Yu.M. Lotman. Life and traditions of the Russian nobility. Ball. Yu. M. Lotman Conversations about Russian culture. Life and traditions of the Russian nobility (XVIII-beginning of the XIX century)

Are you here: Warmers for clothes

Yu. M. Lotman

CONVERSATIONS ABOUT RUSSIAN CULTURE

Life and traditions of the Russian nobility (XVIII - early XIX century)

In blessed memory of my parents Alexandra Samoilovna and Mikhail Lvovich Lotmanov

The publication was published with the assistance of the Federal Target Program for Book Publishing in Russia and the International Foundation "Cultural Initiative".

“Conversations about Russian Culture” was written by the brilliant researcher of Russian culture Yu. M. Lotman. At one time, the author responded with interest to the proposal of "Art - St. Petersburg" to prepare a publication based on a series of lectures with which he appeared on television. The work was carried out by him with great responsibility - the composition was specified, the chapters were expanded, new versions of them appeared. The author signed the book into a set, but did not see it published - on October 28, 1993, Yu. M. Lotman died. His living word, addressed to an audience of millions, has been preserved in this book. It immerses the reader into the world of everyday life of the Russian nobility of the 18th - early 19th centuries. We see people of a distant era in the nursery and in the ballroom, on the battlefield and at the card table, we can examine in detail the hairstyle, the cut of the dress, the gesture, the demeanor. At the same time, everyday life for the author is a historical-psychological category, a sign system, that is, a kind of text. He teaches to read and understand this text, where everyday and existential are inseparable.

The “Collection of Motley Chapters”, whose heroes are prominent historical figures, royal persons, ordinary people of the era, poets, literary characters, is linked together by the thought of the continuity of the cultural and historical process, the intellectual and spiritual connection of generations.

In a special issue of the Tartu “Russkaya Gazeta” dedicated to the death of Yu. Not titles, orders or royal favor, but the “independence of a person” turns him into a historical figure.

The publishing house would like to thank the State Hermitage Museum and the State Russian Museum for providing free of charge the engravings kept in their collections for reproduction in this publication.

INTRODUCTION:

Life and culture

Having devoted conversations to Russian life and culture of the 18th - early 19th centuries, we must first of all determine the meaning of the concepts "life", "culture", "Russian culture XVIII- the beginning of the XIX century "and their relationship with each other. At the same time, we will make a reservation that the concept of “culture”, which belongs to the most fundamental in the cycle of human sciences, can itself become the subject of a separate monograph and has repeatedly become one. It would be strange if in this book we set ourselves the goal of resolving controversial issues related to this concept. It is very capacious: it includes morality, and the whole range of ideas, and human creativity, and much more. It will be quite enough for us to confine ourselves to that aspect of the concept of "culture" which is necessary for elucidating our comparatively narrow topic.

Culture is first and foremost the concept of the collective. An individual person can be a bearer of culture, can actively participate in its development, nevertheless, by its nature, culture, like language, is a social phenomenon, that is, a social one.

Consequently, culture is something common to any collective - a group of people living at the same time and connected by a certain social organization. It follows from this that culture is form of communication between people and is possible only in a group in which people communicate. ( Organizational structure, which unites people living at the same time, is called synchronous, and we will use this concept in the future when defining a number of aspects of the phenomenon of interest to us).

Any structure serving the sphere of social communication is a language. This means that it forms a certain system of signs used in accordance with known members. this team rules. We call signs any material expression (words, pictures, things, etc.), which has the meaning and thus can serve as a means conveying meaning.

Consequently, culture has, firstly, a communicative and, secondly, symbolic nature. Let's focus on this last one. Think of something as simple and familiar as bread. Bread is material and visible. It has weight, shape, it can be cut, eaten. Eaten bread comes into physiological contact with a person. In this function, one cannot ask about it: what does it mean? It has a use, not a meaning. But when we say: “Give us our daily bread today,” the word “bread” means not just bread as a thing, but has a broader meaning: “food necessary for life.” And when in the Gospel of John we read the words of Christ: “I am the bread of life; whoever comes to me will not hunger” (John 6:35), then we have a complex symbolic meaning both the object itself and the word that denotes it.

The sword is also nothing more than an object. As a thing, it can be forged or broken, it can be placed in a museum display case, and it can kill a person. This is all - the use of it as an object, but when, being attached to a belt or supported by a baldric is placed on the hip, the sword symbolizes free man and is a "sign of freedom", it already appears as a symbol and belongs to culture.

In the 18th century, a Russian and European nobleman does not carry a sword - a sword hangs on his side (sometimes a tiny, almost toy front sword, which is practically not a weapon). In this case, the sword is a symbol of a symbol: it means a sword, and a sword means belonging to a privileged class.

Belonging to the nobility also means the obligatory nature of certain rules of conduct, principles of honor, even the cut of clothing. We know cases when “wearing clothes indecent for a nobleman” (that is, a peasant dress) or also a beard “indecent for a nobleman” became a matter of concern for the political police and the emperor himself.

A sword as a weapon, a sword as a piece of clothing, a sword as a symbol, a sign of nobility - all these are various functions of an object in the general context of culture.

In its various incarnations, a symbol can simultaneously be a weapon suitable for direct practical use, or completely separated from its immediate function. So, for example, a small sword specially designed for parades excluded practical use, in fact, being an image of a weapon, and not a weapon. The parade realm was separated from the combat realm by emotion, body language, and function. Let us recall the words of Chatsky: "I will go to death as to a parade." At the same time, in Tolstoy's "War and Peace" we meet in the description of the battle an officer leading his soldiers into battle with a parade (that is, useless) sword in his hands. The very bipolar situation of "fight - game of battle" created a complex relationship between weapons as a symbol and weapons as reality. So the sword (sword) is woven into the system of the symbolic language of the era and becomes a fact of its culture.

And here is another example, in the Bible (Book of Judges, 7:13-14) we read: “Gideon came [and hears]. And so, one tells the other a dream, and says: I dreamed that round barley bread rolled along the camp of Midian and, rolling to the tent, hit it so that it fell, overturned it, and the tent fell apart. Another said in response to him: this is nothing but the sword of Gideon ... ”Here bread means the sword, and the sword means victory. And since the victory was won with a cry of “The Sword of the Lord and Gideon!”, Without a single blow (the Madianites themselves beat each other: “the Lord turned the sword of one against another in the whole camp”), then the sword here is a sign of the power of the Lord, and not a military victory .

So, the area of culture is always the area of symbolism.

We now have something wrong in the subject:
We'd better hurry to the ball
Where headlong in a pit carriage
My Onegin has already galloped.
Before the faded houses
Along a sleepy street in rows
Double carriage lights
Cheerful pour out light ...
Here our hero drove up to the entrance;
Doorman past he's an arrow
Climbing up the marble steps
I straightened my hair with my hand,
Has entered. The hall is full of people;
The music is already tired of thundering;
The crowd is busy with the mazurka;
Loop and noise and tightness;
The spurs of the cavalry guard jingle;
The legs of lovely ladies are flying;
In their captivating footsteps
Fiery eyes fly.
And drowned out by the roar of violins
Jealous whisper of fashionable wives.
(1, XXVII–XXVIII)

Dancing was an important structural element of noble life. Their role differed significantly from the function of dances in folk life of that time, and from modern.

In the life of a Russian metropolitan nobleman of the 18th - early 19th centuries, time was divided into two halves: staying at home was devoted to family and household concerns - here the nobleman acted as a private person; the other half was occupied by service - military or civilian, in which the nobleman acted as a loyal subject, serving the sovereign and the state, as a representative of the nobility in the face of other estates. The opposition of these two forms of behavior was filmed in the “meeting” crowning the day – at a ball or a dinner party. Here the social life of a nobleman was realized: he was neither a private person in private life, nor a serviceman in the public service - he was a nobleman in the noble assembly, a man of his class among his own.

Thus, on the one hand, the ball turned out to be a sphere opposite to the service - an area of easy communication, secular recreation, a place where the boundaries of the service hierarchy were weakened. The presence of ladies, dances, the norms of secular communication introduced off-duty value criteria, and the young lieutenant, deftly dancing and able to make the ladies laugh, could feel superior to the aging colonel who had been in battles. On the other hand, the ball was an area of public representation, a form of social organization, one of the few forms of collective life permitted in Russia at that time. In this sense, secular life received the value of a public cause. The answer of Catherine II to the question of Fonvizin is characteristic: “Why are we not ashamed to do nothing?” - "... in society to live is not to do nothing."

Since the time of the Petrine assemblies, the question of the organizational forms of secular life has also become acute. Forms of recreation, communication of youth, calendar ritual, which were basically common to both the people and the boyar-noble environment, had to give way to a specifically noble structure of life. The internal organization of the ball was made a task of exceptional cultural importance, since it was called upon to give forms of communication between "gentlemen" and "ladies", to determine the type of social behavior within the noble culture. This entailed the ritualization of the ball, the creation of a strict sequence of parts, the allocation of stable and obligatory elements. The grammar of the ball arose, and it itself formed into a kind of holistic theatrical performance, in which each element (from the entrance to the hall to the departure) corresponded to typical emotions, fixed values, behavior styles. However, the strict ritual, which brought the ball closer to the parade, made possible retreats all the more significant, “ballroom liberties”, which increased compositionally towards its finale, building the ball as a struggle between “order” and “freedom”.

The main element of the ball as a social and aesthetic action was dancing. They served as the organizing core of the evening, setting the type and style of the conversation. "Mazurochka chatter" required superficial, shallow topics, but also entertaining and acute conversation, the ability to quickly respond epigrammatically. Ballroom conversation was far from that play of intellectual forces, “the fascinating conversation of the highest education” (Pushkin, VIII (1), 151), which was cultivated in the literary salons of Paris in the 18th century and which Pushkin complained about the absence of in Russia. Nevertheless, he had his own charm - the liveliness, freedom and ease of conversation between a man and a woman, who found themselves at the same time in the center of a noisy festivity, and in proximity impossible in other circumstances (“There is no place for confessions…” - 1, XXIX).

Dance training began early - from the age of five or six. So, for example, Pushkin began to study dancing already in 1808. Until the summer of 1811, he and his sister attended dance evenings at the Trubetskoy-Buturlins and Sushkovs, and on Thursdays - children's balls at the Moscow dance master Yogel. Balls at Yogel's are described in the memoirs of the choreographer A.P. Glushkovsky.

As a student, he was 22 years old, fairly decent in height and considerable legs, moreover, faulty; then the teacher, unable to do anything himself, considered it a duty to use four people, of whom two twisted their legs, and two held their knees. No matter how much this one shouted, they only laughed and did not want to hear about the pain - until finally it cracked in the leg, and then the tormentors left him.

I felt it my duty to tell this incident for the warning of others. It is not known who invented the leg machines; and machines with screws for the legs, knees and back: the invention is very good! However, it can also become harmless from excessive stress.

A long training gave the young man not only dexterity during dancing, but also confidence in movements, freedom and ease in posing a figure, which in a certain way influenced the mental structure of a person: in the conditional world of secular communication, he felt confident and free, like an experienced actor on the stage. Elegance, which is reflected in the accuracy of movements, was a sign of good education. L. N. Tolstoy, describing in the novel "The Decembrists" the wife of the Decembrist who returned from Siberia, emphasizes that, despite long years, spent by her in the most difficult conditions of voluntary exile, “it was impossible to imagine her otherwise, as surrounded by respect and all the comforts of life. For her to ever be hungry and eat greedily, or to have dirty laundry on her, or to stumble, or forget to blow her nose - this could not happen to her. It was physically impossible. Why it was so - I don’t know, but her every movement was majesty, grace, mercy for all those who could use her appearance ... ". It is characteristic that the ability to stumble here is associated not with external conditions, but with the character and upbringing of a person. Mental and physical grace are connected and exclude the possibility of inaccurate or ugly movements and gestures. The aristocratic simplicity of the movements of people of “good society” both in life and in literature is opposed by stiffness or excessive swagger (the result of a struggle with one’s own shyness) of the gestures of a commoner. A striking example This was preserved by Herzen's memoirs. According to Herzen's memoirs, "Belinsky was very shy and generally lost in unfamiliar society." Herzen describes a typical case at one of the literary evenings at the book. V. F. Odoevsky: “Belinsky was completely lost at these evenings between some Saxon envoy who did not understand a word of Russian and some official of the III department, who understood even those words that were hushed up. He usually fell ill afterwards for two or three days and cursed the one who persuaded him to go.

Once on a Saturday, on the eve of the New Year, the host took it into his head to cook zhzhenka en petit comité, when the main guests had left. Belinsky would certainly have left, but the barricade of furniture interfered with him, he somehow hid in a corner, and a small table with wine and glasses was placed in front of him. Zhukovsky, in white uniform trousers with a gold lacing, sat down across from him. Belinsky endured for a long time, but, seeing no improvement in his fate, he began to move the table somewhat; the table gave way at first, then swayed and slammed to the ground, a bottle of Bordeaux began seriously to pour over Zhukovsky. He jumped up, red wine streaming down his trousers; there was a hubbub, the servant rushed with a napkin to stain the rest of the pantaloons with wine, another picked up broken glasses ... During this turmoil, Belinsky disappeared and, close to death, ran home on foot.

The ball at the beginning of the 19th century began with the Polish (polonaise), which replaced the minuet in the solemn function of the first dance. The minuet became a thing of the past along with royal France. “From the time of the changes that followed among the Europeans, both in dress and in the way of thinking, there were news in dances; and then the Polish, which has more freedom and is danced by an indefinite number of couples, and therefore frees from the excessive and strict restraint characteristic of the minuet, took the place of the original dance.

Polonaise can probably be associated with the stanza of the eighth chapter, which was not included in the final text of "Eugene Onegin", introducing Grand Duchess Alexandra Feodorovna (future Empress) into the scene of the St. Petersburg ball; Pushkin calls her Lalla-Rook after the fancy dress of the heroine of T. Moore's poem, which she put on during a masquerade in Berlin.

