revolution, began.

The development of monumental art and the idea of ​​synthesis of all types of art have influenced the easel forms of painting, sculpture and graphics. Even in small easel works, artists strove to express great content, to create a generalized artistic image.

In the canvas of S. V. Gerasimov "The collective farm holiday" (Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow), as in focus, collected the characteristic features of the painting of those years. The sun generously sends rays from the cloudless sky. Nature is imbued with serene peace and joy. Tables with rich treats are set right in the meadow. Obviously, an excellent harvest has been harvested. Gerasimov draws people from a new collective farm village: smiling women, a guy with a bicycle, a heroine girl, a Red Army soldier on vacation. Gerasimov's painting style also contributes to the mood of joy: he paints a picture with light colors, with a wide brush movement, achieving an impression of lightness, a feeling of airiness (see article "S. V. Gerasimov").

A. A. Deineka came in the 30s with his own established tradition. He conveys a sense of modernity with new subjects and a new pictorial form. His guys are full of health, exuding joy in life in the painting "Lunch Break in Donbass" (Museum of Latvian and Russian Art, Riga). His boys live with a presentiment of great things in "Future Pilots" (see ill., Pp. 304-305). In these paintings, Deineka's painting, as before, is avaricious, laconic, it has strict and clear rhythms, sharp color contrasts.

Permeated with "Deinek's" moods, but softer painting by Yu. I. Pimenov (b. 1903) "New Moscow" (Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow). A woman drives a car across the rain-washed Sverdlov Square. The center of the new Moscow opens before her. And together with her we admire our capital.

AA Deineka, Yu. I. Pimenov and GG Nissky, who was just beginning at that time, conveyed new feelings and impressions of life in a genre painting and in a landscape. The then-old artist M.V. Nesterov approached the solution of new problems in his own way. He strove to create the image of a person-creator, typical for those years. In his portraits, he captured people who were completely passionate about their work, who went in search of

scientific and artistic truths (see article "M. V. Nesterov" and ill., p. 306).

In the historical genre, BV Ioganson came to broad artistic generalizations, creating truly monumental paintings Interrogation of the Communists (see ill., Pp. 312-313) and At the Old Ural Factory. Both of these paintings were perceived by contemporaries as a symbol of the road of struggle traveled by the people. The images created by Johanson are heroic and significant (see the article "BV Johanson").

With all the general striving for a generalized and monumental image, painting, sculpture and graphics of the 1930s were created by artists with different handwriting. Their works differ from each other in artistic means and in the degree of psychological depth, as well as in plots and themes. The plot of the painting "Farewell, Comrade" by V. Prager is extremely stingy (Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow). The red detachment, frozen in the ranks, pays its last honors to a comrade who fell in battle. He lies on a stretcher on the snowy grass. Colors speak about the feelings of people - nobly pure, slightly minor, applied with strict brush strokes.

The painting by KS Petrov-Vodkin “1919. Anxiety". The worker peers through the window into the midnight street. An unexpected event woke up his loved ones. The artist deliberately does not finish the plot. Either the whites burst into the city, or a sabotage was committed ... The main thing is the readiness of its heroes to courageously meet the misfortune, in the tense mood of the canvas (Russian Museum, Leningrad; see art. "K. S. Petrov-Vodkin").

The painting of KN Istomin (1887 -1942) "Vuzovki" is also more "talkative" in the language of painting than in the plot. Fragile figures of girls-students, enthusiastically working at the table, are presented in the color unity of green, white, black paints, which convey both the purity of images and the tension of time.

Original talented painters worked in the 30s in the union republics: E. Akhvlediani in Tbilisi, III. Mangasarov in Baku, B. Nurali in Ashgabat.

The development of monumental art forms did not prevent lyrical or in-depth psychological genres. In sculpture, for example, the portrait is developing successfully. Sarah Lebedeva (1892-1967), a connoisseur of human characters, who knows how to notice barely noticeable movements of the soul, achieved great success in this genre. Lebedeva always focuses on the special that is inherent only in this model. Her "Chkalov" is a gifted whole person who has directed all her strength of character towards achieving the goal of her life. Lebedeva sculpts her portraits very freely: they are not smoothed, they have outward sketchiness, but this makes them seem especially alive.

V. Mukhina's portraits, on the contrary, are always monumental: they are stable in their composition, massive, energetic.

