Symbols of geographical maps. Symbols on the map

Scale, or contour, conditional topographic signs applied to image local items, which in their size can be expressed on a map scale, that is, their dimensions (length, width, area) can be measured on the map. For example: lake, meadow, large gardens, residential areas. The contours (external boundaries) of such local objects are depicted on the map with solid lines or dotted lines, forming figures similar to these local objects, but only in a reduced form, that is, on the scale of the map. Solid lines show the contours of neighborhoods, lakes, wide rivers, and the contours of forests, meadows, swamps are dotted.

Figure 31.

Constructions and buildings expressed on the scale of the map are depicted with figures similar to their actual outlines on the ground and are painted over in black. Figure 31 shows several on-scale (a) and out-of-scale (b) symbols.

Off-scale symbols

Explanatory topographic signs serve for additional characterization of local objects and are used in combination with large-scale and non-scale signs. For example, a figurine of coniferous or deciduous tree inside the outline of the forest shows the dominant tree species in it, an arrow on the river indicates the direction of its flow, etc.

In addition to signs, maps use full and abbreviated signatures, as well as digital characteristics of some objects. For example, the signature “mash.” with a plant sign means that this plant is a machine-building plant. The names of settlements, rivers, mountains, etc. are fully signed.

Digital symbols are used to indicate the number of houses in rural settlements, the height of the terrain above sea level, the width of the road, the characteristics of the load capacity and the size of the bridge, as well as the size of trees in the forest, etc. Digital symbols related to conventional relief signs are printed brown, the width and depth of rivers are in blue, everything else is in black.

Let us briefly consider the main types of topographic symbols for depicting the area on the map.

Let's start with the relief. Due to the fact that the observation conditions, the cross-country ability of the area and its protective properties, the terrain and its elements are depicted on all topographic maps oh very detailed. Otherwise, we could not use the map to study and evaluate the area.

In order to clearly and completely imagine the area on the map, you must first of all be able to quickly and correctly determine on the map:

Types of unevenness of the earth's surface and their relative location;

Mutual elevation and absolute heights of any terrain points;

The shape, steepness and length of the slopes.

On modern topographic maps, the relief is depicted by horizontal lines, that is, curved closed lines, the points of which are located on the ground at the same height above sea level. To better understand the essence of depicting relief with horizontal lines, let’s imagine an island in the form of a mountain, gradually flooded with water. Let us assume that the water level sequentially stops at equal intervals, equal in height to h meters (Fig. 32).

Then each water level will have its own coastline in the form of a closed curved line, all points of which have the same height. These lines can also be considered as traces of the section of uneven terrain by planes parallel to the level surface of the sea, from which heights are calculated. Based on this, the height distance h between the secant surfaces is called the section height.

Figure 32.

So, if all lines of equal heights are projected onto the level surface of the sea and depicted to scale, then we will receive an image of the mountain on the map in the form of a system of curved closed lines. These will be the horizontal lines.

In order to find out whether it is a mountain or a basin, there are slope indicators - small lines that are drawn perpendicular to the horizontal lines in the direction of the descent of the slope.

Figure 33.

The main (typical) landforms are presented in Figure 32.

The height of the section depends on the scale of the map and the nature of the relief. The normal height of the section is considered to be a height equal to 0.02 of the map scale, that is, 5 m for a map of scale 1:25,000 and, accordingly, 10, 20 m for maps of scales 1: 50,000, 1: 100,000. Contour lines on the map corresponding to those established for below the height of the section, are drawn in solid lines and are called main or solid horizontal lines. But it happens that at a given section height, important details of the relief are not expressed on the map, since they are located between the cutting planes.

Then half semi-horizontal lines are used, which are drawn through half the main height of the section and are plotted on the map with broken lines. To determine the count of contours when determining the height of points on the map, all solid contours corresponding to five times the height of the section are drawn thickly (thickened contours). So, for a map of scale 1: 25,000, each horizontal line corresponding to the section height of 25, 50, 75, 100 m, etc. will be drawn as a thick line on the map. The main section height is always indicated below the south side of the map frame.