After Zhukovsky's poem "Lalla-Ruk", this name became the poetic nickname of Alexandra Feodorovna:

And in the hall bright and rich
When in a silent, tight circle,
Like a winged lily
Hesitating enters Lalla Rook
And over the drooping crowd
Shines with a royal head,
And quietly curls and glides
Star - Harita between Harit,
And the gaze of mixed generations
Strives, with jealousy of grief,
Now at her, then at the king, -
For them without eyes one Evg<ений>;
Single T<атьяной>amazed,
He sees only Tatyana.
(Pushkin, VI, 637)

The ball does not appear in Pushkin as an official ceremonial celebration, and therefore the polonaise is not mentioned. In War and Peace, Tolstoy, describing Natasha’s first ball, contrasts the polonaise that opens “the sovereign, smiling and out of time leading the hostess of the house by the hand” (“the owner followed him with M. A. Naryshkina, then ministers, various generals ”), the second dance - a waltz, which becomes the moment of Natasha's triumph.

The second ballroom dance is the waltz. Pushkin described it like this:

Monotonous and insane
Like a whirlwind young life,
The waltz whirl is whirling noisily;
The couple flashes by the couple. (5, XLI)

The epithets "monotonous and insane" have not only an emotional meaning. “Monotonous” - because, unlike the mazurka, in which solo dances and the invention of new figures played a huge role at that time, and even more so from the dance-game of the cotillion, the waltz consisted of the same constantly repeating movements. The feeling of monotony was also intensified by the fact that "at that time the waltz was danced in two, and not in three pas, as it is now." The definition of the waltz as “crazy” has a different meaning: the waltz, despite its general distribution (L. Petrovsky believes that “it would be superfluous to describe how the waltz is danced at all, because there is almost no person who would not dance it himself or not seen dancing"), enjoyed a reputation in the 1820s as obscene, or at least unnecessarily free dance. “This dance, in which, as is known, persons of both sexes turn and approach each other, requires due caution.<...>so that they do not dance too close to each other, which would offend decency. Genlis wrote even more clearly in Critical and Systematic Dictionary of Court Etiquette: “A young lady, lightly dressed, throws herself into the arms of a young man who presses her to his chest, who carries her away with such swiftness that her heart involuntarily begins to beat, and her head going around! That's what this waltz is! ..<...>Today's youth is so natural that, placing no value on sophistication, they dance waltzes with glorified simplicity and passion.

Not only the boring moralist Genlis, but the fiery Werther Goethe considered the waltz a dance so intimate that he swore that he would not allow his future wife to dance it with anyone but himself.

The waltz created a particularly comfortable environment for gentle explanations: the proximity of the dancers contributed to intimacy, and the contact of hands made it possible to pass notes. The waltz was danced for a long time, it could be interrupted, sit down and then join the next round again. Thus, the dance created ideal conditions for gentle explanations:

In the days of fun and desires
I was crazy about balls:
There is no place for confessions
And for delivering a letter.
O you venerable spouses!
I will offer you my services;
I ask you to notice my speech:
I want to warn you.
You also, mothers, are stricter
Look after your daughters:
Keep your lorgnette straight! (1, XXIX)

However, the words of Janlis are also interesting in another respect: the waltz is opposed to classical dance how romantic; passionate, crazy, dangerous and close to nature, he opposes the etiquette dances of the old days. The “simplicity” of the waltz was keenly felt: “Wiener Walz, consisting of two steps, which consist in stepping on the right and on the left foot, and moreover, they danced as fast as crazy; after which I leave it to the reader to judge whether he conforms to the noble assembly or to any other. The waltz was admitted to the balls of Europe as a tribute to the new time. It was a fashionable and youthful dance.

The sequence of dances during the ball formed a dynamic composition. Each dance, having its own intonations and tempo, set a certain style not only for movements, but also for conversation. In order to understand the essence of the ball, one must keep in mind that the dances were only an organizing core in it. The chain of dances also organized the sequence of moods. Each dance entailed decent topics of conversation for him. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that conversation, conversation was no less a part of the dance than movement and music. The expression "mazurka chatter" was not disparaging. Involuntary jokes, tender confessions and decisive explanations were distributed over the composition of the dances that followed one after another. An interesting example of a change of topic in a sequence of dances is found in Anna Karenina. "Vronsky went through several waltz tours with Kitty." Tolstoy introduces us to a decisive moment in the life of Kitty, who is in love with Vronsky. She expects words of recognition from him that should decide her fate, but an important conversation needs a corresponding moment in the dynamics of the ball. It is possible to lead it by no means at any moment and not at any dance. "During the quadrille, nothing significant was said, there was an intermittent conversation." “But Kitty didn't expect more from a quadrille. She waited with bated breath for the mazurka. It seemed to her that everything should be decided in the mazurka.

<...>The mazurka formed the center of the ball and marked its climax. The mazurka was danced with numerous bizarre figures and a male solo constituting the culmination of the dance. Both the soloist and the master of the mazurka had to show ingenuity and the ability to improvise. “The chic of the mazurka lies in the fact that the gentleman takes the lady on his chest, immediately hitting himself with his heel in the center de gravité (not to say ass), flies to the other end of the hall and says:“ Mazurechka, sir, ”and the lady to him:“ Mazurechka, sir."<...>Then they rushed in pairs, and did not dance calmly, as they do now. There were several distinct styles within the mazurka. The difference between the capital and the provinces was expressed in the opposition of the "refined" and "bravura" performance of the mazurka:

The mazurka rang out. used to
When the mazurka thundered,
Everything in the great hall was trembling,
The parquet cracked under the heel,
The frames shook and rattled;
Now it's not that: and we, like ladies,
We slide on varnished boards.
(5, XXII)

“When horseshoes and high picks at boots appeared, taking steps, they mercilessly began to knock, so that when in one public meeting, where there were too two hundred young males, mazurka music began to play<...>raised such a clatter that the music was drowned out.

But there was another opposition as well. The old "French" manner of performing the mazurka demanded from the gentleman the lightness of jumps, the so-called entrecha (Onegin, as the reader remembers, "danced the mazurka easily"). Antrasha, according to one dance guide, "a leap in which the foot strikes three times while the body is in the air." The French, "secular" and "amiable" manner of the mazurka in the 1820s began to be replaced by the English, associated with dandyism. The latter demanded languid, lazy movements from the gentleman, emphasizing that he was bored of dancing and he was doing it against his will. The cavalier refused mazurka chatter and was sullenly silent during the dance.

“... And in general, not a single fashionable gentleman is dancing now, this is not supposed to! – Is that how? asked Mr Smith in surprise.<...>“No, I swear on my honor, no!” muttered Mr Ritson. - No, except that they will walk in a quadrille or turn in a waltz<...>no, to hell with dancing, it’s very vulgar!” In the memoirs of Smirnova-Rosset, an episode of her first meeting with Pushkin is told: while still a college student, she invited him to a mazurka. Pushkin silently and lazily walked around the hall with her a couple of times. The fact that Onegin "danced the mazurka with ease" shows that his dandyism and fashionable disappointment were half fake in the first chapter of the "novel in verse". For their sake, he could not refuse the pleasure of jumping in the mazurka.

The Decembrist and liberal of the 1820s adopted the "English" attitude towards dancing, bringing it to a complete rejection of them. In Pushkin's Roman in Letters, Vladimir writes to a friend: “Your speculative and important reasoning belongs to 1818. Rule strictness and political economy were all the rage at the time. We appeared at balls without taking off our swords (it was impossible to dance with a sword, an officer who wanted to dance unfastened his sword and left it with the doorman. - Yu. L.) - it was indecent for us to dance and there was no time to deal with the ladies ”(VIII (1), 55 ). At serious friendly evenings, Liprandi did not have dances. The Decembrist N. I. Turgenev wrote to his brother Sergei on March 25, 1819 about the surprise that caused him to learn that the latter was dancing at a ball in Paris (S. I. Turgenev was in France under the commander of the Russian expeditionary force, Count M. S. Vorontsov ): “You, I hear, are dancing. His daughter wrote to Count Golovin that she danced with you. And so, with some surprise, I learned that now in France they also dance! Une écossaise constitutionelle, indpéndante, ou une contredanse monarchique ou une danse contre-monarchique ”(constitutional ecossaise, independent ecossaise, monarchist country dance or anti-monarchist dance - the play on words is to list political parties: constitutionalists, independents, monarchists - and the use of the prefix “counter” sometimes as a dance term, sometimes as a political term). The complaint of Princess Tugoukhovskaya in “Woe from Wit” is connected with the same sentiments: “Dancers have become terribly rare!”

The opposition between the man who talks about Adam Smith and the man who waltz or a mazurka, was emphasized by a remark after Chatsky’s program monologue: “Looks back, everyone is spinning in a waltz with the greatest zeal.” Pushkin's poems:

Buyanov, my fervent brother,
He brought Tatiana and Olga to our hero ... (5, XLIII, XLIV)

They mean one of the figures of the mazurka: two ladies (or gentlemen) are brought to the gentleman (or lady) with a proposal to choose. The choice of a mate for oneself was perceived as a sign of interest, favor, or (as Lensky interpreted) falling in love. Nicholas I reproached Smirnova-Rosset: "Why don't you choose me?" In some cases, the choice was associated with guessing the qualities that the dancers thought of: “Three ladies who came up to them with questions - oubli ou regret - interrupted the conversation ...” (Pushkin, VIII (1), 244). Or in “After the Ball” by L. Tolstoy: “... I did not dance the mazurka with her /<...>When we were brought to her and she did not guess my quality, she, giving her hand not to me, shrugged her thin shoulders and, as a sign of regret and consolation, smiled at me.

Cotillion - a kind of quadrille, one of the dances concluding the ball - was danced to the tune of a waltz and was a dance-game, the most relaxed, varied and playful dance. “... There they make both a cross and a circle, and they plant a lady, triumphantly bringing gentlemen to her, so that she chooses with whom she wants to dance, and in other places they kneel before her; but in order to reciprocate their gratitude, the men also sit down in order to choose the ladies they like.

Then there are figures with jokes, giving cards, knots made of scarves, deceit or jumping off in a dance from one another, jumping over a scarf high ... "

The ball was not the only opportunity to have a fun and noisy night. The alternative was:

... the games of reckless youths,
Thunderstorms of guard patrols ... (Pushkin, VI, 621)

Single drinking parties in the company of young revelers, officers-brothers, famous "naughty" and drunkards. The ball, as a decent and quite secular pastime, was opposed to this revelry, which, although cultivated in certain guards circles, was generally perceived as a manifestation of "bad taste", acceptable for a young man only within certain, moderate limits. M. D. Buturlin, prone to a free and wild life, recalled that there was a moment when he "did not miss a single ball." This, he writes, “greatly pleased my mother, as proof, que j” avais pris le goût de la bonne société.” However, the taste for a reckless life prevailed: “There were quite frequent lunches and dinners in my apartment. My guests were some of our officers and civilian acquaintances of mine in St. Petersburg, mostly from foreigners, there was, of course, a draft sea of champagne and burning oil. main mistake mine was that after the first visits with my brother at the beginning of my visit to Princess Maria Vasilievna Kochubey, Natalya Kirillovna Zagryazhskaya (who meant a lot then) and to others in kinship or former acquaintance with our family, I stopped attending this high society. I remember how once, when leaving the French Kamennoostrovsky theater, my old acquaintance Elisaveta Mikhailovna Khitrova, recognizing me, exclaimed: “Ah, Michel!” stage, turned sharply to the right past the columns of the façade; but since there was no exit to the street, I flew headlong to the ground from a very decent height, risking breaking an arm or leg. Unfortunately, the habits of a wild and open life in the circle of army comrades with late drinking at restaurants were rooted in me, and therefore trips to high-society salons burdened me, as a result of which a few months passed, since the members of that society decided (and not without reason) that I am small, mired in the whirlpool of bad society.

Late drinking parties, starting in one of the Petersburg restaurants, ended somewhere in the "Red Tavern", which stood at the seventh verst along the Peterhof road and was a favorite place for officers' revelry.

A cruel card game and noisy marches through the streets of St. Petersburg at night completed the picture. Noisy street adventures - "thunderstorm of the midnight watch" (Pushkin, VIII, 3) - were the usual nighttime activities of "naughty". The nephew of the poet Delvig recalls: “... Pushkin and Delvig told us about the walks that they, after graduating from the Lyceum, took along the streets of St. stopping others who are ten or more years older than us...

After reading the description of this walk, one might think that Pushkin, Delvig and all the other men who walked with them, with the exception of brother Alexander and me, were drunk, but I resolutely certify that this was not the case, but they simply wanted to shake the old one and show it to us , the younger generation, as if in reproach to our more serious and deliberate behavior. In the same spirit, although a little later - at the very end of the 1820s, Buturlin and his friends tore off the scepter and orb from the double-headed eagle (pharmacy sign) and marched with them through the city center. This “prank” already had a rather dangerous political connotation: it provided grounds for a criminal charge of “lese majesty”. It is no coincidence that the acquaintance to whom they appeared in this form "never could remember without fear this night of our visit."

If this adventure got away with it, then punishment followed for trying to feed the bust of the emperor with soup in the restaurant: Buturlin's civilian friends were exiled to the civil service in the Caucasus and Astrakhan, and he was transferred to the provincial army regiment.

This is no coincidence: “crazy feasts”, youth revelry against the backdrop of the Arakcheev (later Nikolaev) capital was inevitably painted in oppositional tones (see the chapter “Decembrist in everyday life”).

The ball had a harmonious composition. It was, as it were, some kind of festive whole, subordinated to the movement from the strict form of the solemn ballet to the variable forms of the choreographic game. However, in order to understand the meaning of the ball as a whole, it should be understood in opposition to the two extreme poles: the parade and the masquerade.

