Traditions and customs of the peoples of southern Europe. European culinary traditions. Regattas in the baths

For more than two thousand years, on one day a year, greetings have been heard: “Christ is Risen! Truly Risen!” Such exclamations are heard on Easter - the favorite and main Christian holiday, symbolizing victory over death, when light replaces darkness. It is celebrated in the spring, after the first flowers appear, which decorate homes and temples, rooms and festive tables. And each country has its own characteristics Easter traditions, which we will look at in more detail.

Easter traditions in Western and Central Europe

England. For many Britons, Easter is a more significant and vibrant religious holiday than Christmas, and even schools are closed for two weeks for spring break. Temples are decorated with decorated eggs, blooming daffodils and willow branches. Residents of Great Britain attend the Easter service in the evening, ending after midnight, and then rejoice at the end of Lent and congratulate others on the beginning of a new life. After visiting the temple, the British eat Easter cake with their families.

Germany. Easter is preceded by Good Friday, and most Germans eat fish on this day. On Friday and Saturday, residents of Germany do not have to work, and on Saturday evening in many German cities a grandiose Easter bonfire. This event is very popular, so many locals come to watch the bonfire. Fire symbolizes the end of winter, as well as the burning of all negative feelings. On Sunday morning, almost every family eats breakfast together. On Sunday afternoons they visit relatives and friends, chat and drink tea together.

The day before, parents hide baskets with all kinds of sweets, small gifts and Easter eggs, and then the children look for them in all rooms of the house. It is believed that sweets bring Easter Bunny, and such a character also has pagan roots. At that time, the Germans believed in various gods, including the goddess of spring and fertility, Eostra. In her honor, at the onset of spring, festive events were held, and the main events fell on the day spring equinox.
Rabbit was identified with Eostra due to fertility, so in the pre-Christian era it was also associated with the arrival of spring. In the 14th century, a legend spread in Germany about the mystical Easter bunny, who hid laid eggs in the garden.

The Germans later brought this legend to the USA, where the tradition of giving marzipan or chocolate sweet bunnies to children subsequently arose, and it subsequently merged with the religious holiday of Easter. Nowadays, in almost all European countries, children are given both colored eggs and sweet rabbits or bunnies.

Another legend is associated with biblical history about Noah's Ark. So, during the Great Flood, the ark collided with its bottom on the top of Mount Ararat, and a gap appeared in the ship. And the hare closed the hole with his short tail and prevented the ark from sinking in deep waters. This legend about a brave coward is very common among German children, and they are sure that a bunny in a magical clearing in an impenetrable forest is cooking magic herbs in a pot with firefly pollen. And with these herbs he hand-paints each Easter egg.

Belgium. For kids in Belgian cities, competitions are held to find eggs, but the kids don’t have to run to the chicken coop or store with a basket. Parents hide in advance Easter eggs in the yard or in the garden next to the house, and the one who manages to collect the largest “harvest” will win. The Belgians tell children that the church bells will remain silent until the holiday, because they have left for Rome, and will return at Easter with eggs and a rabbit. The main sweets for children on this day are chocolate eggs and rabbits.

Netherlands. Most Dutch people follow the tradition of celebrating Easter, and the main symbols are colored eggs and the Easter bunny. You can often see funny figures of bunnies in the windows of houses, and without such an element it is impossible to imagine decorating a holiday table, since the Dutch do not bake Easter cakes. Residents of Holland buy colored eggs in stores, and chocolate eggs with various fillings, as well as hollow chocolate figures of a rooster or hare, are very popular.

On Sunday, the Dutch attend church services, where they kiss three times when meeting friends, and festive events are organized for the children. On children's party Painted eggs are hidden in bushes or grass, and children are very happy when they find them. Families spend Easter days together, going on picnics, or going on bike rides and walks in nature.

Easter traditions in Eastern Europe

Poland. Easter is celebrated here for two days, and all generations of a large family gather at one table. Believing Poles first pray and then sit down to a festive meal, and on the tables you can see sausage and meat, horseradish and eggs, and lighted pasta. The holiday is followed by Wet Monday, when people douse each other with water, symbolizing household profit, good luck and health.

Russia. Orthodox Easter in Russia is characterized by numerous customs that are not directly related to religious legends. These are entertainments and folk games, but the custom of beating eggs, in which several people are involved, is especially notable. So, they hit the eggs twice with their nose, and whoever’s egg hasn’t cracked after that continues the game. Egg rolling is another Easter game. Since children were forbidden to play almost all games during Lent, after long break Rolling eggs became the first fun for children.

They set up a tray at a certain angle, along which Easter eggs were rolled onto a blanket, and to win, they had to hit another egg. And the girls played “heaps”, hiding the paint under a layer of sand, and the rest of the participants had to guess where it was. Believers attend church services on Easter and bless Easter cakes, Easter cottage cheese and eggs.

Ukraine. In Ukraine, Easter has merged over the centuries with family traditions and folk customs. After the 40-day fast preceding Easter, the festive table is decorated with flowers, and the main place on it is occupied by colored eggs and Easter cake laid on greenery, and the housewives prepare traditional dishes loved by the family. A special place is occupied by colored decorated eggs, painted with a “pysanka” pattern, as well as “scrobanks” - eggs on which the pattern is scratched with a sharp instrument.

Bulgaria. At Easter, according to the Bulgarian tradition, a lot of colored eggs are laid out around the Easter bread, which are painted only on Thursday, while the sun has not yet risen. On Thursday or Friday, Easter cake decorated with a cross is baked. Like other Orthodox Slavs, Bulgarians clink eggs until one of them cracks, wishing those around them good luck. And the one whose colored egg remains intact the longest is considered the luckiest.

Easter traditions in Scandinavia

Denmark. Danes celebrate Easter widely, but on a smaller scale than Christmas. As in Germany, the main holiday symbol is the Easter bunny, who brings treats to children, and popular characters also include a lamb and a chicken. Their figures will be made of caramel, sugar or white chocolate. It is customary for the Danes to brew a special type of beer and set the meat table. Some beer makers even display Easter symbols on their cans to create a festive atmosphere. The Danes are preparing for the religious holiday starting on Thursday, and only by Tuesday are they ready to return to work.

Sweden. Easter in Sweden is a less colorful and popular religious holiday than Christmas, but schools celebrate it for more than a week. Teachers and children remember the life of Jesus, his death to atone for sins, and his subsequent resurrection from the dead. For the holiday, Swedes decorate their homes with Easter flower beds in white, green and yellow shades, and the festive table contains the same food as on Christmas days. However, this time more attention is paid to candies and various sweets. All Easter eggs are made of cardboard, and inside such packaging there is candy.