The sculptor A. Matveev achieved a great depth of understanding of the human personality in his self-portrait. This is a whole autobiography embodied in the image: wisdom, will, the power of thought and great human purity have merged in it.

During these years the master of publicistic compositions I. Shadr also creates magnificent portraits. The portrait of young Gorky (Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow) is full of dynamics, anger towards philistinism and an impulse for freedom, for struggle. Shadr's female images are very lyrical.

The theme of the past and the present, so vividly presented in sculpture and painting, is reflected in the graphics. Most of the artists in these years devote their drawings and engravings to the subjects of construction and labor. A gallery of portraits of prominent contemporaries appeared: scientists, technicians, workers, peasants.

In the 30s, book graphics are experiencing a time of prosperity and great changes. The need for a book is growing more and more. Classics and contemporary writers are published in huge editions. A whole generation of young masters comes to the book. His students A.D. Goncharov (b. 1903) and M.I. Pikov (b. 1903) work alongside V. A. Favorsky. The ranks of illustrators are replenished by the Kukryniksy (see art. "Kukryniksy"), D. A. Shmarinov (b. 1907), E. A. Kibrik (b. 1906), A. M. Kanevsky (b. 1898). Shmarinov creates a cycle of dramatic illustrations for "Crime and Punishment" by Dostoevsky, Kibrik - a series of lithographs for "Cola Brunion" by Rolland, Kukryniksy-drawings for "Klim Samgin" by Gorky, Kanevsky - for Saltykov-Shchedrin.

V.V. Lebedev (1891 - 1967) and V.M. The images they create are sometimes good-natured, sometimes ironic, but never edifying.

S. D. Lebedeva. Portrait of V.P. Chkalov. 1937. Bronze. State Tretyakov Gallery. Moscow.

The 30s are a difficult period in the life of the country. They had their own historical difficulties. The war was approaching. These difficulties were reflected in art as well. But the main thing that determines the art of the pre-war decade is that the method of socialist realism was finally formed in it. The art established its martial traditions, it was ready for serious and severe trials.

Culture of the 20-30s of the USSR

In the twentieth century, a totalized socio-cultural system was created in Russia, the distinctive features of which were ideological control over the spiritual life of society, manipulation of consciousness, destruction of dissent, physical destruction of the color of the Russian and scientific and artistic intelligentsia. In short, the culture of the Soviet period was contradictory. Both positive and negative phenomena were manifested in it. In assessing it, it is necessary to observe the principle of objectivity, to exclude any ideological bias. In this vein, it is necessary to analyze the culture of Russia in the twentieth century.

After the 1917 revolution, a new period begins in the history of Russian culture, a transition to a new system of relations takes place. The main question for the creative intelligentsia at that time was the question of the attitude towards the revolution. It should be admitted that not everyone was able to understand and accept the revolution. Many perceived it as a collapse, a catastrophe, a break with a past life, a destruction of traditions. Many figures of Russian culture have emigrated abroad. Such outstanding figures of Russian culture as S.V. Rachmaninov, K.A. Korovin, A.N. Tolstoy, M.I. Tsvetaeva, E.I. Zamyatin, F.I.Shalyapin, A.P. Pavlova, I.A. Bunin, A.I. Kuprin and others. Some of them returned, realizing the impossibility of living outside their homeland. But many remained abroad. The loss was significant. About 500 prominent scientists remained abroad, who headed departments and entire scientific directions. This brain drain led to a significant decrease in the spiritual and intellectual level in the country.

Most of the intelligentsia remained in their homeland. Many of them actively collaborated with the new government. Suffice it to say that in the civil war, Soviet power was defended by almost half of the officer corps of the former tsarist army. Engineers and scientists restored industry, developed the GOERLO plan and other economic development projects.

During this period, the Soviet state set the task of overcoming cultural inequality, making cultural treasures accessible to the working people, and creating culture for the entire people, and not for individual elites. To achieve this goal, nationalization was carried out. Already in 1917, the Hermitage, the Russian Museum, the Tretyakov Gallery, the Armory and many other museums became the property and disposal of the state. The private collections of the Mamontovs, Morozovs, Tretyakovs, IV Tsvetaev, VI Dal, SS Shchukin were nationalized. The cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin turned into museums, as well as the royal residences near Petrograd and Moscow.