The parade, in the form that it received under the influence of the peculiar “creativity” of Paul I and the Pavlovichi: Alexander, Constantine and Nicholas, was a kind of carefully thought-out ritual. He was the opposite of fighting. And von Bock was right when he called it "the triumph of nothingness." The battle demanded initiative, the parade demanded submission, turning the army into a ballet. In relation to the parade, the ball acted as something directly opposite. Submission, discipline, erasure of personality ball opposed fun, freedom, and severe depression of a person - his joyful excitement. In this sense, the chronological course of the day from the parade or preparation for it - the exercise, the arena and other types of "kings of science" (Pushkin) - to the ballet, holiday, ball was a movement from subordination to freedom and from rigid monotony to fun and diversity.

However, the ball was subject to firm laws. The degree of rigidity of this submission was different: between thousands of balls in the Winter Palace, timed to coincide with especially solemn dates, and small balls in the houses provincial landowners with dances to a fortress orchestra or even to a violin played by a German teacher, he went through a long and multi-stage path. The degree of freedom was different at different stages of this path. And yet, the fact that the ball assumed a composition and a strict internal organization limited the freedom within it. This caused the need for another element that would play in this system the role of "organized disorganization", planned and provided for chaos. This role was taken over by the masquerade.

Masquerade dressing, in principle, was contrary to deep church traditions. In the Orthodox mind, this was one of the most enduring signs of demonism. Dressing up and elements of masquerade in folk culture were allowed only in those ritual actions of the Christmas and spring cycles that were supposed to imitate the exorcism of demons and in which the remnants of pagan ideas found refuge. Therefore, the European tradition of masquerade penetrated into the nobility. everyday life XVIII century with difficulty or merged with folk mummers.

As a form of a noble festival, the masquerade was a closed and almost secret fun. Elements of blasphemy and rebellion appeared in two characteristic episodes: both Elizabeth Petrovna and Catherine II, when carrying out coups d'état, dressed up in men's guard uniforms and mounted horses like a man. Here, dressing up took on a symbolic character: a woman - a contender for the throne - turned into an emperor. This can be compared with the use of Shcherbatov in relation to one person - Elizabeth - in different situations of naming, either in the masculine or in the feminine.

From military-state disguise, the next step led to a masquerade game. One could recall in this respect the projects of Catherine II. If such masquerade masquerades were publicly held, such as, for example, the famous carousel, to which Grigory Orlov and other participants appeared in knightly costumes, then in pure secrecy, in the closed premises of the Small Hermitage, Catherine found it amusing to hold completely different masquerades. For example, own hand she drew detailed plan a holiday in which separate dressing rooms would be made for men and women, so that all the ladies would suddenly appear in men's suits, and all gentlemen in ladies' ones (Catherine was not disinterested here: such a costume emphasized her harmony, and huge guardsmen, of course would look comical).

The masquerade that we encounter when reading Lermontov's play - the St. Petersburg masquerade in Engelhardt's house on the corner of Nevsky and Moika - had the exact opposite character. It was the first public masquerade in Russia. Anyone who paid the entrance fee could visit it. The fundamental confusion of visitors, social contrasts, the permitted licentiousness of behavior, which turned the Engelhardt masquerades into the center of scandalous stories and rumors - all this created a spicy counterbalance to the severity of St. Petersburg balls.

Let us recall the joke that Pushkin put into the mouth of a foreigner who said that in St. Petersburg morality is guaranteed by the fact that the summer nights are bright and the winter ones are cold. For the Engelhardt balls, these obstacles did not exist. Lermontov included a significant hint in "Masquerade":

Arbenin
It would not be bad for both you and me to scatter.
After all, today is the holidays and, of course, a masquerade
Engelhardt...<...>

prince
There are women there ... a miracle ...
And even there they say...

Arbenin
Let them say, what do we care?
Under the mask, all ranks are equal,
The mask has neither a soul nor a title, it has a body.
And if the features are hidden by the mask,
That mask from feelings is boldly torn off.

The role of the masquerade in prim and uniformed St. Nicholas' Petersburg can be compared to how satiated French courtiers of the Regency era, having exhausted all forms of refinement during a long night, went to some dirty tavern in a dubious district of Paris and greedily devoured fetid boiled unwashed intestines. It was the sharpness of the contrast that created here a refined and jaded experience.

To the words of the prince in the same drama by Lermontov: “All masks are stupid,” Arbenin replies with a monologue glorifying the unexpectedness and unpredictability that the mask brings to a stiff society:

Yes, there is no stupid mask: Silent ...
Mysterious, talking - so cute.
You can give her words
A smile, a look, whatever you want ...
For example, take a look there -
How to act nobly
A tall Turkish woman ... how full,
How her chest breathes both passionately and freely!
Do you know who she is?
Perhaps a proud countess or princess,
Diana in society... Venus in masquerade,
And it may also be that the same beauty
Tomorrow evening he will come to you for half an hour.

The parade and masquerade formed a brilliant frame of the picture, in the center of which was the ball.

CH PFDEMSHOSCHI RPYGISI, CHUEZDB SCHMSAEYIUS YULMAYUEOYEN YЪ RTBCHYMB, NPTsOP ZPCHPTYFSH P LHMShFKhTE PDOPZP YuEMPCHELB. op FPZDB UMEDHEF HFPYUOYFSH, UFP NSCH YNEEN DEMP U LPMMELFICHPN, UPUFPSEIN Y PDOPC MYUOPUFY. xCE FP, UFP LFB MYUOPUFSH OEYVETSOP VHDEF RPMShЪPCHBFSHUS Sjschlpn, Chschufhrbs PDOCHTENEOOP LBL ZPCHPTSEIK Y UMHYBAEYK, UFBCHYF HER H RPYGYA LPMMELFYCHB. fBL, OBRTYNET, TPNBOFILY YUBUFP ZPCHPTYMY P RTEDEMSHOPK YODYCHYDKHBMSHOPUFY UCHPEK LHMSHFHTSC, P FPN, UFP CH UPDBCHBENSCHI YNY FELUFBI UBN BCHFPT SCHMSEFUS, CH YDEBME, EDYO UFFEOOOSCHN UCHPYN UMHYBFEMEN (YUYFBFEMEN). pDOBLP Y H FPK UYFHBGYY TPMY ZPCHPTSEEZP Y UMHYBAEEZP, UCHSSCHCHBAEYK YI S SHCHL OE HOYUFPTSBAFUS, B LBL VSC RETEOPUSFUS CHOHFTSH PFDEMSHOPK MYUOPUFY: "h HNE UCHPEN S UP" DBM NYT YOPK // th PVTBJPCH YOSCHI UHEEUFCHPCHBOSHE "(METNPOFCH n. a. upyu. Ch 6- FY F. n.; M., 1954, F. 1, U. 34).

gyfbfshch RTYCHPDSFUS RP YODBOYSN, YNEAEINUS CH VYVMYPFELE BCHFPTB, U UPITBOOYEN PTZHPZTBZHYY Y RHOLFKHBGYY YUFPYUOILB.

pTYZYOBMSHOSHCHK FELUF YNEEF RTYNEYUBOYS, UPDETTSBEYEUS CH LPOGE LOYZY Y RTPOHNETPCHBOOSCHE RP ZMBCHBN, B FBLTS RPDUFTPYUOSCHE UOPULY PVP-OBYEOOSCHE CHEEDPYULBNY. DMS HDPVUFCHB CHPURTYSFYS CH OBYEN UMHYUBE RPUFTBOYUOSCHE UOPULY RPMKHYUYMY ULCHPYOKHA, OP PFDEMSHOKHA OHNETBGYA. rPUFTBOYUOSCHE UOPULY, PVP-OBYUEOOSCH CH LOYSE PTEDEMEOOOSCHN LPMYUEUFCHPN CHEJDPYUEL, YDEUSH YNEAF RPTSDLPCHSHCHK OPNET UP CHEJDPYULPK (OBRTYNET, 1*, 2* Y F.D.). - TEDBLHYS yry "pFLTSCHFSCHK FELUF"

RHYLYO b. y. rPMO. UPVT. UPU. CH 16-FY F. [n.; M.], 1937-1949, F. 11, U. 40. dBME CHUE UUSCHMLY ABOUT FFP YIDBOYE DBAFUUS CH FELUFE UPLTBEEOOOP: rhylyo, FPN, LOIZB, UFTBOIGB. UUSCHMLY ABOUT "ECHZEOIS POEZYOB" DBAFUUS CH FELUFE, U HLBBOYEN ZMBCHSHCH (BTVULPK GYZHTPK) Y UFTPZHSHCH (TYNULPK).

OEUNPFTS ABOUT CHTBTSDEVOPE PFOPIEOYE L RPRSCHFLBN GETLPCHOSCHI DESFEMEK CHMYSFSH ABOUT ZPUHDBTUFCHEOOHA CHMBUFSH, ABOUT YJCHEUFOSHCHE UMHYUBY LPEHOUFCHB, REFT FEBFEMSHOP UPVMADBM RTBCHPUMBCHOSHE PVTS DSh. DBCE OETBURPMPTSEOOSCHK L OENH DIRMPNBF aUF AMSh CHSCHOHTSDEO VSCHM RTYOBFSH, UFP "GBTSh VMBZPYUEUFYCH", B DTHZPK UCHYDEFEMSH, ZHTBOGHH ME-zhPTF CH 1721 ZPDH PFNEYUBM, UFP "GBTSh ZPCHEM VPMEE FEBFEMSHOP, YUEN PVSCHYUOP, U NEB culpa (RPLBSOYEN. - a. m .),LPMEOPRTELMPOEOYEN Y NOPZPLTBFOSHCHN GEMPCHBOYEN OYENMY".

CH OBTPDOYUEULYI LTKHZBI Y CH PLTHTSEOY b. th. zETGEOB UHEEUFCHPCHBMB FEODEOHYS CHYDEFSH CH UFBTPPVTSDGBI CHSHTBBYFEMEK NOOEIK CHUEZP OBTPDB Y OB FFPN PUOPCHBOY LPOUFTHYTPCHBFSH PFOPYOEOYE LTEUFSHSOUFFCHB L REFTTH. h DBMSHOEKYEN LFH FPYULH TEOYS KHUCHPYMY THUULIE UYNCHPMYUFSHCH - d. NETECLPCHULYK Y DT., PFPTSDEUFCHMSCHYE UELFBOFPCH Y RTEDUFBCHYFEMEK TBULPMB UP CHUEN OBTPPN. ChPRTPU FFPF OHTSDBEFUS CH DBMSHOEKYEN VEURTYUFTBUFOPN YUUMEDPCHBOYY. pFNEFYN MYYSH, UFP FBLYE, UDEMBCHYYEUS HCE RTYCHSHCHUOSCHNY HFCHETSDEOYS, LBL NOOEYE Y'CHEUFOPZP YUUMEDPCHBFEMS MHVLB d. TSD MYUFCH ABOUT FENH "UFBTYL Y CHEDSHNB" SCHMSAFUS UBFYTBNY ABOUT REFTB, ABOUT RPCHETLH PLBSCCHBAFUS OY OB Yuen OE PUOPCHBOOSCHNY.

CHRPUMEDUFCHYY, PUPVEOOP RTY OILPMBE I, RPMPTSEOYE NEOSMPUSH CH UFPTPOH CHUE VPMSHYEZP RTECHTBEEOIS DCHPTSOUFCHB CH UBNLOHFHA LBUFH. hTPCHEOSH YUYOB, RTY LPFPTPN OEDCHPTSOIO RPMKHYUBM DCHPTSOUFCHP, CHUE CHTENS RPCHSHCHYBMUS.

RTEDPYUFEOYE, DBCHBENPE CHPYOULPK UMKhTSVE, PFTBYIMPUSH CH RPMOPN ЪBZMBCHYY BLPOB: “fBVEMSH P TBZBI CHUEI YUYOPCH, CHPYOULYI, UVBFULYI Y RTYDCHPTOSHCHI, LPFPTSHCHE CH LPF PTPN LMBUUE YUYOSCH; Y LPFPTSCHE CH PDOPN LMBUUE, FE YNEAF RP UFBTYYOUFCHH READING CHUFKHRMEOYS CH YUYO NETsDH UPVPA, PDOBLPTs CHPYOULYE CHSHCHIE RTPFYUYI, IPFS IN THE YUUFBTEE LFP CH FPN LMBUUE RPTSBMPCHBO VSCHM. iBTBLFETOP Y DTHZPE: OBOBYUYCH CHPYOULYE YUYOSCH I LMBUUB (ZEOTBM-ZHEMSHDNBTYBM CH UHIPRHFOSHCH Y ZEOETBM-BDNYTBM CH NPTULYI CHPKULBI), REFT PUFBCHYM RHUFSHCHNY NEUFB I LMBUU B C UFBFULPK Y RTYDCHPTOPK UMHTSVE. MYYSH HLBBOYE UEOBFB, UFP LFP RPUFBCHYF THUULYI DYRMPNBFPCH RTY UOPIEOYSI U YOPUFTBOOSCHNY DCHPTBNY CH OETBCHOPE RPMPTSEOYE, HVEDYMP EZP CH OEEPVIPDYNPUFY I LMBUUB Y DMS UVBFUL PC UMHTsVSHCH (YN UFBM LBOGMET). rTYDCHPTOBS TSE UMHTsVB FBL Y PUFBMBUSH VE CHCHUYEZP TBOZB.

YOFETEUOP, UFP DCHPTSOUFCHP, VSHCHUFTP TBBPTSCHYEUS CH 1830—1840-E ZPDSCH, FPTS CHOEUMP BLFICHOSCHK CHLMBD CH ZHPTNYTPCHBOYE THUULPK YOFEMMYZEOGYY. rTPZHEUYPOBMSHOPE DPTEZHPTNEOOPE YUYOPCHOYYUEUFCHP PLBMBPUSH Y DEUSH OBYUYFEMSHOP NEOEE BLFICHOSCHN.