The heights of elevations in the area depicted on our maps are calculated from the level Baltic Sea. The heights of points on the earth's surface above sea level are called absolute, and the elevation of one point over another is called relative elevation. Contour marks - digital inscriptions on them - indicate the height of these terrain points above sea level. The top of these numbers always faces the upward slope.

Figure 34.

Markings of command heights, from which the terrain can be viewed better than from others from the most important objects on the map (large settlements, road junctions, passes, mountain passes, etc.), are marked in large numbers.

Using contour lines you can determine the steepness of slopes. If you look closely at Figure 33, you can see from it that the distance between two adjacent contour lines on the map, called the lay (at a constant section height), changes depending on the steepness of the slope. The steeper the slope, the smaller the overlay and, conversely, the lower the slope, the greater the overlay. The conclusion follows from this: steep slopes on the map will differ in the density (frequency) of contours, and in flat places the contours will be less frequent.

Usually, to determine the steepness of the slopes, a drawing is placed in the margins of the map - depth scale(Fig. 35). Along the lower base of this scale are numbers that indicate the steepness of the slopes in degrees. The corresponding values ​​of the deposits on the map scale are plotted on perpendiculars to the base. On the left side, the depth scale is built for the main section height, on the right - at five times the section height. To determine the steepness of the slope, for example, between points a-b(Fig. 35), you need to take this distance with a compass and put it on the position scale and read the steepness of the slope - 3.5°. If it is necessary to determine the steepness of the slope between the thickened horizontal lines, then this distance must be set aside on the right scale and the steepness of the slope in in this case will be equal to 10°.

Figure 35.

Knowing the properties of contour lines, you can determine the shape from the map various types stingrays (Fig. 34). For a flat slope, the depths will be approximately the same throughout its entire length; for a concave slope, they increase from the top to the bottom; and for a convex slope, on the contrary, the formations decrease towards the bottom. In wavy slopes, the positions change according to the alternation of the first three forms.

When depicting relief on maps, not all of its elements can be expressed as contour lines. So, for example, slopes with a steepness of more than 40° cannot be expressed as horizontals, since the distance between them will be so small that they will all merge. Therefore, slopes that have a steepness of more than 40° and are steep are indicated by horizontal lines with dashes (Fig. 36). Moreover, natural cliffs, ravines, gullies are indicated in brown, and artificial embankments, recesses, mounds and pits are indicated in black.

Figure 36.

Let's consider the basic conventional topographical signs for local objects. Settlements are depicted on the map while maintaining external boundaries and layout (Fig. 37). All streets, squares, gardens, rivers and canals are shown, industrial enterprises, outstanding buildings and structures of landmark significance. For better clarity, fire-resistant buildings (stone, concrete, brick) are painted over orange, and blocks with non-fire-resistant buildings - yellow. The names of settlements on maps are written strictly from west to east. The type of administrative significance of a settlement is determined by the type and size of the font (Fig. 37). Under the signature of the name of the village you can find a number indicating the number of houses in it, and if there is a district or village council in the settlement, the letters “RS” and “SS” are additionally placed.

Figure 37 - 1.

Figure 37 - 2.

No matter how poor the area is in local objects or, on the contrary, saturated, there are always individual objects on it that, by their size, stand out from the rest and are easily identified on the ground. Many of them can be used as guides. This should include: factory chimneys and prominent buildings, tower-type buildings, wind turbines, monuments, gas pumps, signs, kilometer posts, free-standing trees, etc. (Fig. 37). Most of them, due to their size, cannot be shown on the scale of the map, so they are depicted on it as out-of-scale signs.