Easter traditions in Southern Europe

Italy. On Easter Sunday, Italians flock to the main square of Rome and wait for the Pope to read a sermon and congratulate them on the bright religious holiday. The main dish on the Italian table is lamb served with fried artichokes, a salad of tomatoes, olives and sweet peppers, as well as a savory pie with cheese and eggs. Festive table It is impossible to imagine without colomba - this is a dish similar to Easter cake, distinguished by a lemon aroma, and it is often covered with almond glaze or almonds. On the second day, temperamental Italians with friends and neighbors flock to picnics.

Greece. Since Orthodoxy is the official religion in Greece, Easter remains the most long-awaited and vibrant holiday, and local residents paint eggs themselves. Greeks come to evening mass with white burning candles, which should be extinguished at midnight. Burning candles in Greece are associated with the resurrection of Christ and life, and light is transmitted from one candle to another. The traditional dish for the Easter meal is magiritsu soup, made from lamb offal, and this dish is usually prepared on Saturday. During the meal, the Greeks uncork retsina - this is wine from last year's harvest.

Picnics and large feasts are usually held outdoors, where the meat of young lambs is roasted over fires. In Thessaloniki, citizens and guests are treated to free refreshments, and sweet churek, bright red Easter eggs, meat and wine are displayed on the tables. Greek dances and songs do not stop until the morning, and schoolchildren's vacation lasts 15 days.

Spain. An integral part of the holiday for the Spaniards is the Easter procession, during which the boys carry ordinary palm branches, and the girls carry branches decorated with sweets, and the priest must bless them. The most interesting is the Easter procession in Seville, and in front of the cathedral in Palma de Mallorca, it is customary to play the Passion of Christ for the holiday. The most terrible action takes place in Girona: townspeople dress in terrifying costumes, scaring passers-by, and guests can see skeletons dancing. The entire week before Easter is non-working, since absolutely everyone is preparing for the religious holiday. Every year, Spanish families compete to make the best palm branch, and each branch has intricate weaves, and religious processions take place on the streets of Spanish cities.

South of France. The main Easter entertainment in France is picnics, and friendly companies and families gather near their houses in the garden and prepare a variety of omelettes. The French give each other red eggs, and the children play various games with them. From Good Friday until Christ's Sunday all the temple bells are silent, as if mourning the crucifixion of Jesus. The symbol of joy is not at all painted eggs, but ringing bells, and in villages, parents make peculiar nests in trees, from where children must get chocolate eggs. It is also customary to give chocolate coins to adults and children so that the coming year will pass comfortably.

It’s always interesting to discover something new, draw ideas, and learn from experience. We invite you to learn some children's customs and “tricks” of European countries.

The creators of the concept are a store for children MushRoom. otherchildren bring from Europe not only children’s wardrobe items, but also Interesting Facts, knowledge and invaluable experience. Today we will learn about the traditions and customs associated with children in different countries.

1. Denmark. The dummy tree.

B 192 0 year, the Danes came up with a ritual for saying goodbye to babies with a pacifier. So that children do not feel sad and part with the pacifier painlessly, parents often organize a real celebration of growing up: a trip to the zoo, a picnic, and attractions. At the end of the holiday, the “little adult” solemnly says goodbye to the “baby” accessory, hanging it on a special “sucker tree”. Sometimes this is accompanied by a touching note: “Dear pacifier, thank you for serving me so well, but I’m already a big boy/girl, and now the tree will take care of you.”

And at night the pacifier fairy comes and, instead of a voluntarily given pacifier, brings the baby a gift under the pillow.A very sweet and tender ritual, without any theft of the notorious pacifier by dogs, cats and other animals.

2. Germany. Schultüte

German first-graders go to school not with the usual bouquet for the teacher, but with the so-called “first-grader bag.” This tradition appeared in Germany in the 19th century, and until now the beginning of the school year is impossible set without schoolchildren joyfully carrying their cone-shaped gifts.

It is believed that a long and responsible educational journey awaits the baby, and parents want to sweeten this event a little for the child.

Previously, the “first-grader’s bag” was filled exclusively with sweets, but now parents collect as gifts everything that their child will like: sweets, school supplies, toys and other little things pleasant for children. First-graders ceremoniously take pictures with their Schultüte, and then open them in class or at home. The main thing is not to overdo it so that the gift does not weigh more than the baby :)

3. France. Doudou

For French children, their introduction to the world begins with mom, dad and “doudou.” This is a soft scarf with a toy head. This exists in many countries of the world, but it is the French who pay special attention to the “dood”. When baby When a baby is born, a personal handkerchief toy is immediately placed in his hand. It is believed that there is only one dudu for life, so parents buy several at once in case of loss. From birth, the baby sucks and fiddles with his cloth, which helps him in subsequent adaptation periods. Without “dudu” they may not even be accepted into the garden.

Educators are confident that without it, the child may be less able to tolerate homesickness. You can often find grown-up children carrying around worn-out handkerchief toys with them everywhere, as their personal symbol of home and warmth. And sometimes replacing an unsightly old “dudu” with a new one, exactly the same, turns into a difficult task for parents.

4. Italy. Battesimo.

Italians are temperamental and expressive, as well as superstitious and very respectful of traditions. Italy has a special attitude towards children religious rites. One of the most important is the christening of babies. It is customary to baptize children in all Catholic churches. countries, but it is the Italians who turn this event into a real holiday for all generations of the family: solemn, beautiful, memorable.

Christening in Italy is a small (and sometimes large) wedding.

Italians have a cult of family, so all relatives gather to congratulate the baby. In many families, there is a tradition of passing on the outfit for the baptism of a newborn by inheritance. This is a relic that is kept by the older generation and presented to the little Italian on the day of baptism. A long shirt and cap are solemnly decorated with the hero of the occasion and then he goes back to wait for the addition of the family. All guests receive traditional Italian bonboriere (bags with sweets and a small souvenir) - an attribute of many holidays since the times of ancient Rome. The christening ceremony ends with a family banquet, where the newly minted Catholic receives gifts from the whole family.

One of the distinctive features of European kindergartens is that the group goes outside the garden. On public transport and on the streets on weekdays you can see preschool children heading to the park , museum, zoo, to an exhibition accompanied by teachers.

It looks like this: children walk in pairs, holding a hand, often they are dressed in bright “identification” vests or hold on to a common rope, one teacher leads the column, the second brings up the rear. Such “outings” are included in the preschool education program and are aimed at broadening the horizons of children. Such events are facilitated by numerous educational programs specially created by scientific and exhibition organizations for the little ones. Even a simple walk to a city park turns into a small educational journey: children are taught in practice about the rules of conduct for pedestrians and transport passengers, and are taught to behave in an orderly and attentive manner on the city streets.