Unfortunately, in the process of nationalization, much of the lack of understanding and lack of culture was not accepted as values, much was plundered and destroyed. Priceless libraries were lost, archives were destroyed. Clubs and schools were set up in the manor houses. In some estates, museums of everyday life were created (the estates of the Yusupovs, Sheremetyevs, Stroganovs). At the same time, new museums arose, for example, the Museum of Fine Arts at Moscow State University, everyday life in the 40s of the 19th century, Morozov porcelain and others. From 1918 to 1923 alone, 250 new museums arose.

Another major task facing the Soviet state in the post-revolutionary period was the elimination of illiteracy. The task was relevant in view of the fact that 75% of the country's population, especially in the countryside and national regions, did not know how to read and write. To solve this most difficult problem in 1919, the Council of People's Commissars adopted a decree "On the elimination of illiteracy among the population of the RSFSR", according to which the entire population from 8 to 50 years old was obliged to learn to read and write in their native language or Russian. In 1923, the voluntary society "Down with Illiteracy" was established under the chairmanship of MI Kalinin. Thousands of points were opened for the elimination of illiteracy, educational programs.

The next important milestone in the development of education was the adoption in 1930 of the decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks "On universal compulsory primary education." By the end of the 30s, mass illiteracy in our country was largely overcome.

Science and technology

In the 1920s and 1930s, significant successes were also achieved in the development of science. Physicotechnical and optical institutes were founded in hungry Petrograd in 1918, whose scientists subsequently created the country's nuclear shield. The famous TsAGI laboratory (Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute) was opened near Moscow, which means that our journey into space began back in 1918. Russian scientists became the founders of new directions of science: N.E. Zhukovsky, the founder of modern aerodynamics, K.E. Tsiolkovsky, the creator of the theory of jet propulsion, which underlies modern jet aviation and space flights. The works of V.I. Vernadsky laid the foundations of new sciences - biogeochemistry, radiology. The works of the Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov, who created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes and higher nervous activity, received worldwide recognition. Back in 1904, Pavlov, the first Russian scientist, was awarded the Nobel Prize.

In the 30s, on the basis of scientific research of Academician S.V. Lebedev in the Soviet Union, for the first time in the world, mass production of synthetic rubber was organized. The works of A.F. Ioffe laid the foundations of modern physics of semiconductors. Scientists have made a number of major geographical discoveries, especially in the study of the Far North. In 1937, four researchers: I. D. Papanin, E. T. Krenkel, E. A. Fedorov and P. P. Shirshov - landed in the Arctic and opened the world's first research drifting station "SP-1". They worked on the ice for 274 days, having drifted 2500 kilometers. Scientists have done a lot for the development of science. They first received geological data on this territory, carried out magnetic measurements, which soon helped to ensure the safety of flights of Chkalov, Gromov, Levanevsky, made a huge contribution to the meteorology and hydrology of this part of the planet. After the first station, 30 more were opened, the last one was opened in 1989.