The road network and crossings (Fig. 38, 1) are also depicted with out-of-scale symbols. Data on the width of the carriageway, road surface, indicated on the conventional signs, make it possible to evaluate their throughput, load capacity, etc. Depending on the number of tracks, railways are indicated by dashes across the conventional road sign: three dashes - three-track, two dashes - double-track Railway. Stations, embankments, excavations, bridges and other structures are shown on railways. For bridges longer than 10 m, its characteristics are signed.

Figure 38 - 1.

Figure 38 - 2.

Figure 39.

For example, the signature on the bridge ~ means that the length of the bridge is 25 m, the width is 6 m, and the load capacity is 5 tons.

Hydrography and structures associated with it (Fig. 38, 2), depending on the scale, are shown in greater or less detail. The width and depth of the river is written as a fraction 120/4.8, which means:

The river is 120 m wide and 4.8 m deep. The speed of the river flow is shown in the middle of the symbol with an arrow and a number (the number indicates the speed of 0.1 meters per second, and the arrow indicates the direction of the flow). On rivers and lakes, the height of the water level during low water (water line mark) in relation to sea level is also indicated. For fords it is signed: in the numerator - the depth of the ford in meters, and in the denominator - the quality of the soil (T - hard, P - sandy, V - viscous, K - rocky). For example, br. 1.2/k means that the ford is 1.2 m deep and the bottom is rocky.

Soil and vegetation cover (Fig. 39) is usually depicted on maps with large-scale symbols. These include forests, shrubs, gardens, parks, meadows, swamps, salt marshes, as well as sand, rocky surfaces, and pebbles. Its characteristics are indicated in the forests. For example, for a mixed forest (spruce with birch) the numbers are 20/\0.25 - this means that the average height of the trees in the forest is 20 m, their average thickness is 0.25 m, and the average distance between tree trunks is 5 meters.

Figure 40.

Swamps are depicted depending on their passability on the map: passable, difficult to pass, impassable (Fig. 40). Passable swamps have a depth (to solid ground) of no more than 0.3-0.4 m, which is not shown on maps. The depth of impassable and impassable swamps is written next to the vertical arrow indicating the location of the measurement. On the maps, the corresponding symbols show the cover of the swamps (grass, moss, reed), as well as the presence of forests and shrubs on them.

Lumpy sands differ from smooth sands and are indicated on the map with a special symbol. In the southern steppe and semi-steppe regions there are areas with soil richly saturated with salt, which are called salt marshes. They are wet and dry, some are impassable and others are passable. On maps they are indicated by conventional symbols - “shading” of blue color. An image of salt marshes, sands, swamps, soil and vegetation cover is shown in Figure 40.

Off-scale symbols of local objects

Answer: Off-scale symbols are used to depict small local objects that cannot be expressed on a map scale - free-standing trees, houses, wells, monuments, etc. When depicting them on a map scale, they would appear in the form of a point. Examples of depicting local objects with out-of-scale symbols are shown in Figure 31. The exact location of these objects, depicted with out-of-scale symbols (b), is determined by the center of the symmetrical figure (7, 8, 9, 14, 15), in the middle of the base of the figure (10, 11) , at the top of the corner of the figure (12, 13). Such a point on the figure of an off-scale symbol is called main point. In this figure, the arrow shows the main points of symbols on the map.

It is useful to remember this information in order to correctly measure the distance between local objects on the map.

(This question is discussed in detail in question No. 23)

Explanatory and conventional signs of local objects

Answer: Types of topographical symbols

The terrain on maps and plans is depicted by topographical symbols. All conventional signs of local objects, according to their properties and purpose, can be divided into the following three groups: contour, scale, explanatory.

10.08.2017

All surveyors know that during the construction of a topographic survey, symbols are needed on the topographic survey of utilities and objects.

All components of the terrain situation, existing buildings, utilities, and certain relief forms are displayed on a topographic survey and on a geological basis using special symbols. In accordance with GOST, they are divided into 4 main types:

Linear means power lines, routes, product pipelines (oil, gas), telecommunication lines, and so on). Their width is out of scale.