Traditional economic activities of the population of Western, Northern, Central and Southern Europe. Foreign Europe is a highly developed region, so traditional forms of economy have hardly survived there. In the past, the main occupations of Europeans were agriculture and animal husbandry. In other matters, the latter was inferior to agriculture everywhere, except for a few areas (Iceland, the Alps, the Faroe Islands).

In Europe very early - back in the 2nd-1st millennium BC. e. - plow farming spread. Farmers used two types of arable implements: the ralo (which did not have a blade and wheeled limber) and the plow (equipped with a moldboard and wheeled limber). Ralo was common in the southern and northern regions, the plow - in the central regions. Oxen were used as draft animals in the south of Europe, and horses in the north. The rough crops were harvested using sickles and scythes. Bread

they threshed with flails, and in the south they sometimes drove oxen over the compressed ears of corn. Grain was ground in water and windmills. Nowadays, these old agricultural tools and methods of processing crops are largely a thing of the past and are used newest ways agriculture.

The most important agricultural crops in the northern regions of Europe are barley, rye, oats, and in the central regions - wheat, rye, and sugar beets. In the south of Europe, in addition to wheat and rye, corn imported from America is grown, and in some areas rice is also cultivated. A crop of American origin, such as potatoes, has also spread widely in Europe. Gardening and horticulture have long been very developed in Europe. The cultivation of fruit and citrus trees and viticulture are common in the Mediterranean. Vineyards, the bulk of the harvests of which are used to make wine, are also found to the north - along the valleys of the Loire and Rhine rivers. Industrial crops grown in northern Europe include flax and hemp, and in southern Europe cotton and tobacco are grown. In many European countries, especially in Holland, Denmark, Germany, and England, floriculture is developed.

Livestock farming plays a fairly important role in the economy of most peoples of Europe. Mainly cattle are raised. Livestock are kept in stalls. Livestock farming is focused both on the production of milk and dairy products, and on the production of meat and meat products. In many areas of Europe, sheep (mainly for wool) and pigs are also bred.

In coastal areas, fishing is very developed in combination with the production of other seafood: shrimp, oysters, mussels. It is especially important among Norwegians and Icelanders.

Since the Middle Ages, Europe had a very developed handicraft industry, on the basis of which a diverse industry was later formed. Later, the craft was greatly supplanted by industry, but some of its types, primarily those artistic value, are preserved to this day. This includes lace weaving, embroidery, jewelry making, the production of ceramic and glass products, and some musical instruments.

The economy of the Sami living in the Arctic regions differs significantly from the occupations of other peoples of Europe. They have the most developed tundra reindeer herding and fishing.

Settlements and types of rural houses. Currently, most European countries have a sharply urban population. In many countries, urban dwellers make up more than three-quarters of the total population, and in Great Britain and Northern Ireland even over 90%. Among European cities there are very ancient ones with more than thousand-year history: Rome, for example, arose in the 7th century. BC e., Athens - even earlier - in the 16th century. BC e. Ancient cities founded during the Roman Empire include, in particular, Paris, London, and Cologne. There are many cities in Europe that grew up during the Middle Ages (for example, Bristol, Stockholm, Berlin, Madrid) and during the period of rapid industrial development (Birmingham and Manchester in England, the cities of the Ruhr Basin in Germany and many others). In old cities, as a rule, their historical part is preserved, the most ancient historical monuments are concentrated, giving each city uniqueness and originality. The unique appearance of Athens is associated with the ancient 11harphenopus, Rome - with the Colosseum, Paris - with the cathedral Notre Dame of Paris and the Louvre, /London - with Gaucher, Cologne - with the famous Cologne Cathedral.

Europe is characterized by a large concentration of population in the largest cities, more precisely in urban agglomerations, which include those adjacent to the city settlements. The population of such cities is especially diverse, since this is where the main flows of migrants are sent. IN big cities The communication and mutual influence of representatives of different nationalities is especially intense, which, along with other factors, leads to the formation of a special urban subculture.

However, despite the early development of urban life in Europe, before the onset of intensive industrialization, it was still dominated by a rural population. In some countries (for example, Portugal, Albania) it is still numerous. Among rural settlements There are both multi-yard and single-yard ones. Single-yard settlements - hamlets - are most often found in the mountainous regions of France, northern Spain, northern Italy, northwestern Germany, western England and Norway. Multi-yard settlements - villages - predominate in the lowland parts of Central Europe, France, Italy and Spain, as well as in the Balkans. Multi-yard rural settlements differ significantly in their development. In Central and Southern Europe, cumulus villages predominate, when houses and adjacent estates are located in disarray, the streets are crooked and confusing. There are also circular villages in eastern Germany. Houses in such a village are built around a square and face it with their facades. In some places in Western Europe there are street villages, although this type of settlement is more typical of Eastern European peoples. Street villages were usually built along roadways. In Europe you can also find scattered, or scattered, villages that are something between groups of one-door farmsteads and multi-yard villages. They are common in Western Europe.

Rural dwellings found in Europe are also divided into several types, of which only the most common are discussed here. So,

The so-called Mediterranean house is especially characteristic of southern Europe. This is a two-story, or less often three-story, stone structure, with utility rooms at the bottom and living quarters at the top. The roof of a Mediterranean house is gable and tiled. Spaniards, southern French, southern Italians live in such houses.

In northern Italy, in the mountainous regions of Switzerland and Austria, and in southern Germany, the most common is the so-called Alpine house. It is also two-story, its lower part is stone, and its upper part is wooden, log frame, with a gallery. The roof of such a house is also gable, supported on longitudinal beams. Residential premises are located on both floors, utility rooms - only on the first. A Basque home is similar to an Alpine house, but unlike an Alpine house, the second floor of a Basque house is frame.

In most of France and the Netherlands, in Belgium, Great Britain, Central Germany, and the lowland regions of Austria and Switzerland, houses of the Western Central European type are common. One of its options is a High German (Franconian) house. This is a building of one or two floors - brick or with a frame of wooden intersecting beams, the spaces between which are filled with a variety of materials (clay, rubble stone, brick, etc.). Residential and utility rooms enclose the open courtyard on four sides. The roof rests on the rafters.

A North French house is a stone or frame residential building stretched along the street, with utility rooms adjacent to it. The house is not fenced. In contrast, the South Limburg house, common in Belgium (also one-story, stone or frame), is enclosed by a high wall. Utility premises are sometimes freely scattered around the yard, sometimes located along its perimeter. The entrance to the house is made under an arch.