Vladimir

1 question Situation in the field of culture and education One of the most important tasks facing society was the implementation of cardinal transformations in the field of culture and education. Due to the fact that the majority of the population of Ukraine did not know how to read and write, effective measures were taken to eliminate mass illiteracy. In 1921, the All-Ukrainian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Illiteracy was created. Thanks to her efforts, by 1927, 2 million people learned to Chitati and write in Ukraine. In the 1928/1929 school year, the number of students in schools increased to 2.6 million, although almost a third of school-age children still did not attend school. But already in the 1932/1933 academic year in Ukraine there were 21.7 thousand schools, in which 4.5 million students were enrolled. In 1934, three types of general education schools were established: primary (four-year course of study), incomplete secondary (seven-year), secondary (ten-year). At the same time, the transition to compulsory universal primary education was completed, and in cities - to universal seven-year education. By the end of the 30s. adult illiteracy has been largely eliminated. A significant drawback in the development of public education was that in the teaching environment of the 30s. there were still few trained specialists, people with higher education. Almost a third of the teachers had incomplete secondary education. Even fewer teachers had special pedagogical education. The formation of a new intelligentsia proceeded at a rapid pace. The main role in this process was played by higher and secondary educational institutions. If in the 1914-1915 academic year in Ukraine there were 88 secondary specialized educational institutions in which 12.5 thousand students studied, then in the 1940-1941 academic year there were already 693, and the number of students in them increased to 196.3 thousand. human. The massive educational campaign was conducted in Ukrainian. Thanks to the activities of the People's Commissar for Education N. Skrypnyk, more than 80% of secondary schools and 30% of higher educational institutions carried out education exclusively in the Ukrainian language. The Ukrainian press experienced a similar revival. By 1927, more than half of the books were printed in the Ukrainian language in the republic, and in 1933, out of 426 republican newspapers, 373 were published in Ukrainian. In the Ukrainian literature of the 20s. combined democratic and revolutionary traditions. At this time, a bright revolutionary-romantic movement was formed, which was represented by P. Tychina, V. Chumak, V. Sosyura, N. Bazhan. Representatives of other creative trends, such as M. Rylsky, P. Filippovich, and others, took an active part. N. Khvylovy's pamphlets, short stories and stories by G. Kosynka, satire and humor of O. Vishnya, drama and prose by N. Kulish, and . Dneprovsky, A. Golovko. A characteristic feature of the literary process in Ukraine in the 20s. there was the emergence and disintegration of many literary organizations, such as "Gart", "Plow", "Avangard", "Molodnyak", "Nova Generation" etc. In 1925, the Free Academy of Proletarian Literature (VAPLITE) was founded, the ideological leader of which was N. Khvyleva. All this testified to the real revival of Ukrainian literature and culture in general. However, the literary process was negatively influenced by the substitution of universal values ​​for class values, which led to the ideologization of all art. And ultimately - to the baseless accusations of many artists of "nationalism". N. Khvyleva was one of the first to be at the center of this campaign. In the 20's. In Ukraine, the formation of the Ukrainian Soviet theater was intensively taking place, associated with the work of such stage masters as L. Kurbas, G. Yura, and others. All types of fine art developed, presented as artists of the older generation - M. Boychuk, K. Trokhymenko, etc., and young artists - A. Petritsky, V. Kasiyan, sculptor M. Lysenko and others. The first and immediately noticeable steps were taken by Ukrainian cinema. In 1928 the first film by A. Dovzhenko "Zvenigora" was released

Art of the 20-30s

The main ideas and directions in the development of art. Painting. In the interwar period, new trends and trends appeared in art, and old ones developed. Until the First World War, realism prevailed in European art. The world then seemed worthy of its realistic portrayal. The personality of the artist, his tastes and preferences could be in the choice of genre, composition, in the superiority of form or color.

The First World War and post-war instability led to the fact that the world lost its harmony and rationality in the eyes of artists, its realistic reflection seemed to lose its meaning. There has been a change in the artist's understanding. It consisted not in an adequate reflection of the world, but in the identification by the artist of his vision of the world. And such an understanding of the world could arise, for example, to a certain ratio of lines and geometric shapes. This type of painting is called abstractionism. Its founder was the Russian artist Wassily Kandinsky. The surrealists (surrealism in French means suprarealism), led by Salvador Dali, tried to portray an irrational world. In their paintings, in contrast to the paintings of abstractionists, there are objects that can be cognized, but sometimes they look strange and are in unusual compositions, like in dreams.

Avant-garde was one of the new trends in literature and art. Avant-garde is the conventional name for many anti-realistic movements in literature and art of the 20th century. It arose on the basis of an anarchic, subjective worldview. Hence the break with the previous realistic tradition, the formalistic search for new means of artistic expression. The predecessors of avant-gardism were the modernist trends of the first third of the XX century. fauvism, cubism, futurism, surrealism and dodecaphony in music. Among the representatives of avant-garde and neo-avant-garde-artists P. Mondrian, passed, writers R. Desnos, A. Arto, S. Beckett, composers-S. Bussoti, J. Keydogs.

Modernism is the main direction of art of the 20-30s era, characterized by a break with the ideological and artistic principles of classical art. It was born in the 20-30s of the XX century. It covered all types of creativity. Modern artists E. Kirchner, D. Ensor, E. Munch, E. Nolde, Kandinsky, P. Klee, O. Kokoschka proposed intuitionism and automatism in the creative process - the use of physical properties of geometric shapes and color, rejection of the illusion of space, deformation objects in the image of symbols, subjectivity in the content.