Explanatory captions further identify the objects that are depicted.

So, at a river the speed of the flow is indicated, as well as its direction, at a bridge its length, width and load capacity are indicated, and at highways - the surface features and width of the roadway, and so on.

Area signs (they are also called contour signs) display those objects that can be depicted according to the scale of the map - they occupy a specific area. Such signs are outlined with a solid thin line, intermittently or as a dotted line. The created contour is filled with symbols (vegetation in the meadow, trees, vegetable garden, garden, bushes, and so on).

Off-scale signs depict those objects that cannot be expressed on the map scale. In this case, the location of such an out-of-scale object is determined by its specific point. In particular, radio centers, television towers, factory chimneys.

Topoplans differ in their scales by 1: 500, 1: 1000, 1: 2000 and 1: 5000. Based on the parameters of the object on the ground, an extensive range of designations is used, regulated by the Russian government - it must be followed by all departments and organizations.

On topographic surveys, depicted objects are usually divided into 8 main segments (groups):

mathematical basis;

• hydrography;

  vegetation and soils;

  manufacturing enterprises;

  road network;

  signatures and borders;

  settlements.

Collections, which indicate the designation on topographic surveys of different scales, are created in accordance with a similar division into objects. They are approved by the relevant government departments and are considered the same for everyone topographic plan, they must be drawn on any topographic surveys and geodetic maps.

It is important to take into account that symbols may differ on plans of different scales, therefore, in order to correctly read a topographic plan, it is necessary to use symbols for a specific scale.

Various symbols on a topographic survey come to the aid of “reading” the area and new projects are created based on this information. From simple geographical maps differs in that it is more universal: it indicates objective relief specifics (topographic maps), plant composition (natural maps), production facilities, engineering lines and locations of stations. The symbols for topographic survey of a microdistrict are partially similar to the general plan of the city.

Letter symbols on topographic surveys often give schematic representations a different meaning. In particular, a simple rectangle will depict simply non-scale residential buildings - only in a set with explanations in the form of letters does the map receive new meaning. Thus, the image on a topographical survey of a TP inside the specified rectangle will mean that the building acts as a transformer electrical substation.

Designation of some symbols

Experts identify the following symbols, which can most often be seen on topographic surveys:

1 - places of concentration and places of the state geodetic network

2 - limits of land use, as well as allotments along with boundary signs at the points where they turn.

3 - buildings. Using numbers, experts indicate the number of storeys of a building. Explanatory captions indicate the fire resistance of the building

g - non-fire-resistant residential (built from wood);

n - non-residential non-fire resistant;

Kn - non-residential, made of stone;

Kzh - residential, as a rule, built of brick;

smn and smzh - mixed non-residential and mixed residential - wooden buildings with thin brick cladding or with floors that are built from various building materials (for example, the 1st floor can be built from brick, the 2nd - from wood).

The designation of buildings on a topographic survey that are just being erected is carried out using a dotted line.

4 - slopes are used to display ravines, road embankments and other natural and artificial relief forms where the heights change sharply.

5 - poles of communication lines and power lines. Such designations reproduce the pillar configuration of the section. Made in the shape of a square or circle. Pole signs that are made of reinforced concrete have a dot in the center. When one arrow is pointed in the direction of electrical wires, then this is a low-voltage pole, two - a high-voltage pole (6 kV or more)

6 - symbols of utility networks on a topographic survey are carried out in relation to communications that are located both underground and above it. Symbols on topographic surveys of utilities located underground are made using a dotted line, and above the ground - a solid line. Letters indicate types of communications. K is a sewerage system, the designation KL on the topographic survey is a storm sewer, G is the designation of a gas pipeline on a topographic survey, N is an oil pipeline, T is a thermal route, V is a water supply system. At the same time, certain explanations are additionally established. So, if a cable is designated on a topographic survey, then the number of wires, the pressure present in the gas pipeline, the material from which the pipes are made, their thickness, and so on are indicated.