In the northern regions of Germany and the Netherlands, as well as in Denmark, houses of Northern European-style

sky type. A particularly characteristic variety of this type is the Low German (or Saxon) house. This is an extensive one-story building - frame or simply brick (without a frame). In the middle part there is a threshing floor (a room where compressed bread is stored and threshed) or a covered courtyard, on both sides of which there are living quarters, stables, and barns (pen for livestock). The massive roof of such a house rests not on the walls, but on thick pillars standing inside the house along the walls.

The Pannonian house, common in Hungary, is a one-story adobe structure with a thatched roof. Along the house there is a gallery on pillars.

In Scandinavia and Finland, log-frame, one-story dwellings are common. A North Scandinavian house consists of a heated living space, an unheated entryway and a room. In a South Scandinavian house, cold vestibules adjoin the heated living space on both sides.

The traditions of building rural houses in the past had a noticeable influence on urban architecture. Currently, urban architecture is characterized by increasing unification and smoothing of traditional specifics. A similar trend is evident in rural areas.

Traditional food. Traditional food varies quite markedly in different parts of Europe. In the south of Europe they eat wheat bread; in the north, along with wheat, rye bread is widespread. In the north they mainly use animal oil, in the south - vegetable oil. Among the drinks in Great Britain, Ireland, and the Netherlands, tea is preferred, in other countries - coffee, and in Central Europe it is usually drunk with milk or cream, and in Southern Europe - black. In southern countries they eat very little in the morning, in northern countries they have a larger breakfast. In the south, naturally, they eat more fruit. In coastal areas, fish and other seafood occupy a significant place in the diet, for obvious reasons.

At the same time, along with regional originality, characteristic features are inherent in the food of each ethnic group. Thus, the French, compared to other European peoples, eat more baked goods. To prepare appetizers, first and second courses, the French use a lot of vegetables, roots and tubers: potatoes, different varieties of onions (especially leeks and shallots), cabbage and salads, green beans, spinach, tomatoes, eggplants. Asparagus and artichokes are very popular. Compared to other Western European nations, they use less milk and dairy products, with the exception of cheese. There are hundreds of varieties of French cheese, among which soft cheese with internal green mold is very popular - Roquefort and soft cheese with external white mold - Camembert. The favorite traditional dishes of the French are steak with deep-fried potatoes, stew with white bechamel sauce. A variety of sauces are generally very widely used by the French when preparing meat main courses and salads. Of the first French dishes, it is especially common onion soup with cheese. Delicacies of French cuisine include oysters, snails and the fried hind legs of large ligushek. The French rank first in the world in the consumption of grape wines. Wine is served twice a day - for lunch and dinner.

The favorite food of Italians is pasta, all dishes from which are called paste. Pasta is prepared with tomato sauce, butter and cheese or meat. Beans, peas, and cauliflower are often served with pasta. Cheese occupies a significant place in the Italian diet. Its traditional varieties are Parmesan(hard dry cheese), Mozzarella(steam from buffalo milk), pecorino(salted dry sheep's milk cheese). Italians also eat risotto pilaf with ham, grated cheese, onions, shrimp and mushrooms, polenta- thick corn porridge, which is cut into pieces before serving. Italians prefer olives among spices and seasonings.

capers (buds of the plant of the same name), chicory and nutmeg.

The British eat quite a lot of meat (beef, veal, lamb, lean pork). The most popular meat dishes are roast beef And steak. The meat is usually served with tomato sauce, pickles (small pickled vegetables), potatoes and vegetables. The traditional food of the British are also a variety of puddings: meat, cereal, vegetable (they are served as main courses), as well as sweet fruit (dessert). In the morning, the British like to eat thin oatmeal. (porridge) or wheat (corn) flakes with milk. For first courses, they prefer broths and puree soups. On holidays in England they try to prepare traditional dishes. A favorite among them is Christmas flame-pudding lard, bread crumbs, flour, raisins, sugar, eggs and various spices. It is doused with rum, set on fire and served flaming. Scottish traditional food is in many ways similar to English, but also has its own characteristics. Black (blood) pudding and white pudding (made from a mixture of oatmeal, lard and onions) are very characteristic of the Scots. The Scots use cereals more than the English to prepare various dishes. A traditional Scottish dish is lamb or veal tripe with oatmeal, generously seasoned with onions and peppers.

The Germans are characterized by widespread consumption of all kinds of sausages, frankfurters and small sausages. A very common dish is sausages with stewed sauerkraut. Potato soup with sausages and pea soup with sausage are also popular. The Germans also prepare a variety of pork and poultry dishes. Vegetables are usually eaten boiled (cauliflower and red cabbage, green beans and carrots are especially common). Boiled peas, beans, and potatoes are popular. The Germans prepare many dishes from eggs: stuffed eggs, baked eggs, scrambled eggs, omelet. The Germans also love various sandwiches. The traditional drink of the Germans is beer.

The basis of the cuisine of the Scandinavian peoples is fish and other seafood. Fish dishes are on the tables of Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, and Icelanders almost every day. The Danes love herring, mackerel, eel, flounder and salmon, boiled or salted. Smoked and dried fish are less common. A popular Norwegian dish is herring with potatoes. They also eat fried cod, flounder, and halibut. Their favorite food is clipfix- headless cod dried on rocks. Sandwiches are very common among the Scandinavian peoples. In Denmark, the sandwich is even called the king of cuisine. There are up to seven hundred types of sandwiches here: from a simple slice of bread with butter to the so-called multi-story sandwich, called “Hans Christian Andersen’s favorite sandwich.” This sandwich consists of several slices of bread interspersed with several layers of bacon, tomatoes, liver pate, jelly and white radishes. They eat it, removing one layer after another. Multi-decker sandwiches are also prepared using various seafood. Milk occupies a prominent place in Scandinavian cuisine. Scandinavian people love to drink fresh milk, various porridges and soups are prepared from milk, potato dishes are washed down with it, and various fermented milk products are made from it.

Traditional clothing of the peoples of Western, Central, Northern and Southern Europe. National characteristics in modern clothes Quite a few European peoples have survived. The so-called European urban costume, the birthplace of which was Great Britain, is widespread there. For men, this suit consists of trousers, a shirt with long sleeves and a jacket, for women - a skirt, a blouse with sleeves and a jacket. Such a costume at the end of the 19th century. spread among city dwellers, and later among rural residents, almost everywhere replacing national clothing complexes. National costumes are now worn only during folk festivals, concerts of folk art groups, etc.

Nevertheless, certain elements of traditional clothing continue to exist, not only in rural areas, but also in cities. So, in Edinburgh and other cities of Scotland, men often wear national plaid skirts (kilt). By the way, the skirt as a typical element of men’s clothing was also common among the Irish, Greeks and Albanians.