TENPOF MPYBDEK - FEIOYYUEULYK FETNYO CH LBCHBMETYY, POBYUBAEIK RPRPMOOEOYE Y PVOCHMEOYE LPOULPZP UPUFBCHB. DMS ЪBLHRLY MPYBDEK PZHYGET U LBEOOOSCHNY UHNNBNY LPNBODYTPCHBMUS ABOUT PDOKH Y VPMSHYI ETSEPDOSCHI LPOULYI STNBTPL. rPULPMSHLH MPYBDY RPLKHRBMYUSH X RPNEEILPCH — MYG YUBUFOSHCHI, RTPCHETLY UHNNSC TEBMSHOP YUFTBYEOOSCHI DEOEZ ZHBLFYUEULY OE VSCHMP. zBTBOFYSNNY TEBMSHOPUFY UHNNSC DEOETSOSCHI FTBF VSCHMY, U PDOK UFPTPOSCH, DPCHETYE L LPNBODYTPCHBOOPNKH PZHYGETH, B U DTHZPK — PRSHCHFOPUFSH RPMLCHPZP OBJUBMSHUFCHB, TBVYTBCHYEZPUS H UFP YNPUFY MPYBDEK.

OBDP ULBBFSH, UFP UMHTsVB VEI TsBMPCHBOSHS VSCHMB DPCHPMSHOP YUBUFSHCHN SCHMEOYEN, B b. NEOYILPCH CH 1726 ZPDKh ChPPVEE PFNEOYM TsBMPCHBOSH NEMLYN YUYOPCHOYLBN, ZPCHPTS, YuFP POY Y FBL VETHF NOPZP Ch'SFPL.

CH VSHFPRYUBOYSI XVIII UFPMEFIS Y'CHEUFEO UMHYUBK, LPZDB OELIK ZPUFSH UPTPL MEF TEZHMSTOP RPSCHMSMUS ABOUT PVEDBI X PDOPZP CHEMSHNPTSY. pDOBLP, LPZDB LFPF Yuempchel HNET, PLBMBMPUSH, UFP OILFP, CHLMAYUBS IPSYOB, OE OBM, LFP PO FBLPK Y LBLPPCHP EZP YNS.

10* CHUE BLPOSH GYFYTHAFUS RP YODBOYA: RPMOPE UPVTBOYE BLPOCH tPUUYKULPK YNRETYY, RPCHEMEOYEN zPUHDBTS OILPMBS rBCHMPCHYUB UPUFBCHMEOOPE. (1649 -1825). f. 1-45. urV., 1830.

12* UFBTSHCHK RTYOGYR, PDOBLP, OE VSCHM DP LPOGB KHOYUFPTSEO. FP PFTBTSBMPUSH CH FPN, YuFP RETYPDYUEULY CH UYUFENKH PTDEOPCH CHTSCHCHBMYUSH OE HUMPHOSHCHE, B NBFETYBMSHOSHCHE GEOOPUFY. fBL, PTDEOULBS UCHEEDB U VTYMMYBOFBNY YNEMB OBBYUEOYE PUPVPK UFEROOY PFMYUYS

14* PZHYGYBMSHOPE OBCHBOYE - PTDEO UCH. yPBOOB YETHUBMYNULPZP. lBL YЪCHEUFOP, rBCHEM I CHSM RPD RPLTPCHYFEMSHUFCHP PUFTCH nBMShFH Y CH DElbVTE 1798 Z. PYASCHYM UEVS CHEMYLYN NBZYUFTPN nBMShFYKULPZP PTDEOB. lPOEYUOP, FFP VSHMP UCHETIEOOOP OECHPЪNPTSOSCHN: LBCHBMETSHCH nBMShFYKULPZP PTDEOB DBCHBMY PVEF VEIVTBYUYS, B rBCHEM VSCHM HCE CHFPTYUOP TSEOBF; LTPNE FPZP, nBMShFYKULYK PTDEO — LBFPMYUEULYK, B THUULYK GBTSh, TBHNEEFUS, VSCHM RTBCHPUMBCHOSCHN. OP rBCHEM I UYUYFBM, YuFP PO CHUE NPTSEF (DBCE MYFKhTZYA PFUMKhTSYM PDOBTSDSCH!); CHUE, UFP NPCEF vPZ, RPD UIMH Y THUULPNH YNRETBFPTH.

17* UT. RPDOEKIE YTPOYYUEULPE YUFPMLPCHBOYE UENBOFIYY UMPCHB "UMKHTSYFSH" CH TEYU DCHPTSOYOB Y TBOPYUYOGB-RPRPCHYUB: "BI, RPCHPMSHFE, CHBYB ZHBNYMYS NOE OBLPNB - TSBO PC. dB, FERETSCH WITH RPNOA. NSCH U CHBYN VBFAYLPK CHNEUFE UMHTSYMY". - URTPUYM tSBOPCH .. FP EUFSH LBL?" - "with OE BOBA, LBL. dPMTSOP VSHCHFSH, UVPTOE. b FP LBL CE EEE?" rPUTEDOIL U OEDPHNEOYEN UNPFTEM ABOUT tSBOPCHB:. dB TBECHE CHBY VBFAYLB OE UMHTSYM CH ZTPDOEOULYI ZHUBTBI?" - oEF; PO VPMSHIE CH UEMBI RTEUCHYFETPN UMHTSYM "" (uMERGPCH h.

18* y’CHEUFOBS OBLMPOOPUFSH HRPFTEVMSFSH CHSHCHUPLYE UMPCHB CH UOYTSEOOP-YTPOYYUEULYI OBBYUEOYSI LPUOKHMBUSH RPTSE Y CHSHCHTBTSEOIS “UMKHTSYFSH YY YUEUFY”. POP OBYUBMP PVPOBYUBFSH FTBLFYTOHA RTYUMHZH, OE RPMHYUBAEHA PF IPSYOB TsBMPCHBOSHS Y UMHTsBEKHA b YUBECHSHCHE. ut. CHSHTBTSEOIE CH “PRBUOPN UPUEDE” h. m. 1, U. 670).

FBN TSE, F. 5, U. 16, UP UUSCHMLPK ABOUT: tBVYOPCHYU n. e. - h LO .: tPUUYS CH RETYPD TEZHPTN REFTB I. n., 1973, U 171; vKHZBOPC h. y., rTEPVTBTSEOULYK b. b., FYIPHR a. b. chpmagys zhepdbmyjnb h tpuuy. UPGYBMSHOP-LPOPNYUEULYE RTPVMENSCH. n., 1980, U. 241.

19* FPMSHLP CH RTYDCHPTOPK UMHTSVE TSEOEYOSCH UBNY YNEMY YUYOSCH. h fBVEMY P TBOZBI OBIPDYN: “dBNSCH Y DECHYGSCH RTY DCHPTE, DEKUFCHYFEMSHOP CH YUYOBI PVTEFBAEYEUS, YNEAF UMEDHAEIE TBOZY ...” (rBNSFOILY THUULPZP RTBCHB. chshchr. 8, U. 186) - DB MEE UMEDPCHBMP YI RETEYUMEOYE.

UN: UENEOPCHB m.o. pYUETLY YUFPTYY VSHCHFB Y LKHMSHFHTOPK TSYOY TPUUYY: RETCHBS RPMCHYOB XVIII CHELB m., 1982, U. 114-115; RETERJULB LOSZJOY e.r. hTHUPCHPK UP UCHPYNY DEFSHNY. - h LO .: uFBTYOB Y OPCHYOB. lo. 20. n., 1916; yuBUFOBS RETERYULB LOS S REFTB yCHBOPCHYUB iPCHBOULPZP, EZP UENSHY Y TPDUFCHEOOILPCH. - h LO. fBN CE, LO. 10; ZTBNPFLY XVII - OBUBMB XVIII CHELB. n., 1969.

20* UTEDOECHELPCHBS LOIZB VSCHMB THLPRYUOPK. LOIZB XIX CHELB - LBL RTBCHYMP, REYUBFOK (EUMMY OE ZPCHPTYFSH P BRTEEEOOOPK MYFETBFKHTE, P LHMSHFKhTE GETLPCHOPK YOE HYUIFSHCHBFSH OELPFPTSCHI DTHZYI UREGYBMSHOSHCHI UMHYUBECH). XVIII CHEL BOYNBEF PUPVPE RPMPTSEOYE: THLPRYUOSCHE Y REYUBFOSHCHE LOYZY UHEEUFCHHAF PDOCHTENEOOP, YOPZDB - LBL UPAYOYLY, RPTPK - LBL UPRETOILY.

21* un. CH "rHFEYUFCHYY Y REFETVKhTZB CH nPULCHH" b. O. tBDYEECHB, CH ZMBCHE "OPCHZPTPD", RPTFTEF TSEOSCH LHRGB: "RTBULPCHS DEOYUPCHOB, EZP OPCHPPVTBYOBS UHRTKhZB, VEMB Y THNSOB. ъKhVShch LBL HZPMSH. vTPCHY CH OYFLKH, YETOEEE UBTSY.

TPNBO LMBUUYYUEULYK, UFBTYOOSHK,

pFNEOOP DMYOOSHK, DMYOOSHK, DMYOOSHK,

from TBCHPHYUYFEMSHOSHCHK Y YUYOOSHCHK,

VE TPNBOFYUEULYI OBFEK.

ZETPYOS RPNSCH - obfbmys rbchmpchob Yuyfbmb fblye tpnboshch EEE H OBYUBME XIX CHELB: CH RTPCHYOGYY POI BDETTSBMYUSH, OP CH UFPMYGBI YI CHSHCHFEUOYM TPNBOFYN, RETENEYCHYYK YUYFBFEM SHULYE CHLHUSHCH. ut. H "ECHZEOYY POEZYOE":

b OSHOYUE CHUE HNSCH CH FHNBOE,

nPTBMSh ABOUT OBU OBCHPDYF UPO,

rPTPL MAVEJEO - Y CH TPNBOE,

th FBN KhTs FPTSEUFCHHEF PO. (3, XII))

23* rPCHEUFSH H. M. lBTBNYOB “TSCHGBTSH OBYEZP READING”, ABOUT LPFPTPK NSC H DBOOPN UMHYUBE PUOPCHSHCHCHBENUS, - IHDPTSEUFCHEOOPE RTPIECHEDEOYE, BOE DPLKHNEOF. pDOBLP NPTsOP RPMBZBFSH, UFP YNEOOP CH FYI CHPRTPUBI lBTBNYO VMYPL L VYPZTBJYUEULPK TEBMSHOPUFY.

24* ZhTBOGKHULPE RYUSHNP ZPUHDBTA YMY CHCHUYN UBOPCHOYLBN, OBRYUBOOPE NHTSYUYOPK, VSCHMP VSH CHPURTYOSFP LBL DETEPUFSH: RPDDBOOSCHK PVSBO VSCHM RYUBFSH RP-THUULY Y FPYuOP UMEDHS X UFBOPMEOOPK ZHTNE. dBNB VSCHMB YЪVBCHMEOB PF FFPZP TYFHBMB. zhTBOGKHULYK SJSHCHL UPDBCHBM NETsDH OEA Y ZPUHDBTEN PFOPIEOYS, RPDPVOSCHE TYFHBMSHOSHCHN UCHSSN TSCHGBTS Y DBNSCH. zhTBOGKHULYK LPTPMSh MADPCHYL XIV, RPCHEDEOYE LPFPTPZP CHUE EEE VSCHMP YDEBMPN DMS CHUEI LPTPMEK ECHTPRSC, DENPOUFTBFICHOP RP-TSCHGBTULY PVTBEBMUS U TsEOEYOBNY MAVPZP CHPTBUFB Y UPGYBMSHOPZP RPMPTSEOIS.

YOFETEUOP PFNEFYFSH, UFP ATYDYYUEULY UFEREOSH UPGIBMSHOPK ЪBEIEEOOPUFY, LPFPTPK TBURPMBZBMB THUULBS TSEOEYOB-DCHPTSOB CH OILPMBECHULHA LRPIH, NPTCEF VSHCHFSH UPRPUFBCHME ABOUT U BEYEEOOPUFSHHA RPUEFYCHIEZP tPUUYA YOPUFTBOGB. UPCHRBDEOYE LFP OE UFPMSh HTS UMHYUBKOP: CH YUYOPCHOP-VATPLTTBFYUEULPN NYTE TBOB Y NHODYTB CHUSLYK, LFP FBL YMYY YOBYUE CHSHCHIPDYF OB EZP RTEDEMSCH, - "YOPUFTBOEG".

25* rTBCHDB, CH PFMYYUYE PF uEO-rTE Yb “OPCHPK IMPIYSHCH”, tCHLPCHULYK - DCHPTSOYO. pDOBLP DCHPTSOUFCHP EZP UPNOYFEMSHOP: CHUE PLTHTSBAEYE OBAF, UFP PO OEBLPOOSCHK USCHO U ZhILFICHOP DPVSCHFSCHN DCHPTSOUFCHPN (UN .: rPTFOCHB y. y., zhPNYO o. l. DEMP P DCHPT SOUFCHE cHLPCHULPZP. - h LO .: cHLPCHULYK Y THUULBS LHMSHFHTB. m., 1987, W. 346-350).

26* FBL OBSHCHCHBMY PVSCHUOP LOYZH "RMHFBTIB iETPOEKULPZP p DEFPCHPDUFCHE, YMY CHPURYFBOY DEFEK OBUFBCHMEOYE. RETECHEDEOOPE U EMMYOP-ZTEYUEULPZP SHCHLB u[FERBOPN] r[YUBTECHCHN]". urV., 1771.