The design of power supply and communication cables is carried out as follows:

7 - traditionally denotes cable

8 - network that is being designed

9 - working line

Most citizens do not encounter topographic surveys. As a rule, reading, deciphering and drawing up such maps is the responsibility of builders and cartographers, with the most in demand being engineering lines. Conventionally designating engineering communications on a topographic survey is an indispensable condition their objectivity.

It is necessary to indicate conventionally on a topographical survey of utility networks linear method- dashed or solid straight lines:

the designation of all operating pipelines and networks located above the ground is carried out using a straight solid line with a thickness of 0.3 millimeters;

the designation of all design, partially faulty or non-functional communications located above the ground is carried out by a dotted line with a thickness of 0.2 millimeters;

the designation of all communications located underground is done with a dotted line.

As a rule, all signs are applied in black. However, for greater clarity, it is possible to render lines in a different color. Generally established designations are:

water supply - green;

sewers - brown in color;

gas pipeline - in blue;

heating networks - in blue.

Often in practice, there are discrepancies between how to designate on a topographic survey and a general plan - the colors of utility networks can be depicted by lines of different colors. In particular, communication cables on topographic surveys according to cartography rules are indicated in black, and in master plans it can be depicted in yellow, red or other convenient visual perception color.

In general, topographic surveys require special skills in order to be compiled and interpreted. But unification symbols makes it easier to work with cards.

On topoplans, the contours of buildings must be depicted according to their original outlines in nature (in the form of a rectangle, oval, etc.). This is the main requirement for all buildings that are expressed to scale, and if possible for those that can be represented exclusively by non-scale signs.

It is necessary to display with utmost detail buildings that overlook the red line of blocks, high-rise buildings and buildings considered places of interest.

The presence of towers or towers at the top of the structure, which serve as landmarks, should be depicted on the topoplan by drawing their symbols into the image of the building at a certain place (signs No. 24, 25), and if the objects are of sufficient size, then contours should be highlighted using explanatory notes.

Prominent buildings should be displayed on topographic plans along with inscriptions of the eminent type. 60 (where the number indicates the height of the building, which is inscribed when the height of the building is fifty meters or more). This is necessary in order to ensure further mapping on smaller scales.

The number of storeys of buildings is displayed on topographic plans of all scales with a specific number, starting from 2 floors. When calculating the number of floors, there is no need to take into account small attics on the roofs of high-rise buildings and semi-basements, regardless of the nature of their use.

Buildings with columns instead of the entire 1st floor or its
parts (and at the same time those that start directly from the ground) must be highlighted on topoplans of scale sizes 1: 2000 - 1: 500. If this is graphically possible, then each column is depicted; if selection is necessary, those located along the edges in their own place, and others - after three to four millimeters. On topoplans of scale 1:5000, buildings with columns are shown as ordinary ones.

The symbol for buildings under construction is used when their foundations have been laid and walls are being erected. When a building is built up to the roof, its outline is depicted as a solid line, rather than a dashed line, and is accompanied on topoplans of scales 1: 2000 - 1:500 with indicators of the purpose, fire resistance and number of storeys of the building. The explanatory note on the page is retained at this stage. Construction is considered completed only after the building is put into operation.

When depicting buildings that are close together, all residential buildings are demarcated using contour lines. It is necessary to graphically distinguish between residential buildings and non-residential buildings that are adjacent to them, and at the same time fire-resistant buildings from non-fire-resistant ones.

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Plans and topographic maps have a unified system of symbols. This system is based on the following provisions:

• each graphic sign always corresponds certain type object or phenomenon;
• each symbol has its own clear pattern;
• on and on plans that have different but similar scales, the symbols of the same objects differ, as a rule, only in size;
• in the drawings of conventional signs, techniques and means are used to ensure the reproduction of the profile or appearance corresponding objects on the earth's surface, contributing to the establishment of an associative connection between the sign and the object. Usually there are 10 ways to form compositions of characters.