The most common element of European men's clothing in the past were pants that were slightly below the knee length. They were worn with short stockings or leggings. Men also wore a long-sleeved shirt and a vest or jacket over it. The French, Spaniards and other Romanesque peoples tied a colored scarf around their necks. A typical headdress was a felt or felt hat. The traditional Basque headdress - a cloth beret - was later borrowed by other peoples of Europe. In particular, it became the most popular headdress of the French.

Women's traditional clothing of different nations was very diverse. Among most Romanesque peoples, women wore long, wide skirts with a frill or border. German women wore short wide pleated skirts. Sometimes they wore several skirts at once different lengths. It was customary to wear several skirts trimmed with lace at once (with the overskirt being darker) in some other areas, for example in Holland and Flanders (northwestern Belgium). Greek women also wore a sundress with a belt. In some places, especially in mountainous areas, women wore long trousers. Everywhere in Europe there was

It is customary to wear a bright apron. White sweaters with long sleeves were also typical; a tight-fitting bodice with laces or buttons was worn over the jacket. They wore scarves, caps and hats on their heads.

In many parts of Europe, wooden shoes were common along with leather ones.

The traditional clothing of the Sami is very different from the costumes of all other European peoples. For men, it consisted of a knee-length shirt and narrow cloth pants, for women - of a long white shirt and a dress worn over it (in warm weather - calico, in cold weather - cloth). In winter, both men and women wore clothes and shoes made of reindeer skins.

16. Peoples of Western Europe

There are many different peoples in Western Europe. The largest of them are: Germans, French, Greeks, British, Spaniards, Italians. What they have in common is their social structure: small family with 1-2 children, although some have survived large families. In urban families, several years sometimes passed between engagement and wedding until the young couple acquired their own home. The clothing is also very similar: women wear sweaters, gathered skirts, aprons, dresses, and a shoulder scarf. Headdresses were particularly diverse - scarves tied in different ways, hats. Footwear: leather shoes, ankle boots, clogs. Men's suit consisted of a shirt, short (knee-length) or long pants, a sleeveless vest, a scarf, shoes or boots.

Germans: Total number 86 million people. They speak German Germanic group of the Indo-European family. The basis of the economy has traditionally been agriculture. We used a three-field cultivation system, the main grain crop there was wheat. Potatoes are grown from garden crops. Livestock farming plays an important role; poultry farming, pig farming, horse breeding, and cattle breeding are widespread. Frame construction equipment was used in the construction of houses. The houses are one- or two-story. A fireplace is a must. Food: potatoes and various dishes made from them, rye and wheat bread, flour products; dairy and meat dishes. The most common drink is beer. Among non-alcoholic drinks, they prefer coffee with cream and tea. Festive food: pork head (or pork) with sauerkraut, goose, carp. They bake a lot of baked goods. Religion: Protestantism and Catholicism. In oral folk art, short comic stories and fairy tales predominate; they are very popular folk dances and songs. Singing plays a significant role in the education of the younger generation. Continues to develop applied arts: wood, metal, glass processing, weaving, embroidery and pottery.

Italians: Total number 66.5 million people. Italian is spoken as a Romance language belonging to the Indo-European family and has many dialects. Religion: Catholicism. Traditional branches of agriculture: arable farming, viticulture, gardening, breeding of large and small livestock. The main material for building a rural house is stone. Dwelling: two- or three-story stone building, rectangular in plan. Italian food is varied, with an abundance of vegetables and fruits. They eat bread and cheese, various pasta with sauces, pizza, fish or meat dishes. Dry wine is a popular drink.

French: Total number 59.4 million people. They speak French Romanesque group of the Indo-European family. Religion: Catholicism, there is Calvinism. Occupations: in agriculture - animal husbandry, raising cattle, pigs, sheep, poultry); agriculture. Main crops: wheat, barley, corn, sugar beets, tobacco, etc. Traditional viticulture and winemaking are also developed. Traditional crafts(wood carving, making painted ceramics, lace weaving) are losing their significance. However, some of them, such as perfume production, have developed into industrial sectors and acquired world fame. The layout of settlements is mainly linear. Dwelling: one-story stone or adobe buildings on a wooden frame, where living quarters and adjacent stables, stables, barns and wine cellars are combined under one roof. Steep gable roofs are covered with slate, tiles, etc. Traditional food is characterized by vegetable and onion soups, beef and pork steaks, fried potatoes, lamb stew with various sauces, omelettes with ham, mushrooms and other seasonings, fish dishes; widely used. A lot of vegetables, fruits, oysters, lobsters, crabs, sea urchins, and shellfish are consumed.

18. Peoples of the Volga and Kama regions. Peoples of the European North of Russia

This territory is home to many different peoples, such as Russians, Kalyks, Udmurts, Maris, Komi, Karelians, etc. Characteristics of some of them:

Udmurts: Total number 747 thousand people. They speak the Udmurt language of the Finno-Ugric group Ural family, there are different dialects. Traditional forms of farming: arable farming (rye, wheat, oats, barley, buckwheat, peas, millet, spelt, hemp, flax) and livestock farming (draft animals, cows, pigs, sheep, Domestic bird). Occupations: hunting, fishing, beekeeping, gathering. Crafts and trades were developed. Traditional dwelling: above-ground log hut with a gable plank roof. Traditional clothing: women wore a white linen tunic-like shirt and robe. Outerwear: semi-woolen and wool caftans and fur coats. Shoes: patterned stockings, knitted or sewn canvas socks, bast shoes, boots, felt boots. A wide variety of headdresses: kokoshnik, headband, high birch bark hat. Traditional food: mushrooms, berries, various herbs, bread products, meat dishes, soups, cereals, dairy products. The main social unit of traditional Udmurt society was the land neighborhood community. It usually consisted of several associations of related families.

Kalmyks: Number 180 thousand people. They speak Kalmyk language Mongolian group of the Altai family. Kalmyks used to be a nomadic people. Main occupations: grazing and transhumance, fishing, farming, gardening. They bred sheep, horses, cattle, goats, camels, and pigs. Kalmyks sowed rye, wheat, millet, buckwheat, oats and industrial crops: mustard, tobacco and flax. Artistic crafts are developed: embroidery, processing, leather stamping, wood carving. The traditional settlement had a circular layout - the most convenient from the point of view of defense for a nomadic lifestyle. There are three known types of traditional housing: a tent, a dugout and a half-dugout. Men's clothing: fitted caftan, shirt, trousers, soft leather boots. Women's clothing: a long dress to the toes with a sleeveless vest, under them a long shirt and pants, boots. There were a variety of headdresses for men and women, depending on the season, the wealth of the family, etc. Various jewelry (bracelets, earrings..) were common. The traditional hairstyle of men and women is braids: men and girls have one, women have two. The basis of nutrition is meat and dairy products. Religion: Buddhism, shamanism, fetishism, cult of fire and hearth.