28* CHPNPTSOP, UFP CHOYNBOYE tBDYEECHB L LFPNKH RYYPDKH CHSHCHBOP UPVSCHFYEN, RTSNP RTEDIEUFCHPCHBCHYYN OBRYUBOYA FELUFB. rPUMEDOYE SLPVYOGSHCH — TSYMSHVET TPNN Y EZP EDYOPNSCHYMEOOOYLY, PVPDTSS DTKhZ DTKhZB, YЪVETSBMY LBY, FBL LBL ЪBLPMMPMYUSH PDOIN LYOTSBMPN, LPFPTSCHK POY RETEDBCHBMY DTH Z DTHZH YЪ THL CH THLY (DBFYTPCHLH RPNSCH 1795-1796 ZZ. UN .: tBDYEECH b. o. uFYIPFCHPTEOIS. m ., 1975, U. 244-245).

29* uFPVShch PGEOYFSH FFPF YBZ DPCHPMSHOP PUFPPTTSOPZP rMEFOECHB, UMEDHEF HYUEUFSH, UFP OBYUYOBS U 1830-ZP ZPDB ChPLTKhZ PGEOLY FCHPTYUEUFCHB rhylyob YMB PUFTBS RPMENYLB Y BCHFPTYFEF EZP VSCM RPLPMEVMEO DBCE CH UPBOBOY OBYVPMEE VMYLLYI L OENH RPLFCH (OBRTYNET, e. vBTBFSCHOULPZP). h PZHYGYPOSCHI TSE LTHZBI DYULTEDYFYTPCHBFSH RP'YA RHYLYOB UDEMBMPUSH CH FY ZPDSH UCHPEZP TPDB PVSCHYUBEN.

30* uKHNBTPLCH b. R. ybvt. RTPYCHEDEOYS. M., 1957, U. 307. mPNPOPUCHB: “p CHS, LPFPTSCHI PTSYDBEF // pFEYUEUFCHP YJ OEDT UCHPYI ...” USH TSE UNSCHUM RPUMBOYS uHNBTPLPCHB UPUFPYF CH UPDBOY RTPZTBNNSC DMS CHPURYFBOYS THUULPK DCHPTSOULPK DECHYLY.

33* RETCHPE CHPURYFBFEMSHOPE BCCHEDEOYE DMS DECHKHYEL CHPOYLMP CH DETRFE, BDPMZP DP unNPMSHOPZP YOUFYFHFB, CH 50-E ZPDSH XVIII CHELB. rTERPDBCHBOYE FBN CHEMPUSH ABOUT OENEGLPN SHCHLE.

34* RTYNEYU. RHYLYOB: “oEFPYUOPUFSH. — about VBMBI LBCHBMETZBTD<УЛЙЕ>PZHYGETSCH SCHMSAFUS FBL CE, LBL Y RTPUYE ZPUFY, CH CHYG NHODYTE, CH VBYNBLBI. bneyuboye PUOPCHBFEMSHOPE, OP CH YRPTBI EUFSH OEYUFP RP'FYUEULPE. UUSCHMBAUSH ABOUT NOEOIE b. th. V. » (VI, 528).

[reftpchulyk m.] iBTSHLPCH, 1825, U. 13-14.

35* n. b. OBTSCHYLYOB - MAVPCHOYGB, BOE TSEOB YNRETBFPTB, RPFPNKh OE NPCEF PFLTSCHCHBFSH VBM CH RETCHPK RBTE, HrHYLYOB TSE "mBMMB-tHL" YDEF CH RETCHPK RBTE U bMELUBODTPN I.

ЪBRYULY with. n. oECETCHB. - THUULBS UFBTYOB, 1883, F. XI (GIF. RP: rPNEEYUShS tPUUYS, U. 148). rBTDPLUBMSHOPE UPCHRBDEOYE OBIPDYN CH UFYIPFCHPTEOYY CHUECHPMPDB tPTsDEUFCHEOULPZP, UPDBAEZP PVTB VEUFHTSECHB-nBTMYOULPZP, VETSBCHYEZP H ZPTSH Y DELMBNYTHAEEZP UMED HAEK FELUF:

MJYSH ABOUT WEDDGE FPMSHLP OBMSCEF FPUBLB

th OEVP RPLBCEFUS HELLIN,

CHUA OPYUSH EK CH ZBTENE YUIFBA "gSCHZBO",

CHUE RMBYUKH, RPA RP-ZHTBOGHULY.

chPPVTBTSEOYE RPPFB UFTBOOP RPCHFPTSMP ZHBOFBYY RPNEEYLB DBCHOYI RPT.

39* pFPTSDEUFCHMEOYE UMPC "IBN" Y "TBV" RPMKHYUYMP PDOP MAVPRSCHFOPE RTPDPMTSEOIE. DELBVTYUF OYLPMBK FKhTZEOECH, LPFPTSCHK, RP UMPCHBN rhylyob, "GERY TBVUFCHB OEOBCHYDEM", YURPMSHЪPCHBM UMPCHP "IBN" CH UREGYZHYUEULPN ЪOBYUEOYY. according to UYUYFBM, UFP IHDYNY TBVBNY SCHMSAFUS BEIFOYLY TBVUFCHB - RTPRCHEDOYL LTERPUFOPZP RTBChB. DMS OII PO Y YURPMSHЪPCHBM CH UCHPYI DOECHOILBI Y RYUSHNBI UMPCHP "IBN", RTECHTBFICH EZP CH RPMYFYUEULIK FETNYO.

UN. PV LFPN CH LO .: lBTRPCHYU e.r. ъBNEYUBFEMSHOSHCHE VPZBFUFCHB YUBUFOSCHI MYG H tPUUYY. urV., 1874, U. 259-263; B FBLCE: MPFNBO a. n. tPNBO b. y. rHYLYOB "ECHZEOIK POEZYO". lPNNEOFBTYK. M., 1980, U. 36-42.

40* UT. CH FPN CE YUFPUOYLE PRYUBOYE PVTSDB UCHBFPCHUFCHB: “UFPM VSHCHM OBLTSHCHF Yuempchel ABOUT UPTPL. ABOUT UFPME UFPSM YUEFSHCHTE PLPTPLB Y VEMSHCHK VPMSHYPK, LTKHZMSCHK, UMBDLYK RYTPZ U TBOSSCHNY HLTBIEOYSNY Y ZHYZHTBNY.

41* rPDBZPMCHPL "pFTSCHCHPL YЪ RYUSHNB ATsOPZP TsYFEMS" - OE FPMSHLP UPDATED ABOUT VYPZTBZHJYUEULIE PVUFPSFEMSHUFCHB BCHFPTB, OP Y DENPOUFTBFICHOPE RTPFICHPRPUFBCHMEOYE UEVS "RE FETVKhTZULPK FPULE UTEOIS.

42 * FP EUFSH "LBYUEMY CH CHYDE CHTBEBAEZPUS CHBMB U RTPDEFSCHNY ULCHPSH OEZP VTHUSHSNNY, ABOUT LPFPTSHCHI RPDCHEOYOSCH SAILY U UIDEOSHSNNY" (UMPCHBTSH SJSCHLB rhylyob. h 4-I F. n., 1956-1961, F. 2, W. 309). LBL MAVYNPE OBTPDOPE TBCHMEYUEOYE, LFY LBYEMY PRYUBOSCH VSCHMY RHFEEUFCHEOOILPN pMEBTYEN (un.: pMEBTYK bDBN. 8-219), LPFPTSCHK RYCHEM YI YI TYUKHOPL.

44* yBTS YMY EPTS — CHYD FTBCHSHCH, UYUYFBCHYEKUS CH OBTPDOPC NEDYGYOE GEMEVOPK “ChP CHTENS FTPYGLPZP NPMEVOB DECHKHYLY, UFPSEYE UMECHB PF BMFBTS, DPMTSOSCH HTPOYFSH OEULPMSHLP UME YOPL ABOUT RHYUPL NEMLYI VETEJPCHSCHI CHEFPL (CH DTHZYI TBKPOBI tPUUY RMBLBMY ABOUT RHYUPL OBTY YMY ABOUT DTHZYE GCHEFSHCH. — a.m.). FFPF RKHUPL FEBFEMSHOP UVETEZBEFUS RPUME Y UYUYFBEFUS ЪBMPZPN FPZP, UFP CH FFP MEFP OE VHDEF BUHIY" (ETOPCHB b.v. TPCHULPN LTBE - UPCHEFULBS LFOPZTBZHYS, 1932, 3, U. 30).

45 * p EDYOPN UCHBDEVOPN PVTSDE CH HUMPCHYSI LTERPUFOPZP VSHFB ZPCHPTYFSH OEMSHЪS. lTERPUFOPE RTYOHTSDEOYE Y OYEEFB URPUPVUFCHPCHBMY TBTHIEOYA PVTSDPCHPK UFTHLFHTSC. fBL, Ch "YUFPTYY UEMB zPTAIIOB" OEBDBYUMYCHSHCHK BCHFPT zPTAIIO RPMBZBEF, YuFP PRYUSCHCHBEF RPIPTPOOSCHK PVTSD, LPZDB UCHIDEFEMSHUFCHHEF, UFP CH EZP DETECHEE RPLPKOILPCH BT SCHCHBMY CH ENMA (YOPZDB PYYVPYUOP) UTBIH RPUME LPOYUOYOSCH, "DBVSH NETFCHSHCHK CH Y'VE MYOYOEZP NEUFB OE BOINBM". NS VETEN RTYNET YЪ CYOYOY PYUEOSH VZBFSHCHI LTERPUFOSHCHI LTEUFSHSO — RTBUMPCH Y FPTZCHGECH, FBL LBL ЪDEUSH PVTSD UPITBOYMUS CH OETBBTHYEOOPN CHYDE.

46* y RTYNEYUBOYK L SRPOULPNKh FELUPH CHYDOP, UFP THUULPE UMPCHP "CHEOGSHCH" OE PYUEOSH FPYUOP RETEDBEF UPDETTSBOYE. UMPCHP CH PTYZYOBME POBUBEF "DYBDENKH ABOUT UVBFKh VKhDDSH" (U. 360). iBTBLFETOP, UFP YOZHPTNBFPT PFPTsDEUFCHMSEF OPCHPPVTBYUOSCHI OE AT NIGHT CHMBUFYFEMSNY, B AT VPZBNY.

49* OBRPNOIN HCE PFNEYUBCHYHAUS OBNY MAVPRSHCHFOKHA DEFBMSH. TEYUSH YDEF PV LRPIE EMJBCHEFSHCH REFTPCHOSCH. OP LPZDB eETVBFCH ZPCHPTYF P OEK LBL P YUEMPCHELE, PO HRPFTEVMSEF TSEOUULHA ZHPTNKH: "ZPUHDBTSCHOS", LPZDB TSE P E ZPUHDBTUFCHEOOOPK DESFEMSHOPUFY - NHTSULKHA: "ZPUHDBTSh".

51* 'DEUSH TEYUSH IDEF PV BOZMYKULPK NHTSULPK NPDE: ZHTBOGKHULYE TSEOULYE Y NHTSULYE NPDSH UFTPIMYUSH LBL CHBYNOP UPPFCHEFUFCHEOOSHCHE - CH BOZMYY LBTsDBS YЪ OYI TBCHYCHB MBUSH RP UPVUFCHEOOOSCHN BLBLOBN.

65* "PUFTYTSEO RP RPUMEDOEK NPDE" Y "LBL DEODY MPODPOULYK PDEF" FBLCE POEZJO. FFPNH RTPFICHPRPUFBCHMEOSCH "LHDTY UETOSCHE DP RMEU" MEOULPZP. LTYLHO, NSFETSOYL Y RPF, LBL YBTBLFETYYHEFUS MEOULYK CH YUETOPCHPN CHBTYBOFE, PO, LBL Y DTHZYE OENEGLIE UFHDEOFSHCH, OPUIM DMYOOSHCHCHPMPUSHCH CH OBL MYVETBMYYNB, Y Kommersant RPDTBTSBOYS LBTVPOBTYSN.

CHRECHESCHE UPRPUFBCHMEOYE UATSEFPCH LFYI RTPYCHEDEOYK UN .: yFEKO y. RHYLYO Y ZPZHNBO. UTBCHOYFEMSHOPE YUFPTYLP-MYFETBFHTOPE YUUMEDCHBOYE. dETRP, 1927, U. 275.

66* oEUNPFTS OB FP, YuFP TBCHPD Y OPCHSHCHK VTBL VSCHMY BLPOPDBFEMSHOP PZHPTNMEOSCH, PVEEUFCHP PFLBJSCHBMPUSH RTYOBFSH ULBODBMSHOSHCHK RTPYZTSCHY TSEOSCH, Y VEDOBS ZTBJYOS TB ЪHNPCHULBS VSCHMB RPDCHETZOHFB PUFTBLYNH. CHSHIPD Y RPMPTSEOIS U RTYUKHEIN ENH DTSEOFMSHNEOUFCHPN OBYEM bMELUBODT I, RTYZMBUYCH VSHCHYHA LOSZYOA ABOUT FBOEG Y OBCHBCH HER RTY LFPN ZTBJOYEK. pVEEUFCHEOOOSCHK UFBFHU, FBLYN PVTBYPN, VSHCHM ChPUUFBOCHMEO.

UN: MELPNGECHB n. J., HUREOULYK v. b. PRYUBOYE PDOPK UYUFENSCH U RTPUFSHCHN UYOFBLUYUPN; eZPTHR c. and. rtpufekyye UENYPFYUEULYE UYUFENSCH Y FYRPMPZYS UATSEFPCH. - fTHDSCH RP ЪOBLPCHSCHN UYUFENBN. hShR. R. fBTFH, 1965.

RPCHEUFY, YODBOOSCHE bMELUBODTPN rHYLYOSCHN. urV., 1834, U. 187 Zh PRHEEO, IPFS LFP PVUFPSFEMSHUFCHP OYZDE CH YODBOY OE PZPCHPTEOP.