1. Icon method.

It is used to indicate the location of objects not expressed in (icons separately standing trees, buildings, deposits, settlements, tourist sites). In their form they can be geometric, alphabetic, or pictorial. In any case, these signs indicate the location of a given object, the relative position of various objects.

2.Method of linear signs.

It is used to convey objects and phenomena of linear extent that are not expressed in their width at the scale of the map. In this way, rivers, borders, and communication routes are shown on topographic maps or plans.

3. Isoline method(from the Greek “izos” - equal, identical).

This method is intended to characterize phenomena of continuous distribution on Earth that have a numerical expression - , etc. In this case, isolines are curves connecting points with the same quantitative value. Depending on what phenomenon they characterize, isolines will be called differently:

• - lines connecting points with the same temperature;
• isohists- lines connecting points with the same amount of precipitation;
• isobars- lines connecting points with the same pressure;
• isohypses- lines connecting points of the same height;
• isotachs- lines connecting points with the same speed.

4. Quality background method.

It is used to identify qualitatively homogeneous areas of the earth's surface according to natural, socio-economic, political and administrative characteristics. In this way, for example, states are shown on or areas on maps administrative division areas, age on tectonic maps, types of vegetation on soil maps or on maps of the distribution of flora.

5.Diagram method.

It is used to display any quantitative characteristics of continuous phenomena at specific points, for example, the annual variation of temperature, the amount of precipitation by month or by meteorological stations.

6. Spot method.

It is used to show mass phenomena dispersed throughout the territory. For example, this method shows the distribution of the population, sown or irrigated areas, livestock numbers, etc.

7. Method of habitats.

It is used to display the area of ​​distribution of a phenomenon (not continuous across the field), for example, plants, animals. The graphic design of the boundary and area of ​​the habitat contour can be very diverse, which makes it possible to characterize the phenomenon in many ways.

8. Traffic sign method.

It is designed to show various spatial movements (bird flights, travel routes, and others). Arrows and stripes are used as graphic traffic signs. Using them, you can show the path, method, direction and speed of movement of a phenomenon, as well as some other characteristics. On plans and topographic maps, this method also shows the direction of the current.

9. Mapping method.

It is usually used to show in the form of diagrams the quantitative characteristics of phenomena within individual territorial units. The method is widely used in the analysis and processing of statistical and economic indicators, such as production volume, structure, wood supply and others.

10. Cartogram method are used, as a rule, to compare the relative indicators of a phenomenon that characterize a territory as a whole. In this way, for example, they show the average population density per 1 km2 according to administrative units, middle areas, etc. This method, like the method of map diagrams, is widely used in the analysis of statistical indicators.

The very methods of depicting conventional signs contain information about what objects and phenomena they can be used for, what their possible and best combinations are when expressing one or another content of the cards. Some conventional signs cannot be combined on one map at all: for example, the point method cannot be combined on a map with the method of icons and cartograms. Icon methods work well with a cartogram. This is very important to know when using symbols.

Before creating a map of any scale, there is a selection of phenomena or objects that need to be displayed on it in the form of symbols.

Having studied the symbols well, you can then work with any topographic maps or plans. The rules for using these signs form important sections of the grammar of the language of the map or plan.

Conventional signs There are contour, linear and non-scale.

• Contour(area) signs lakes are shown, for example;
• Linear signs - rivers, roads, canals.
• Off-scale signs For example, wells and springs are marked on plans, and settlements, volcanoes, and waterfalls are marked on geographic maps.

Rice. 1. Examples of off-scale, linear and areal symbols

Rice. Basic symbols

Rice. Conventional signs of the area

Isolines

There is a separate category of symbols - isolines, i.e. lines connecting points with the same values depicted phenomena (Fig. 2). Lines of equal atmospheric pressure are called isobars, lines of equal air temperature - isotherms, lines of equal heights of the earth's surface - isohypses or horizontals.