Komi: Total population 345 thousand people. Most of believers - Orthodox, there are Old Believers. They speak the Komi language of the Finno-Ugric group of the Ural family. Main occupations: agriculture, cattle breeding, hunting. The most common grain crop was barley, followed by rye. They bred mainly cattle, sheep, horses, and deer. The Komi hunted birds, wild ungulates, and fur-bearing animals. Great importance had a gathering, they collected all kinds of berries: lingonberries, raspberries, blueberries, bird cherry, rowan. Crafts were developed: sewing clothes, shoes, pottery, weaving, etc. Means of transportation: sleighs, skis, boats. Traditional dwelling: above-ground, rectangular building. The residential part consisted of two huts (winter and summer), connected by a vestibule, forming a single whole with a utility yard. Characteristic dwellings: pitched roof covered with planks. Carvings and geometric patterns are common among home decorations. Traditional clothing: basics women's suit consisted of a shirt and sundress, short open sweaters, and a sheepskin coat. As a headdress, girls usually wore multi-colored ribbons and a kokoshnik. Men's clothing: untucked canvas shirt, belted, canvas pants, woolen socks. Outerwear: caftan, fur coat. Men's hats: felt cap or sheepskin hat. Men's and women's shoes differed little: shoe covers or boots. Traditional food: plant, meat and fish products. Sour soups, cold soups, and porridges are common. Baked goods occupy a significant place in the diet: bread, juices, pancakes, pies, etc. Traditional drinks, in addition to tea, include decoctions of berries and herbs, bread kvass, and birch sap. Folk beliefs and rituals: cosmogonic myths, reflecting the early ideas of the people about the world around them and man’s place in it; epic tales and legends; fairy tales and songs; Proverbs and sayings; ritual poetry. Pre-Christian beliefs in goblin, witchcraft, fortune-telling, conspiracies, damage were preserved; there were cults of trees, game animals, fire, etc.

Theoretical and methodological research. 2. SUBJECT OF ETHNOLOGY ethnology ethnic science behavior The originality of each science is determined, as is known, by its own subject of study and methods of researching this subject. Since the formation of ethnology as a science and to the present day, the cross-cutting theme of its research is the genesis ethnic cultures and interethnic relations. ...

And methodological research. Subject of ethnology The originality of each science, as is known, is determined by its own subject of study and methods of studying this subject. From the beginning of the formation of ethnology as a science to the present day, the cross-cutting theme of its research is the genesis of ethnic cultures and interethnic relations. Initially based on extremely limited and fragmented...

Seminar 1.

Art and religion of the ancient world

(2 hours)

1. Art of the Creto-Mycenaean period.

2. Art of the Homeric period.

3. The art of classical Greece.

4. Hellenistic art.

5. Art of Ancient Rome. Republic and Empire.

Seminar 2.

Art of Medieval Western Civilization

(2 hours)

1. Early medieval art (V – X centuries).

2. Art of the Romanesque period (XI - first half of the XII centuries). Romanesque style (1050-1150); Rhenish-Romanesque style (1200-1250); late Rhenish-Romanesque style (1250-1300).

3. Gothic (second half of the 12th centuries - 15th centuries). Early Gothic (1223-1314); High Gothic (1314-1422); late (“flaming”) Gothic (1422-1453).

Seminar 3.

Culture and art of the East

(2 hours)

1. Ancient and medieval China. Culture, art, religion.

2. Ancient and medieval Japan. Culture, art, religion.

3. Ancient and medieval India. Culture, art, religion.

Seminar 4.

French Renaissance and Northern Renaissance

(2 hours)

1. Dutch Renaissance. Humbert and Jan van Eyck. Hugo van der Goes. Hans Mamling. Bosch. Pieter Bruegel the Elder.

2. German Renaissance. Albrecht Durer. Hans Holbein the Younger.

3. French Renaissance. Jean Fouquet. Jean and Francois Clouet. Jean Goujon. Germaine Pilon.

Seminar 5.

Music in the history of Western European civilization

(2 hours)

1. Musical art Europe of the Renaissance and the church. Giovanni Pierluigi de Palestrina.

2. Music of the Baroque era. Girolamo Frescobaldi. Jean Baptiste Lully. Antonio Vivaldi. George Frideric Handel. Johann Sebastian Bach.

3. Classical music of Europe second half of the XVIII century. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Ludwig van Beethoven.

4. Classical music of Europe of the 19th century. Franz Liszt. Johann Strauss.

5. Opera art of Europe. Composers. Operas. Performers. Librettists. Gioachino Rossini. Richard Wagner. Georges Bizet. Giuseppe Verdi. Giacomo Puccini.

Seminar 6-7.

Theater and cinema in European culture XVII-XX centuries

(4 hours)

1. European theater of the 17th-18th centuries: plays, authors, actors. Theater tradition and dramaturgy. Changes in the theater of Europe in the 19th century. Democratization of the theater.

2. The origin of cinema in Europe - from art to industry (1896-1918).

Brothers Auguste and Louis Lumières. The first film studios in France and Germany. Georges Méliès and innovation in cinema.

3. Cinematography of Europe in the interwar and war periods (1918-1945).

4. Modern European cinema: genres, studios, actors, directors. Film festivals in Europe and their role in the film industry.

Watching a movie.

Seminar 8.

History of costume and its role in the history of European civilization (2 hours)

1. Changes in the costume of the aristocracy from the Middle Ages to modern times.

2. The appearance of the common people in the Middle Ages and modern times.

3. History of professional costume. Clergy, military, doctors, etc.

4. The history of European costume in the bourgeois era. XIX – early XX centuries. The influence of the Industrial Revolution on changes in the costume of Europeans.

5. History of fashion houses of the 19th – 20th centuries.

6. Changes in the external appearance of Europeans in the twentieth century.

Seminar 9.

National traditions and holidays of European peoples

(2 hours)

1. State, religious and folk traditions and holidays of Western European countries: emergence, change, regional and confessional characteristics (England, France, Germany, Spain, Italy).

2. State, religious and folk traditions and holidays of the countries of the East: emergence, change, regional and confessional characteristics (India, China, Japan, etc.).

3. State, religious and folk traditions and holidays of the peoples of America (North American, Meso-American, South American - historical and modern).

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Theater:

Anikst A.A. Theory of drama from Aristotle to Lessing. M.. 1967.