67* fBL, r. b. chSENULYK RYYEF P "NYTOPK, FBL OBSCCHCHBENPK LPNNETYUEULPK YZTE, P LBTFPYUOPN CHTENSRTCHPTsDEOYY, UCHPKUFCHEOOPN H OBU CHUEN CHPTBUFBN, CHUEN 'CHBOISN Y PVPYN RPMBN. pDOB THUULBS VBTSCHOS ZPCHPTYMB CH CHOEEGYY: „lPOEYUOP, LMYNBF ЪDEUSH IPTPY; OP TsBMSh, UFP OE ULEN UTBYFSHUS CH RTEZHETBOWIL ". LBCDSCHK CHEYUET VSCHMB UCHPS RBTFYS "" (chSENULYK r. UFBTBS ЪBRYUOBS LOITSLB, Moscow, 1929, U. 85-86).

UFTIHR Fr. RETERYULB NPDSH, UPDETTSBEBS RYUSHNB VETKHLYI NPD, TBNSCHYMEOYS OEPDHYECMEOOOSHI OBTSDHR, TBZPCHPTSH VEUUMPCHEUOSHI YUERGPCH, YUHCHUFCHPCHBOYS NEVEMEK, LBTEF, BRYUOSHI LOYCE L, RHZPCHYG Y UFBTPBCHEFOSHCHI NBOEL, LHOFBYEK, YMBZHPTCH, FEMPZTEK Y RT. otbChUFCHEOOPE Y LTYFYYUEULPE UPYOYOEOYE, CH LPEN U YUFYOOOPK UFPTPOSCH PFLTSCHFSCH OTBCHSCH, PVTB TSOYOY Y TBOBOSCHS UNEOYOSCHS Y CHBTSOSCHS UGEOSCH NPDOZP CHELB. n., 1791, U. 31-32.

69* un. X opCHILPCHB: “rPDTSD MAVPCHOYLPCH L RTEUFBTEMPK LPLEFLE ... NOPZYN OBYN ZPURPDYUYLBN CHULTHTSYM ZPMPCHSCH ... IPFSF ULBLBFSH ABOUT RPYUFPCHSCHI MPYBDSI CH REFETVKhTZ, UFPVShch FBLPZP RPMEOPZP DMS OII OE RTPRHUFYFSH UMHYUBS "(UBFYTYYUEULIE TSKHTOBMSCH o. y. oCHILPCHB. n.; m ., 1951, W. 105. r.o. ZOPN 'PT Ch "rPYUFE DHIPCH" LTSCHMPCHB RYEF nBMYLKHMSHNKHMSHLH: "s RTYOSM CHYD NPMPDPZP Y RTYZPTSESP YuEMPCHELB, RPFPNKh YuFP GCHEFHEBS NPMPDPUFSH, RTYSFOPUFY Y LTBUPFB CH OSHCH OEOYOE CHTENS FBLCE H CHEUSHNB OENBMPN HCHBTSEOY Y RTY OELPFPTSCHI UMHYUBSI, LBL ULBSCCHBAF, RTPYCHPDSF CHEMILIE YUHDEUB "(lTSCHMPCH J. b. rPMO. UPVT. UPU., F. I, W. 43), UT .:

dB, YUEN CE FShch, tskhtskh, Ch UMHYUBK RPRBM,

VEUUIMEO VSCCHNY FBL Y NBM ... (FBN TSE, F. 3, U. 170).

75* h DBOOPN UMHYUBE DMS OBU OECHBTsOP FP PVUFPSFEMSHUFCHP, UFP CH RSEUE zPZPMS "NPMPDPK YUEMPCEL" PLBSHCHCHBEFUS UPCHUEN OE "MEZLPCHETOSHCHN", B FBLTSE SCHMSEFUS HYBUFOILPN YHMETULPK YBKLY .

ENH ZPFCHYFSH YUEUFOSHCHK ZTPV,

th FYIP GEMYFSH H VMEDOSHK MPV

about VMBZPTPDOPN TBUUFPSOSHY.

"vMBZPTPDOPE TBUUFPSOYE" ЪDEUSH - HFCHETSDEOOPE RTBCHYMBNY DHMY. h TBCHOPK UFEREOY HVYKUFCHP ABOUT DHMY IBTBLFETYYHEFUS LBL "YUEUFOPE".

77 * "rPTPYLPCHSCHE" - ZHBMSHIYCHSCHE LBTFSCH (PF YEUFETLY DP DEUSFLY). LBTFSCH OBLMEYCHBAFUS PDOB ABOUT DTKHZHA, OBRTYNET, YEUFETLB ABOUT UENETLH, ZHJZHTB NBUFY CHSHCHTEBEFUUS, OBUSCHRBOOSCHK VEMSHCHK RPTPYPL DEMBEF EFP OEEBNEFOSHCHN. YKHMET CH IPDE YZTSCH CHSCFTSIYCHBEF RPTPYPL, RTCHTBEBS YEUFETLH CH UENETLH Y F.D.

79* h IPDE BBTFOSHCHI YZT FTEVPCHBMPUSH RPTPK VPMSHYPE LPMYUEUFCHP LPMPD. rTY YZTE CH ZHBTBPO VBOLPNEF Y LBTsDSHK Y RPOFETCH (B YI NPZMP VSHCHFSH VPMEE DEUSFLB) DPMTSEO VSCHM YNEFSH PFDEMSHOHA LPMPDH. LTPNE FPZP, OEHDBYUMYCHSCHE YZTPLY TCHBMY Y TBVTBUSCHCHBMY LPMPDSH, LBL LFP PRYUBOP, OBRTYNET, CH TPNBOE d.o. VEZYUECHB "UENEKUFCHP iPMNULYI". YURPMSH'PCHBOOBS ("RTPRPOFYTPCHBOOBS") LPMPDB FHF TSE VTPUBMBUSH RPD UFPM. LFY TBVTPUBOOSCHE, YUBUFP CH PZTPPNPN LPMYUEUFCHE, RPD UFPMBNY LBTFShch RPTSE, LBL RTBCHYMP, UPVITBMYUSH UMHZBNY Y RTPDBCHBMYUSH NEEBOBN DMS YZTSCH CH DHTBLB Y RPDPVOSHCHE TB CHMELBFEMSHOSHCHE YZTSCH. yuBUFP CH LFPK LHYUE LBTF ABOUT RPMX CHBMSMYUSH Y HRBCHYE DEOSHZY, LBL LFP, OBRTYNET, YNEMP NEUFP PE ChTENS LTHROSHI YZT, LPFPTSHCHE BBTFOP CHEM about. oELTBUPCH. RPDSCHNBFSH LFY DEOSHZY UYUYFBMPUSH OERTYMYYUOSCHN, Y SING DPUFBCHBMYUSH RPFPN MBLESN CHNEUFE U LBTFBNY. h YKHFMYCHSHI MEZEODBI, PLTHTSBCHYI DTHTSVKH fPMUFPZP Y ZhEFB, RPCHFPTSMUS BOELDPF P FPN, LBL ZhEF ChP CHTENS LBTFPYuOPK YZTSCH OBZOKHMUS, YuFPVSH RPDOSFSH U RPMB Khrbchykha OEVP MSHYKHA BUUYZOBGYA, B

82* YUFPLY LFPZP RPCHEDEOYS BLNEFOSHCH HCE CH REFETVKhTZE CH 1818-1820 ZPDSHCH. pDOBLP UETSHESHI RPEDYOLPCH H rhylyob Ch FFPF RETYPD EEE OE PFNEYUEOP. DKHMSH U LAIEMSHVELETPN OE CHPURTIOINBMBUSH RHYLYOSCHN CHUETSHEY. pVIDECHYUSH ABOUT rhylyob bb ryztbnnkh “bb xtsyopn pvyaemus s...” (1819), LAIEMSHVELET CHSCCHBM EZP ABOUT DKHMSH. RHYLYO RTYOSM CHSHCHHCH, OP CHSHCHUFTEMYM CH CHPDHI, RPUME YuEZP DTKHSHS RTYNYTYMYUSH. rTEDRMPTSEOYE CE ChM. obvplpchb P DHMY U tschmeechshchn CHUE EEE PUFBEFUUS RPYUEULPK ZYRPFEEPK.

FBMMENBO DE TEP TSEDEPO. BOYNBFEMSHOSHOSCHE YUFPTYY. M., 1974, F. 1, U. 159. un. PV LFPN: mPFNBO a. FTY OBNEFLY L RTPVMENE: "RHYLYO Y ZHTBOGKHULBS LKHMSHFKhTB". - rTPVMENSCH RHYLYOPCHEDEOYS. TYZB, 1983.

83* h RTEDIEUFCHHAEYI TBVPFBI P "eChZEOOYY POEZYOE" NOE RTYIPDYMPUSH RPMENYUEUULY CHCHULBSCCHBFSHUS P LOYSE vPTYUB yChBOPCHB (CHPNPTSOP, RUECHDPOIN; RPDMIOOBS ZHBNYMYS BCHFP TB, LBL Y LBLIE VSC FP OY VSCHMP UCHEDEOYS P OEN, NOE OEYCHEUFOSHCH). un.: MPFNBO a. "dBMSh UCHPVPDOPZP TPNBOB". N, 1959 noe UMEDPCHBMP PFNEFYFSH, YuFP BCHFPT RTPSCHYM IPTPIEEE BOBOIE VSHFB RHYLYOULPK LRPIY Y UPEDYOYM PVEIK UFTBOOSCHK BUNSCHU U TSDPN YOFETEUOSCHI OBVMADEOYK, UCHIDEFEMSHUFCHHA EII PV PVIYTOPK PUCHEDPNMEOOPUFY. TELPUFSH NPYI CHSHCHULBJSCHCHBOIK, P LPFPTPK CH OBUFPSEEE CHTENS S UPTSBMEA, VSCHMB RTPDYLFPCHBOB MPZYLPK RPMENYLY.

84* RP DTHZYN RTBCHYMBN, RPUME FPZP, LBL PDYO YY HYBUFOILPCH DHMY CHSHCHUFTEMYM, CHFPTPK Refinery RTPDPMTSBFSH DCHYTSEOYE, B FBLTS RPFTEVPCHBFSH RTPFYCHOYLB L VBTSHETH. LFYN RPMShPCHBMYUSH VTEFETSCH.

86* UT. CH "ZETPE OBYEZP READING": "NSCH DBCHOP HTS CHBU PTSYDBEN", - ULBBM DTBZHOULYK LBRYFBO U YTPOYUEULPK HMSCHVLPK. with CHSHCHOHM YUBUSCH Y RPLBBM ENH. PO YJCHYOYMUS, ZPCHPTS, UFP EZP YuBU SC HIPDSF.

UNSCHUM RYJPDB - CH UMEDHAEEN: DTBZHOULYK LBRYFBO, HVETSDEOOSHCHK, UFP REYUPTYO "RETCHSHCHK FTHU", LPUCHEOOP PVCHYOSEF EZP CH TSEMBOY, PRPDBCH, UPTCHBFSH DKhMSH.

87* HYBUFYE CH DHMY, DBCE CH LBYUEUFCHE UELHODBOFB, CHMELMP IB UPVPK OEYVETSOSCHE OERTJSFOSHCHE RPUMEDUFCHYS: DMS PZHYGETB FFP, LBL RTBCHYMP, VSCHMP TBTSBMPCHBOYE Y UUSCHMLB OB LB CHLB (RTBCHDB, TBTSBMPCHBOOSCHN bB DKhMSh OBYUBMSHUFCHP PVSCHLOPCHEOOP RPLTPCHYFEMSHUFCHPCHBMP). uFP UPDBCHBMP Y'CHEUFOSHCHE FTHDOPUFY RTY CHSHCHVPTE UELHODBOFPCH: LBL MYGP, CH THLY LPFPTPZP RETEDBAFUS TJOYOSH Y YUEUFSH, UELHODBOF, PRFYNBMSHOP, DPMTSEO VSCHM VSHCHFSH VMYLYN D THZPN. OP LFPNKh RTPFYCHPTEYUYMP OETSEMBOYE CHPCHMELBFSH DTHZB CH OERTYSFOHA YUFPTYA, MPNBS ENKH LBTSHETH. UP UCHPEK UFPTPOSCH, UELHODBOF FBLCE PLBSCCHBMUS CH FTHDOPN RPMPTSEOYY. YOFETEUSCH DTHTSVSHCH Y YUEUFY FTEVPCHBMY RTYOSFSH RTYZMBYOEOYE HYBUFCHPCHBFSH H DHMY LBL MEUFOSHCHK OBBL DPCHETYS, B UMHTsVSHCH Y LBTSHETSHCH - CHYDEFSH CH FFPN PRBUOKHA HZTPYH YURP TFYFSH RTPDCHYTSEOYE YMY DBCE CHSCCHBFSH MYUOKHA OERTYSOSH IMPRBNSFOPZP ZPUHDBTS.

88 * oBRNOYN RTBCHYMP DHMY: “UFTEMSFSH CH CHPDDHI YNEEF RTBCHP FPMSHLP RTPFYCHOYL, UFTEMSAEYK CHFPTSCHN. rTPFICHOIL, CHCHUFTEMYCHYK RETCHSHCHN H ChPDHI, EUMY EZP RTPFICHOIL OE PFCCHEFYM ABOUT CHSHCHUFTEM YMY FBLTS CHSHCHUFTEMYM CH CHPDHI, UYUYFBEFUS HLMPOYCHYNUS PF DHMY ... ”(dHTBUCH. DKHMSHOSHCHK LPDELU, 1908, U. 104). rtbchimp ffp uchsbop u fen, yufp chshchuftem ch chpdkhi retchpzp yj rtpfhychoylpch nptbmshop pvsschchbef chfptpzp l CHEMYLPDKHYYA, HYHTRYTHS EZP RTBCHP UBNPNKh PRTEDEMSFSH UCHPE RP CHEDEOYE YUEUFY.

VEUFHTSECH (nBTMYOULYK) b. b. OPYUSh ABOUT LPTBVME. rPCHEUFY Y TBUULBSHCH. n., 1988, U. 20.