Rice. 2. Examples of isolines

Mapping methods

To depict geographical phenomena on maps, various ways .By way of habitats show areas of distribution of natural or social phenomena, such as animals, plants, some minerals. Traffic signs used to show sea currents, winds, and traffic flows. High-quality background show, for example, states on political map, A quantitative background - division of a territory according to any quantitative indicator (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Cartographic methods: a - method of areas; b - traffic signs; c - method of high-quality background; d - quantitative background - dotted signs

For display average size phenomena in any territory, it is most advisable to use the principle of equal intervals. One way to get the interval is to divide the difference between the largest and smallest indicator by five. For example, if the largest indicator is 100, the smallest is 25, the difference between them is 75, its 1/5 is -15, then the intervals will be: 25-40, 40-55, 55-70, 70-85 and 85-100 . When these intervals are shown on a map, a lighter background or sparse shading depicts less intensity of the phenomenon, more dark colors and thick shading - large. This method of cartographic representation is called cartogram(Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Examples of cartograms and map diagrams

To the method map diagrams resorted to show the total magnitude of a phenomenon in any territory, for example, electricity production, number of school students, reserves fresh water, degree of plowing of the land, etc. Map diagram called a simplified map that does not have a degree network.

Relief depiction on plans and maps

On maps and plans, the relief is shown using contour lines and elevation marks.

Horizontals, as you already know, these are lines on a plan or map connecting points on the earth’s surface that have the same height above the ocean level (absolute height) or above the level taken as a reference point (relative height).

Rice. 5. Image of the relief with horizontal lines

In order to depict a hill on a plan, you need to define it relative height, which shows how vertically one point on the earth’s surface is higher than another (Fig. 7).

Rice. 6. Image of a hill on a plane

Rice. 7. Determination of relative height

The relative height can be determined using a level. Level(from fr. niveau- level, level) - a device for determining the difference in height between several points. The device, usually mounted on a tripod, is equipped with a telescope adapted for rotation in a horizontal plane and a sensitive level.

Conduct hill leveling - this means taking measurements of its western, southern, eastern and northern slopes from the bottom to the top using a level and driving in pegs in the places where the level was installed (Fig. 8). Thus, four pegs will be driven in at the bottom of the hill, four at a height of 1 m from the ground if the height of the level is 1 m, etc. The last peg is driven in at the top of the hill. After this, the position of all the pegs is plotted on the area plan and a smooth line connects first all points that have a relative height of 1 m, then 2 m, etc.

Rice. 8. Leveling a hill

Please note: if the slope is steep, the horizontal lines on the plan will be located close to each other, but if it is gentle, they will be far from each other.

Small lines drawn perpendicular to the horizontal lines are berg strokes. They show in which direction the slope goes down.

Horizontal lines on the plans depict not only hills, but also depressions. In this case, the berg strokes are turned to inner side(Fig. 9).

Rice. 9. Image with horizontal lines various forms relief

Steep slopes of cliffs or ravines are indicated on maps by small teeth.

The height of a point above mean ocean level is called absolute height. In Russia, all absolute heights are calculated from the level of the Baltic Sea. Thus, the territory of St. Petersburg is located above the water level in the Baltic Sea by an average of 3 m, the territory of Moscow - by 120 m, and the city of Astrakhan is below this level by 26 m. Elevation marks on geographical maps indicate the absolute height of the points.

On a physical map, the relief is depicted using layer-by-layer coloring, that is, with colors of different intensities. For example, areas with a height from 0 to 200 m are painted in green color. At the bottom of the map there is a table from which you can see which color corresponds to which height. This table is called height scale.

Declassified topographic maps of the General Staff of the USSR are freely circulating on the Internet. We all love to download them, look at them, and often print them on sheets of paper for further use for their intended purpose - i.e. go hiking with them.