Anikst A.A. Drama theory in the West in the first half of the 19th century: the era of Romanticism. M., 1980.

Anikst A.A. Theory of drama in the West in the second half of the 19th century. M.. 1988.

Brecht B. About the experimental theater. "Small Organon" for the theater. Collection Op. in 5 volumes. M., 1965.

Goldoni K. Memoirs. M., 1933.

Zola E. Naturalism in the theater. Collection Op. in 26 volumes. T. 26. M., 1966.

History of Western European theater. In 8 vols. M., 1956-1988.

Karelsky A.V. Drama of German romanticism. M., 1992.

Coquelin Sr. The art of the actor. L., 1937.

Molodtsova M.M. Commedia dell'arte. History and modern fate. L., 1990.

Obraztsova A.G. Bernard Shaw and European theatrical culture at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. M., 1974.

Theater encyclopedia in 5 volumes. M., 1961-1967.

Reader on the history of Western European theater. In 2 volumes. M.. 1955.

Show B. About drama and theater. M., 1963.

Aesthetic ideas in history foreign theater. Sat. scientific works. L., 1991.

Cinema:

Abramov N. Expressionism in cinema / In collection. "Expressionism". – M., 1966.
Bozhovich V.I. About the “New Wave” in French cinema / Questions of cinema, v.8. – M., 1964.
Bozhovich V. Modern Western film directors. – M.: Nauka, 1972.

Vlasov M. Types and genres of cinema. M., 1976.

Dobrotvorsky S. Cinema by touch. St. Petersburg, 2001.
Jankola J.-P. Cinema of France (1958-1978). The Fifth Republic. – M., 1984.
Silent film stars. – M.: Art, 1968.
History of foreign cinema (1945-2000). – M.: Progress-Tradition.
Kartseva E. Western: the evolution of the genre. – M., 1975.
Cinema of Great Britain/Collection of articles. – M.: Art, 1970. – 358 pp., 32 p. ill.
Cinema of Italy: Neorealism / Trans. from Italian, comp. and comm. G.D. Bohemian. – M.: Art, 1989.
Claire R. Cinema yesterday, cinema today. / Per. from fr. T.V.Ivanova and L.M. Zavyalova; foreword by S.I. Yutkevich. – M.: Progress, 1981.
Kolodyazhnaya I., Trutko I. History of foreign cinema. 1929-1945 – M.: Art, 1970.
Komarov S. History of foreign cinema. Silent movie. – M.: Art, 1965.
Comedians of the world screen / General ed. R. Yureneva. – M., 1966.
Krakauer Z. Psychological history of German cinema: From Caligari to Hitler / Trans. from English – M.: Art, 1977.
Markulan Y. Foreign film detective. – L.: Art, 1975.
Markulan Y. Film melodrama. Horror film. – L.: Art, 1978.

Mitta A. Cinema between hell and heaven: cinema based on Eisenstein, Chekhov, Shakespeare, Kurosawa, Fellini, Hitchcock, Tarkovsky. M., EKSMO-Press, 2002.

Sadoul J. General history of cinema: In 6 volumes. M.. 1959-1980.

Director's Encyclopedia of European Cinema. – M.: Mainland, Research Institute of Cinematography, 2002.

Teplitz E. History of cinema. In 4 vols. M.. 1968-1974.

Everyday life:

Tutorials:

Chikalov R.A., Chikalova I.R. New history of European countries and the USA. 1815-1918 M., 2005.

Fiction:

Balzac O. de. Collected works.

Bronte S. Jane Eyre.

Hardy T. Works.

Goldoni K. Comedies.

Gautier T. Works.

Diderot D. Works.

Dickens Ch. Collected Works.

Dafoe D. The joys and sorrows of the famous Moll Flanders.

Zola E. Collected Works.

Calderon P. Works.

Conan Doyle A. The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes.

La Rochefoucauld S. Aphorisms.

Laclau, C. de. Dangerous ties.

Lesage A.-R. Lame demon. Gilles Blas.

Lope de Vega. Plays.

Mann T. Buddenbrooks. The story of the death of one family.

Moliere J.-B. Plays.

Montesquieu S.-L. Essays.

Maugham S. Theatre. Pies and beer. Essays.

Tirso de Molina. Plays.

Thackeray W. Vanity Fair.

Osten J. Collected Works.

Sand J. Collected Works.

Steel J. de. Essays.

Stendhal. Parma monastery. Red and black. Essays.

Wilde O. Portrait of Drian Gray.

Chamfort. Aphorisms and anecdotes.

Flaubert G. Works.

Elliot D. Works.

And others…

Historiography:

Abrams L. Formation of the European woman of the new era. 1789-1918. M., 2011

Aizenshtat M. British Parliament and Society in the 30-40s. 19th century. M., 1998.

Aries F. Man in the face of death. M., 1992.

Aries F. Child and family life under the old order. Ekaterinburg, 1999

Bazin J. Baroque and Rococo. M., 2001.

Badenter R. Free and equal: the emancipation of the Jews during the French Revolution. 1789-1791. M., 1997.

Bebel A. Woman and socialism. M., 1959.

Blaise A. History in costumes from pharaoh to dandy. M., 2001.

Beauvoir S. The Second Sex. M, 1997.

Bryson V. Political theory of feminism. M., 2001.

Brion M. Everyday life in Vienna in the times of Mozart and Schubert. M., 2004.

Braudel F. What is France? T. 1-2. M., 1994.

Braudel F. Material civilization. M., 1989.

Brun R. History of costume: from antiquity to modern times. M., 1995.

Budur N. History of costume. M., 2002.

Vasilchenko A.V. Fashion and fascism. 1933-1945. M., 2009.

Weber M. Protestant ethics and the spirit of capitalism. M., 2000

Weiss G. History of civilization. Architecture. Armament. Cloth. Utvar M., 1998.

Glagoleva E.V. The daily life of European students from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment. M., 2014.

Grigorieva T.S. Everyday culture. T. 2. Private life and morals from the Middle Ages to the present day. M., 2006.

Gordin Y. A. Duels and duelists. St. Petersburg, 1996.

Gordienko M.P., Smirnov P.M. From a cart to a car. Alma-Ata, 1990.

Gurevich E.L. History of foreign music. M., 2000.

Decroisette F. Everyday life in Venice during the time of Goldoni. M., 2004.

Defurno M. Everyday life in Spain during the golden age. M., 2004.

Dittrich T. Everyday life in Victorian England. M., 2004.

European art XIX century M., 1975.

European monarchs past and present. M., 2001

Yodike Yu. History modern architecture. M., 1972.

Ermilova D.Yu. History of fashion houses. M., 2003.