RTPVMENB BCHFPNBFYNB CHEUSHNB CHPMOPCHBMB rhylyob; UN .: sLPVUPO t. - h LO .: sLPVUPO t. TBVPFSCH RP RPFILE. n., 1987, U. 145-180.

UN: MPFNBO a. n. FENB LBTF Y LBTFPYuOPK YZTSCH CH THUULPK MYFETBFKhTE OBYUBMB XIX CHELB. - HYUEO. bbr. fBTFHULPZP ZPU. HO-FB, 1975. ChSHR. 365. FTKHDSHCH RP OBLPCHSHCHN UYUFENBN, F. VII.

90* VSCCHBMY Y VPMEE CEUFLIE HUMPCHYS. fBL, yuETOPCH (UN. U. 167), NUFS ЪB YuEUFSH UEUFTSHCH, FTEVPCHBM RPEDYOLB OB TBUUFPSOY CH FTY (!) YBZB. h RTEDUNETFOPK ЪBRYULE (DPYMB CH LPRYY THLPK b. VEUFHTSECHB) BY RYUBM: “UFTEMSAUSH ABOUT FTY YBZB, LBL ЪB DEMP UENEKUFCHEOOPE; YVP, COBS VTBFSHECH NPYI, IPYUH LPOYUYFSH UPVPA ABOUT OEN, ABOUT LFPN PULPTVYFEME NPPEZP UENEKUFCHB, LPFPTSCHK DMS RHUFSHCHI FPMLCH EEE RHUFEKYI MADEK RTEUFKHRIM CHUE BLPOSHCH YuEU FY, PVEEUFCHB Y YuEMPCHEYUFCHB ”(DECHSFOBDGBFSHCHK PEOPLE LLO. 1. n., 1872, U. 334 ). RP OBUFPSOIA UELHODBOFPCH DKHMSH RTPYUIPDYMB ABOUT TBUUFPSOYY CH CHPUENSH YBZPCH, Y CHUE TBCHOP PVB HYUBUFOILB ITS RPZYVMY.

92* PVSCHUOSCHK NEIBOYN DHMSHOPZP RYUFPMEFB FTEVHEF DCHPKOPZP OBTSYNB OB URHULPCHPK LTAYuPL, UFP RTEDPITBOSEF PF UMHYUBKOPZP CHSHCHUFTEMMB. yOEMMETPN OBSCCHBMPUSH HUFTPKUFCHP, PFNEOSAEEE RTEDCHBTYFEMSHOSCHK OBTSYN. h TEEKHMSHFBFE KHUYMYCHBMBUSH ULPTPUFTEMSHOPUFSH, OP IBFP TELP RPCHSHCHYBMBUSH CHPNPTSOPUFSH UMHYUBKOSHCHI CHSHCHUFTEMPCH.

94* RPDPVOSCHK LPOFTBUF YURPMSH'PCHBO n. vKHMZBLPCHSHCHN H "nBUFETE Y nBTZBTYFE". ABOUT VBMH, UTEDY RSHCHYOP OBTSEOOSCHI ZPUFEK, RPDYUTLOHFBS OEVTETSOPUFSH PDETSDSCH CHPMBODB CHSHDEMSEF EZP TPMSh iPSYOB. rTPUFPFB NHODYTB oBRPMEPOB UTEDY RSHCHYOPZP DCHPTB YNEMB FPF TSE UNSCHUM. rSCHYOPUFSH PDETSDSCH UCHIDEFEMSHUFCHHEF PV PTYEOFBGYY ABOUT FPYULH ЪTEOYS CHOEYOEZP OBVMADBFEMS. DMS chPMBODB OEF FBLPZP "CHOEYOEZP" OBVMADBFEMS. oBRMEPO LHMSHFYCHYTHEF FH TSE RPYGYA, PDOBLP H VVPMEE UMPTSOPN CHBTYBOFE: chPMBODH CH UBNPN DEME VETBMYUOP, LBL ON CHCHZMSDYF, oBRMEPO YЪPVTTBTSBEF FPZP, LPNKh VETB ЪMYUOP, LBL BY CHCHZMSDYF.

ZHEPZHBOB rTPLPRPCHYUB, BTIYERYULPRB CHEMYLPZP oPCHZPTPDB Y CHEMYLYI MHL, UCHSFEKIEZP RTBCHYFEMSHUFCHHAEEZP UYOPDB CHYGE-RTEYDEOFB... uMPCHB Y TEYUY, Yu. 1, 1760, U. 15 8.

96* fBL, DPUKHZY CHEMYLYYI LOSEK, VTBFSHECH bMELUBODTTB Y OYLPMBS RBCHMPCHYUEK — lPOUFBOFYOB Y NYIBYMB TELP LPOFTBUFYTPCHBMY U NKHODYTOPK UFSOHFPUFSHHA YI PZHYGYBMShOPZP RP CHEDEOIS. lPOUFBOFYO CH LPNRBOY RSHSOSCHI UPVKhFSCHMSHOILPCH DPYEM DP FPZP, UFP YOBUYMPCHBM CH LPNRBOY (CETFCHB ULPOYUBMBUSH) DBNKH, UMHYUBKOP BYBVTEDYHA CH EZP YUBUFSH DCHPTGB YY RPMPCHYOSCH nBTYY ZHEDPTPCHOSCH. yNRETBFPT bMELUBODT CHSCHOKHTSDEO VSCHM PYASCHYFSH, YuFP RTEUFKHROYL, EUMY EZP OBKDHF, VKHDEF OBLBBO RP CHUEK UFTPZPUFY BLPOB. tBHNEEFUS, RTEUFHRROIL OBKDEO OE VSCHM.

p FS, UFP Ch ZPTEUFY OBRTBUOP

about VPZB TPREYSH, UEMPCEL,

CHOYNBC, LPMSH CH TECHOPUFY HTSBUOP

PO L yPCH Y Y FHYU TEL!

ULCHPSH DPCDSh, ULCHPSH CHYITSH, ULCHPSH ZTBD VMYUFBS

th ZMBUPN ZTPNSCH RTETSCHCHBS,

UMPCHBNY OEVP LPMEVBM

i FBL EZP OB TBURTA ЪCHBM. yFYVMEFSH LBL ZHPTNB CHPEOOPC PDETSDSCH VSCHMY CHCHEDEOSCH rBCHMPN RP RTHUULPNKh PVTBGH. URBOFPO - LPTPFLBS RYLB, CHCHEDEOOBS RTY RBCHME CH PZHYGETULCHA ZHPTNKH.

99* CHUE OYFY bZPCHPTTB VSCHMY OBUFPMSHLP UPUTEDPFPYUEOSCH CH THLBI YNRETBFPTB, UFP DBTSE OBYVPMEE BLFICHOSCHE HYUBUFOILY ЪBZPCHPTTB RTPFYCH URETBOULPZP: OBCHBOOSCHK CHCHYE s. DE UBOZMEO Y ZEOETBM-BDYAFBOF b. d. OGYY H GBTS, U ZTHUFOSHCHN OEDPHNEOYEN RTYOBMYUSH DTHZ DTHZH H FPN, UFP OE HCHETEOSCH, RTYDEFUS MY YN BTEUFPCHSCCHBFSH URETBOULPZP YMY BY RPMHYUYF X YNRETBFPTB TBURPTSEOYE BTEUFPCHBFSH YI. h FYI HUMPCHYSI PYUECHIDOP, UFP bMELUBODT OE HUFHRBM OYUSHENKH DBCHMEOYA, B DEMBM CHYD, UFP HUFHRBEF, ABOUT UBNPN DEME FCHETDP RTCHPDS YЪVTBOOSCHK YN LKhTU, OP, LBL CHUEZDB, M HLBCHS, NEOSS NBULY Y RPDZPFBCHMYCHBS PYUETEDOSCHI LPMCH PFRHEEOIS.

GIF. RP: ITEUFPNBFIYS RP YUFPTYY BRBDOPECHTPREKULPZP FEBFTB. n., 1955, F. 2, U. 1029. h NENKHBTBI BLFETB zOBUFB-NMBDYEZP UPDETSYFUS KhRPNYOBOYE P FPN, UFP, LPZDB OB TEREFYGYY NBYOYUF CHSHCHUFBCHYM ZPMPPCH YЪ-ЪB LKHMYU, “FP FUBU CE ZJFE RTPZTENEM: "zPURPYO z" OBUF, HWETYFE LFH OERPDIPDSEHA ZPMPCHH Yb-b RETCHPK LHMYUSCH URTBCHB: POB CHFPTZBEFUS H TBNLH NPEK LBTFYOSCH "" (FBN CE, U. 1037).

BTBRHR r. MEFPRYUSH THUULPZP FEBFTB. urV., 1861, U. 310. CH UFYIPFCHPTEOYY h. m. b. chSENULPNKH" (1815):

about FTHD IHDPTSOILB UCHPY VTPUBAF CHEPTSCH,

"rPTFTEF, - TEYMYMY CHUE, - OE UFPYF OYUEZP:

rtsnpk khtpd, ippr, opu dmyooshchk, MPV U tpzbny!

th DPMZ IPSYOB RTEDBFSH PZOA EZP! —

"NPK DPMZ OE HCHBTsBFSH FBLYNY OBFPLBNY

(p YUHDP! ZPCHPTYF LBTFYOB YN CH PFCHEF):

rTED CHBNY, ZPURPDB, S UBN, B O RPTFTEF!

(rPIFShch 1790-1810-I ZPDHR, W. 680.)

101* OB ZHZHELF OEEPTSYDBOOPZP UFPMLOPCHEOYS OERPCHYTSOPUFY Y DCHYTSEOIS RPUFTPEOSCH UATSEFSCH U PTSYCHBAEYNY UFBFKhSNY, PF TSDB ChBTYBGIK ABOUT FENKH P zBMBFEE — UFBFHE, PTSYCHMEOOOPK CHDPIOPCHEOYEN IHDPTSOYLB (UATSEF FFPF, LPFPTPNH RPPUCHSEEO "ULKHMSHRFPT" vBTBFSHCHOULPZP, VShM YITPLP RTEDUFBCHMEO PE ZhTBOGHULPN VBMEFE XVIII CHELB), DP "LBNEOOPZP ZPUFS" RHYLYOB Y TBTBVBFSHCHBCHYI LFH TSE FENH RTPYCHEDEOYK nPMSHETB Y nPGBTFB.

ITEUFPNBFIYS RP YUFPTYY ЪBRBDOPECHTPREKULPZP FEBFTB, F. 2, W. 1026 A L BLFETH, RPCHETOHFPNKh MYGPN L RHVMYLE, Y OBPVPTPF.

102* un. Ch "rKhFEYUFCHY Y REFETVKhTZB Ch nPULCHH" ZMBCHH "EDTPCHP": "with UYA RPYUFEOOHA NBFSH U BUHYUEOOOSCHNY THLBCHBNY OB LCHBYOEA YMY U RPDPKOILPN RPDME LPTPCHSH UTBCHOYCHBM AT ZPTPDULYNY NBFETSNY".

104* "CHSHKDEN... DBDYN DSDE HNETEFSH YUFPTYYUEULY" (ZHTBOG.). nPULCHIFSOYO, 1854, 6, PPD. IV, W. II. R. vBTFEOECH UPPVEBEF DTHZHA CHETUYA: “OBN RETEDBCHBMY UPCHTENEOOOYLY, YuFP, KHUMSCHYBCH LFY UMPCHB PF KhNYTBAEEZP chBUYMYS mSHCHPCHYUB, rhylyo OBRTBCHYMUS ABOUT GSHCHRPYULBI L DCHETY Y YEROHM UPVTBCHYNUS TPDOSHCHN Y DTHЪSHSN EZP: "zPURPDB, CHSHKDENFE, RHFSH LFP VHDHF EZP RPUMEDOYE UMPCHB" (tHUULYK BTIYCH , 1870, W. 1369).

107* UT. CH “bMSHVPNE” POEZYOB: “h lPTBOE NOPZP NSCHUMEK DDTBCHSHI, // CHPF OBRTYNET: RTED LBIADSHCHN UPN // nPMYUSH - VEZY RKHFEK MHLBCHSHI // uFY vPZB YOE URPTSh U ZMHRGPN.” h "rBNSFOILE": "iCHBMKH Y LMECHEFKH RTYENMY TBCHOPDHYOP // th OE PURPTYCHBK ZMHRGB". DETTSBCHYO, OBRPNYOBS YUYFBFEMA UCHPA PDKh "VPZ", UNSZYUYM CHSHCHUPLPE YOE UPCHUEN VEEKHRTEYUOPE, U FPYULY UTEOIS GETLPCHOPK PTFPDPLUBMSHOPUFY, UPDETSBOYE FFZP UFYIPFCHPTEOYS ZHPTN HMPK: "... RETCHSHCHK WITH CHILDREN ... // h UETDEYUOPK RTPUFFFE VEUEDPCHBFSH P vPZE". h FFPN LPOFELUFE PVTBEEOYE L nHJE (IPFS UMPCHP Y OBRYUBOP U RTPRYUOPK VHLCHSCH) NPZMP CHPURTYOYNBFSHUS LBL RPFYUEULBS HUMPCHOPUFSH. OBYUYFEMSHOP VPMEE DETALYN VSCHMP TEOYOYE RHYLYOB: "CHEMEOSHA VPTSYA, P nHB, VKHDSH RPUMHYOB". vPZ Y nKHB DENPOUFTBFICHOP UPUEDUFCHHAF, RTYUEN PVB UMPCHB OBRYUBOSCH U VPMSHYPK VHLCHSHCH. yFP UFBCHYMP YI CH EDYOSCHK UNSCHUMPPCHPK Y UINCHPMYUEULYK TSD TBCHOP CHSHCHUPLYI, OP OEUPCHNEUFYNSCHI GEOOPUFEK. fBLPE EDYOUFCHP UPDBCHBMP PUPVHA RPYGYA BCHFPTB, DPUFHROPZP CHUEN CHETYOBN YuEMPCHEYUEULPZP DHIB.