Topographic maps of the General Staff are the most accurate and best. Any other purchased cards printed in modern times, will not carry as much accuracy and specificity. The symbols and symbols on the topographic maps of the General Staff are much more complex than any other symbols on maps purchased in the store. We all remember them from geography lessons at school.

As an experienced user of such maps, I would like to describe at the beginning of this article the most important, in my opinion, designations. If the rest are more or less understandable, since they are almost all identical to other types of cards (not the General Staff), then these are something new and still incomprehensible. Actually, I will start with the symbols of rivers, fords, forests and roads.

Rivers and water resources

Speed ​​and direction of river flow (0.6 m/s)
Characteristics of rivers and canals: 30 - Width (m), 0,8 - Depth (m), TO- Soil type ( TO - rocky, P - sand, T - solid, IN - viscous)
Water line mark, shore height above sea level (393m)
Brody: 0,3 - depth, 10 - length, TO- rocky soil, 1,0 - speed (m/sec)
The swamp is passable
The swamp is impassable
Characteristics of bridges: D- construction material ( D - wood, TO - stone, reinforced concrete - reinforced concrete), 43 - length of the bridge, 4 - width of the roadway (m), 10 - load capacity in tons

Forest clearing and width in meters (2m)
Field and forest roads
Winter road, active road only in winter time year, in cold period. Can go through swamps.
Dirt road, 6 - width of the roadway in meters
Gat - a road with a wooden surface, a flooring made of logs, 3 - width of the roadway
Go away
Railway track
Gas pipeline
Power lines (PTL)
Dismantled railway
Single track railway, narrow gauge. Also railway bridge
Highway: 6 —width of the covered part, 8 — the width of the entire road from ditch to ditch in meters; SCH- coating material ( B - cobblestone, G - gravel, TO - crushed stone, Shl - slag, SCH - crushed stone)

Relief

Steep river banks, rocky outcrops, Parma
Relief contours with relative height designation (260 m)
Mountainous area without vegetation cover, covered with kurum stones and rock outcrops
Mountainous area with vegetation cover and sparse trees, the forest border is visible
Outlier rocks with a height in meters
Glaciers
Rocks and rocky cliffs
Elevation mark (479.2 m)
Steppe region. Near the edge of the forest
Sands, deserts

Photos of some geographical objects

The main winter road laid through the taiga forest. In summer there are thickets here (Yakutia)

Forest dirt road (Ivdel district, Northern Urals)

Gat - road with wooden covering (Lobnensky forest park, Moscow region)

Rock outcrop, Parma (Stone "Giant", Middle Urals)

Remnant rocks (Old Stone rock, Middle Urals)

It should be understood that all available topographic maps of the USSR General Staff have long been outdated. The information contained on them can date back to the 70-80s of the last century. If you are interested in the details of walking along certain trails, roads, the presence of settlements and geographical objects, then you should check in advance the reliability of the information from other sources. There may no longer be any paths or roads at all. Small settlements can be abandoned and look like wastelands, often already overgrown with young growth.

But, in any case, the maps of the General Staff still provide more accurate information, and using them you can more productively calculate your route and distance. In this article, I did not bother your heads with unnecessary symbols and symbols of topographic maps. I have posted only the most important and significant for the mountain-taiga and steppe region. Those interested in details can take a look.

Maps of the USSR General Staff were made using Soviet system layouts and nomenclatures of topographic maps. This system is still used in Russian Federation and in some former Soviet republics. There are newer maps, the state of the terrain on which is approximately 60-80s of the last century, and older maps, the so-called General Staff of the Red Army, made by geodetic reconnaissance of the pre-war period. “The maps are compiled in a conformal transverse cylindrical Gauss-Kruger projection, calculated using the parameters of the Krasovsky ellipsoid for a six-degree zone,” - and if you don’t understand, it doesn’t matter! The main thing is to remember (or write down, save this article) the points that I cited above. Knowing them, you can skillfully use maps and plan your route without using GPS.