Woman in society: myths and realities. M., 2001.

Zabludovsky P.E. History of medicine. M., 1953.

Zbrozhek E.V. Victorianism in the context of everyday culture // News of the Ural State University. 2005, No. 35. P. 28.

Zeldin T. All about the French. XX century. M., 1989.

Zider R. Social history of the family in Western and Central Europe. M., 1997.

Zuikova E.M., Eruslanova R.I., Feminology and gender politics. M., 2007

Zyumtor M. Everyday life of the Netherlands under Rembrandt. M., 2003.

Ivanov A.Yu. Daily life of the French under Napoleon. M., 2013.

History of medicine. M., 1981.

History of foreign music. M., 1989.

Karpova E.S. Medicine in the Republic of St. Mark in the 18th century. Based on materials from the Venetian press // New and recent history. 2003. No. 1. P.210.

Kelly K. The Royal Family of England. T.1-2. M., 1999.

Kertman L.I. History of culture of European and American countries. 1870-1917. M., 1987.

Combo I. History of Paris. M., 2002.

Komissarzhevsky V.P. History of the costume. M., 1997.

Coty E. Women of Victorian England. M., 2013

Coty E. Bad old England. M., 2012.

Kuzmin M.K. History of medicine. M., 1978.

Clout H. History of London. M., 2002.

Koroleva T.V. Women's movement during the Great French Revolution. //Metamorphoses of history. Pskov, 1999.

Cawthorne N. Intimate life English Kings and Queens: a frank and hard-hitting account of the facts and lives of monarchs from Henry VIII to the present day. M., 1999.

Craig G. The Germans. M., 1999.

Crespel J.-P. Everyday life of Montmartre during the time of Picasso. 1900-1910. M., 2000.

Crespel J. - P. Daily life of Montparnasse in great era. 1905 – 1930. M., 2000.

Labutina T.L. The upbringing and education of an Englishwoman in the 17th century. M., 2003.

Levik B.V. Musical literature foreign countries. M., 1990.

Lenotre J. Everyday life of Versailles under the kings. M., 2003.

Le Nôtre J. Everyday life in Paris during the Great Revolution. M.. 2012.

Lieven D. Aristocracy in Europe 1815-1914. St. Petersburg, 2000.

Lyubart M.G. Family in French society of the 18th - early 20th centuries. M., 2005

Martin - Fugier A. Elegant life, or How “all Paris” came into being. 1815-1848. M., 1998.

Matveev V.A. Passion of power, power of passion: a historical narrative about the morals of the royal court of England in the 16th-20th centuries. M., 1997.

World Art. M., 2001.

Mitford N. Court life in the era of absolutism. Smolensk, 2003.

Michel D. Vatel and the birth of gastronomy. M., 2002.

Monter W. Ritual, myth and magic in early modern Europe. M., 2003.

Montanari M. Hunger and abundance. History of food in Europe. M., 2009.

Nunn J. History of Costume. 1200-2000. M., 2003.

Nobility in the history of Old Europe. St. Petersburg, 2009.

Nosik B.M. Walks around Paris, or French Treasure Island. M., 2003.

Ogger G. Tycoons. M., 1991.

Olivova V. People and games: at the origins of modern sports. M., 1984.

Pavlov N.V. History of modern Germany. M., 2003.

Paquet D. History of beauty. M., 2003

Parkhomenko I.T. , Radugin A.A. History of world and domestic culture. M., 2002.

Pavlovskaya A.V. England and the British. M., 2004.

Plaksina E.B., Mikhailovskaya L.A. History of the costume. Styles and directions. M., 2004.

Picard. L. Victorian London. M., 2007.

Poltoratskaya N.I. The great adventure of a well-bred girl: books of memoirs by Simone de Beauvoir. St. Petersburg, 1992.

Popov N.V. Dynastic marriages and “marriage diplomacy” in Western Europe XVII- XVIII centuries //New and recent history. 1998. No. 6; 2000. No. 2,3; 2001. No. 6.

Religion and culture. St. Petersburg, 2000.

Repina P.P. Women and men in history. A new picture of the European past. M., 2002.

Sobolev D.A. History of aircraft: the initial period. M., 1995.

Sobolev D.A. The birth of the aircraft: first projects and designs. M., 1998.

Sorokin P. Social and cultural dynamics.

Stolbov V.V. History of physical culture. M., 1989.

Trevelyan J.M. Social history of England. A survey of six centuries from Chaucer to Queen Victoria. M., 1959.

Tressider J. Dictionary of symbols. M., 2001.

Trunsky Yu.G. French village of the 19th-20th centuries. M., 1986.

Wilson K. Tea with Jane Austen. M.. 2013.

Waller M. London. 1700. Smolensk, 2003.

Urlanis B.Ts. History of military losses. Wars and population of Europe 17-20 centuries. St. Petersburg, 1994.

Uspenskaya V.I. Women's salons in Europe in the 17th – 18th centuries. //Women. Story. Society. M., 2003. P. 171.

Fedorova E.V. Paris. Centuries and people from the foundation of the city to the Eiffel Tower. M., 2000.

Feminism: East. West. Russia. M., 1993.

“Philosophy and Life”, No. 1, 4, 11. 1991.

Fuchs E. Illustrated history of morals. Renaissance era. M., 1993.

Fuchs E. Illustrated history of morals. Gallant century. M., 1994.

Fuchs E. Illustrated history of morals. Bourgeois age. M., 1994.

Foucault M. History of madness in the classical era. St. Petersburg, 1997.

Hobsbawm E. Century of Revolutions. 1789-1848. Rostov-on-Don, 1999.

Hobsbawm E. The Age of Capital. 1848-1875. Rostov-on-Don, 1999.

Hobsbawm E. Century of Empire. 1875-1914. Rostov-on-Don, 1999.

Harold R. Costumes of the peoples of the world. M., 2002.

Show B. About music. M., 2000.

Chernov S. Baker Street and surrounding areas. M., 2013.

Chkhartishvili G. Cemetery stories. M., 2004.

Scherr I. Germany: History of civilization for 2000 years. Minsk, 2005.

Schiffer B. Women of Vienna in European culture (1750-1950). St. Petersburg, 1996.

Shonu P. Civilization of classical Europe. M., 2005.

Shonu P. Civilization of Enlightenment. M., 2008.

Elias N. Court society. Studies on the sociology of the king and the court aristocracy. M., 2002

Yanson H.V. Fundamentals of Art History. St. Petersburg, 1996.

Encyclopedias:

Encyclopedia of rituals and customs. St. Petersburg, 1997.

Encyclopedia card games. M., 1995.

Encyclopedia of death. M., 1993.