Realism is one of the basic properties of art and literature, which consists in striving for truthful objective reflection and reproduction of reality in the forms that correspond to it. In a narrower sense, the trend in art, opposed to modernism and avant-garde in the interwar period of the XX century. its representatives were, in particular, the artists F. Maserel (Belgium), Fougera and Taslitsky (France), R. Guttuso (Italy), G. Erni (Switzerland).

Theatre. Significant successes have been achieved in the field of theatrical art and film art. This applies primarily to the countries of Western Europe and the United States. The development of theatrical art in the United States took place quite fully. Theaters were founded here, in which directors G. Klerman, E. Kazan, L. Starsberg, R. Mamu-lian, actors K. Cornell, J. Barrymore, H. Hayes, E. Le Galienne worked. The repertoire included plays by young American playwrights K. Odets, Y. Onil, J.Lawson, A. Maltsy, and others.

Cinema. Filmmaking in the United States begins in 1896, and since 1908 has been concentrated in Hollywood. The outstanding figure of American cinema in those years was the director D.W. Griffith, who in his historical films laid the foundations of cinema as an independent art. This was facilitated by the activities of directors T.H. Inns, who started the fi-lms-westerns, and M. Sennett, marked by a high professional culture. Charlie Chaplin became the greatest master of comedy films. The most stars of the 20-30s M. Pickford, D. Fairbanks, R. Valentino, G. Garbeau, L. Hirsch, B. Keaton, C. Gable, F. Astor, G. Cooper, H. Bogart. During this time W. Disney developed the foundations of an animated film. It should be noted that among the films there were also those that raised intellectual problems, for example, Citizen Kane (1941 p., Director O. Welles).

In the USSR, the development of cinematography took place in the same direction as in other countries, but had its own characteristics associated with the existence of a totalitarian state. In the 1920s and 1930s, the films Battleship Potemkin and Chapaev were shot, and the outstanding directors Eisenstein, Dovzhenko and others worked.

In other parts of the world, cinematography was in its infancy, but theatrical art was actively developing. The exception was India, where the first film was filmed back in 1913. In the 30s, Alam Ara, directed by Iran, and Devdas, directed by Baruah, were released here.

Architecture. In the art of the 1920s and 1930s, an intensive search for an answer to the question of the role and place of man in society, the principles of its interaction with the environment and the future of mankind continued. The French architect Le Corbusier viewed architecture as part of social progress and preferred the development of comfortable residential buildings and complexes, supported the need for serial design and industrialization of construction. With the help of architecture, architects tried to eliminate the existing injustice, improve society. An idea appeared to disperse the population of large cities in satellite cities, to create a garden city. Similar projects were carried out in England, France, Holland. In various forms, the idea of ​​a harmonious combination of human habitation and nature was implemented in the USA, Finland, Czechoslovakia, Sweden and other countries. it was picked up in the USSR, but at the same time the essence was emasculated, reduced to propaganda slogans. I know the city will, I know the garden will bloom when there are such people in the Soviet country! the poet Mayakovsky wrote in 1929 about the development of the city of Kuznetsk. However, the mining and metallurgical industries still dominate there and the public infrastructure remains weak.

In countries with a totalitarian regime, they tried to impose on art the ideas of the superiority of one social system over another, to instill the symbols of eternity and inviolability of the existing government, which cares about the welfare of the people and their spiritual purity. The architecture and sculpture of Germany and Italy embodied the ideas of unquestioning obedience, national and racial disdain, cultivated strength and rudeness. In the USSR, they supported those artists who were able to more clearly and convincingly show the pathos of socialist construction and the merits in it of the Bolshevik Party and its leaders. For a long time, the sculptural group Mukhina Worker and Collective Farmer, created specifically for the 1937 World Exhibition in Paris, has been called an outstanding phenomenon of international artistic culture.

Ukrainian architectural modern(ukr. Ukrainian architectural modern), UAM is one of the Ukrainian architectural styles, a kind of modern style, which developed on the territory of Ukraine for almost 40 years, from 1903 to 1941.

The UAFM is based on the folk traditions of home and church building and the achievements of Ukrainian professional architecture and, first of all, baroque (see Ukrainian baroque) whose influence, starting from 1910, was noticeable and even growing. The influence of European modernity was also strong.