108* RETED rPMFBCHULPK VYFCHPK REFT I, RP RTEDBOYA, ULBBM: “ChPYOSCH! ChPF RTYYEM YUBU, LPFPTSCHK TEYBEF UHDSHVKh pFEYUEUFCHB. yFBL, OE DPMTSOP ChBN RPNSCHYMSFSH, YuFP UTBTSBEFEUSH b REFTB, OP b ZPUHDBTUFCHP, REFTH RPTKHYUEOOPE, b TPD UCHPK, b pFEYUEUFCHP. th DBMEE: “b P REFTE CHEDBKFE, YUFP ENKH TSYOSHOE DPTPZB, FPMSHLP VSH TSYMB tPUUYS”. FFPF FELUF PVTBEEOIS REFTB L UPMDBFBN OEMSHЪS UYUYFBFSH BHFEOFYUOSCHN. FELUF VSHCHM CH RETCHPN EZP ChBTYBOFE UPUFBCHMEO ZHEPZHBOPN rTPLPRPCHYUEN (CHPNPTSOP, ABOUT PUOPCHE LBLYI-FP KHUFOSHCHI MEZEOD) Y RPFPN RPDCHETZBMUS PVTBVPFLBN (UN .: fTHDSC YNR. THUUL CHPEOOP-YUFPTYUEULPZP PVEEUFCHB, F. III, U. 274-276; VKhNBZY REFTTB CHEMILPZP, F. IX, CHShCHR. 1, 3251, RTYNEYU. 1, U. 217-219; CHSCHR. 2, U. 980-983). FP, YuFP Ch TEEKHMSHFBFE TSDB RETEDEMPL YUFPTYUEULBS DPUFPCHETOPUFSH FELUFB UFBMB VPMEE YUEN UPNOYFEMSHOPC, U OBYEK FPYULY TEOYS RBTBDPLUBMSHOP RPCHSHCHYBEF EZP YOFETEU, FBL LBL RTEDEMSHOP PVOBTSBEF RTEDUFBCHMEOYE P FPN, UFP DPMTSEO VSCM ULBBFSH REFT I CH FBLPK UIFHBGYY, B FBP DMS YUFPTYLB OE NEOEE YOFETEUOP, Yuen EZP RPDMIOOSCHE UMPCHB. fBLPK YDEBMSHOSHCHK PVTB ZPUHDBTS-RBFTYPFB ZHEPZHBO CH TBOOSCHI CHBTYBOFBI UPDBCHBM Y CH DTHZYI FELUFBI.

110* s. b. zHLPCHULYK, B B OYN Y DTHZYE LPNNEOFBFPTSCH RPMBZBAF, UFP "UMPCHP KhNYTBAEZP lBFPOB" - PFUSHMLB L rMHFBTIH (UN .: tBDYEECH b. o. rpmy. UPVT. UPYu., F. 1, U. 295, 485). VPMEE CHETPSFOP RTEDRPMPTSEOYE, UFP tBDYEECH YNEEF CH CHYDH NPOPMZ LBFPOB YЪ PDOPINEOOOPK FTBZEDYY ddDYUPOB, RTPGYFYTPCHBOOPK YN CH FPN CE RTPYCHEDEOYY, CH ZMBCHE "vTPOOYGSCH" (FBN CE) , W. 269).

111* ufy UMPCHB UCHYDEFEMSHUFCHHAF, UFP IPFS prpyuyoyo YNEM VTBFSHECH, TSYM PO HEDYOEOOP Y VSCM EDIOUFCHEOOSHCHN, EUMY OE UUYFBFSH LTERPUFOSHCHI UMHZ, PYFBFEMEN UCHPEZP PYOPPLZ P DETECHEOULPZP TSYMYEB, BRPMOEOOPZP LOIZBNY.

116* h DBOOPN UMHYUBE NSC YNEEN RTBCHP ZPCHPTYFSH YNEOOP P FCHPTYUEUFCHE: BOBMY RPLBBSCHCHBEF, YUFP lBTBNYO REYUBFBM FPMSHLP FH RETECHPDOHA MYFETBFHTH, LPFPTBS UPPFCHEFU FChPCHBMB EZP UPVUFCHEOOOPK RTPZTBNNE, YOE UFEUOSMUS RETEDEMSCCHBFSH Y DBCE HUFTBOSFSH FP, UFP OE UPCHRBDBMP U EZP CHZMSDBNY.

118* yNEEFUS CH CHYDH Y’CHEUFOSHCHK CH 1812 RFHTH RYNEOPCHB "THUULYK uGECHPMB").

119* YUFPTYS LPOGERGYK UNETFY CH THUULPK LHMSHFHTE OE YNEEF GEMPUFOPZP PUCHEEEEOIS. DMS UTBCHOEOYS U BRBDOP-ECHTPREKULPK LPOGERGYEK NPTsOP RPTELPNEODPCHBFSH YUIFBFEMA LOIZH: Vovel Michel. La mort et l "Occident de 1300 à nos jours.< Paris >, Gallimard, 1983

120* PO RTYIPDYMUS TPDUFCHEOOILPN FPNKh NPULPCHULPNKh ZMBCHOPPLNBODHAEENKH, LOSA b. b. rTPЪPTCHULPNKH, LPFPTSCHK RPЪTSE U TSEUFPLPUFSH RTEUMEDPCHBM about. oPCHYLPCHB Y NPULPCHULYI NBTFYOYUFPC Y P LPFPTPN rPFFENLYO ULBBM ELBFETYOE, UFP POB CHSHCHDCHYOKHMB YU UCHPEZP BTUEOBMB "UBNHA UFBTHA RHYLH", LPFPTBS OERTENEOOP VHDEF UV TEMSFSH CH GEMSH YNRETBFTYGSCH, RPFPNKh SFP UFP UCHPEK OE YNEEF. pDOBLP ON CHSHCHULBBM PRBUEOYE, YUFPVSCH rTPЪPTCHULYK OE ЪBRSFOBM H ZMBBI RPFPNUFCHB YNS ELBFETYOSCH LTPCHSHHA. rPFENLYO PLBBMUS RTCHIDGEN.

121* ZBMETB - CHPEOOSHK LPTBVMSH ABOUT CHEUMBI. LPNBODB ZBMETSC UPUFPYF YY YFBFB NPTULYI PZHYGETPCH, HOFET-PZHYGETPCH Y UPMDBF-BTFYMMETYUFCH, NPTSLPCH Y RTYLPCHBOOSCHI GERSNY LBFTTSOYLPCH ABOUT CHEUMBI. ZBMETSHCH HRPFTEVMSMYUSH H NPTULYI UTBTSEOISI LBL OE BCHYUSEEEEE PF OBRTBCHMEOYS CHEFTB Y PVMBDBAEEE VPMSHYPK RPDCHYTSOPUFSHHA UTEDUFCHP. REFT I RTYDBCHBM VPMSHYPE OBYUEOYE TBCHYFYA ZBMETOPZP ZHMPFB. UMHCVB ABOUT ZBMETBI UYUYFBMBUSH PUPVEOOP FSCEMPC.

124* h LFPN NEUFE CH RHVMYLBGYY zPMYLPCHB TEYUSH REFTB DBOB CH VPMEE RTPUFTBOOPN CHYDE; WOYUIPDYFEMSHOPUFSH REFTB EEE VPMEE RPDUETLOHFB: “fshch CHUETB VShM Ch ZPUFSI; B NEOS UEZPDOS ЪCHBMY ABOUT TPDYOSCH; RPEDEN UP NOPA".

126* h NENKHBTBI ORMAECH TYUKHEF LTBUPYOSCHE LBTFYOSCH FFK DTBNBFYUEULPK UYFKHBGYY: "... ALDETE, ЪBRETUS CH PUPVHA LPNOBFKH Y RPMKHYUBM RTPRYFBOYE CH PLOP, OILPZP L UEVE OE DPRHULBS; TsOB NPS ETSEYUBUOP X DCHETEK P FPN UP UMEBNY RTPUYMB NEOS ”(U. 124). MEYUYMUS ON "RTJOYNBOYEN YOYOSCH U CHPDK" (FBN TSE).

128* UMPCHP "IHDPTSEUFCHP" POBBYUBMP CH FH RPTH RPOSFIYE, RETEDBCHBENPE OBNY FERETSH UMPCHPN "TENEUMP". n. bCHTBNPC, LBL YUEMPCEL UCHPEK LRPIY, CH TSYCHPRYUY RPDYUETLYCHBEF TENEUMP — UPYEFBOYE FTHDB Y HNEOYS. DMS MADEK REFTCHULPK LRPII UMPCHB "TENEUMP", "KHNEOYE" CHKHYUBMY FPPTTSEUFCHEOOOE Y DBTSE RPFYUOEEE, YUEN UMPCHP "FBMBOPF". FFPF RBZHPU RPJCE PFTBTSEO CH UMPCHBI b. and. NETMSLPCHB "UCHSFBS TBVPFB" P RPYYY; CH UMPCHBI (RPCHFPTSAEII l rBCHMPCHH) n. gCHEFBECHPK "TENEUMEOIL, S KOBA TENEUMP" Y BOOSCH BINBFPPPK "UCHSFPE TENEUMP".

UN: PRYUBOYE YODBOYK ZTBTSDBOULPK REYUBFY. 1708 - SOCHBTSH 1725. n.; Moscow, 1955, U. 125-126; UN. FBLCE: PRYUBOYE YODBOYK, OBREYUBFBOOSCHI RTY REFTE I. UCHPDOSHK LBFBMPZ. m., 1972.

130* UNSCHUM LFYI UMPC PVYASUOSEFUS RTPFYCHPRPUFBCHMEOYEN YTPLPZP RHFY, CHEDHEEZP CH BD, Y HULPZP, "FEUOPZP", CHEDHEEZP Ch TBK. ut. UMPCHB RTPFPRRB bCHCHBLHNB P "FEUOPN" RHFY CH TBK. tebmykhs nefbzhpth, bchchblkhn zpchptym, UFP FPMUFSHCHE, VTAIBFSHCHE OILPOYBOE CH TBK OE RPRBDHF.

131* RP LBRTYYOPPNKH RETERMEFEOYA UATSEFPCH Y UKHDEV, YNEOOP CHTENS UMEDUFCHYS RP DEMKH GBTECHYUB bMELUES DPUFYZMB BRPZES LBTSHETB z. h. ULPTOSLPCHB-RYUBTECHB, UHDSHVB LPFPTPZP RPJCE OEPTSYDBOOP RETEUEYUEFUS U UHDSHVPK bCHTBNPCHB.

133* nPTsOP UPNOECHBFShUS Y CH FPN, UFP TPNBOFYUEULYK VTBL oEYUECHPMPDCHB U UETLEIEOLPK RPMKHYUYM GETLPCHOPE VMBZPUMPCHEOYE. RETECHPD UATSEFB "LBCHLBULPZP RMEOOYLB" ABOUT SCHL VSCFPCHPK TEBMSHOPUFY UCHSBO VSHCHM U OELPFPTSCHNY FTHDOPUFSNY.

134* fBL, OBRTYNET, CH dHYYYULYOPK VSHMY PVOBTHTSEOSHCH UPFOY FELUFPMPZYUEULYI PYYVPL ABOUT OEULPMSHLYI DEUSFLBY UFTBOIG; RPULPMSHLKh OELPFPTSCHE UFTBOYGSCH YODBOYS DBAF ZHPFPFIRYYUEULPE CHPURTPYCHEDEOYE THLPRYUEK, MAVPRSHCHFOSHCHK YUIFBFEMSH, UPRPUFBCHMSS YI U FHF TSE RTYCHEDEOOOSCHNY REYUBFOSHCHNY UFTBOYGBNY, NPTSEF PVOBTHTSYFSH RTPRHULY GEMSHI UFTPL Y DTHZYE RMPDSH VEEPPFCHEFUFCHEOOPUFY Y OECHETSUFCHB.

UN. ZMBCHH "TPMSh tBDYEECHB CH URMPYOYY RTPZTEUUYCHOSHI UYM". - h LO .: vBVLYO d. b. O. tBDYEECH. MYFETBFHTOP-PVEEUFCHEOOBS DEFEMSHOPUFSH. n.; m., 1966.

135* DMS RTPUCHEFYFEMS OBTPD - RPOSFYE VPMEE YYTPLPE, YUEN FB YMYY YOBS UPHYBMSHOBS ZTHRRRB. tBDYEECH, LPOEYUOP, YCH HNE OE REFINERY RTEDUFBCHYFSH OERPUTEDUFCHEOOOPK TEBLGYY LTEUFSHSOOYOB ABOUT EZP LOIZH. h OBTPD CHIPDYMB DMS OEZP CHUS NBUUB MADEK, LTPNE TBVHR ABOUT PDOPN RPMAUE Y TBVPCHMBDEMSHGECH - ABOUT DTHZPN.

FBN TSE, F. 2, W. 292-293, 295. VPDSH OBD TBVUFCHPN.

136* lBTBNYO, LBL NPTsOP UKHDYFSH, VSHCHM CHCHPMOPCHBO UBNPKHVYKUFCHPN tbdyechb Y PRBUBMUS CHPDEKUFCHYS FFPZP RPUFKHRLB ABOUT UPCTENEOOILPC. FYN, CHYDYNP, PVYASUOSEFUS FP, UFP BCHFPT, DP LFPZP U UPYUHCHUFCHYEN PRYUBCHYYK GEMHA GERSH UBNPKHVYKUFCH PF OYUYBUFMYCHPK MAVCHY YMY RTEUMEDPCHBOIK RTEDTBUUHDLPC, CH FFP CHTE NS CH TSDE UVBFEK Y RPCHEUFEK CHSHCHUFKHRIM U PUHTSDEOYEN RTBCHB YuEMPCHELB UBNPCHPMSHOP LPOYUBFSH UCHPA TSYOSH.

138* oEY’CHEUFOP, U RPNPESH LBLYI UTEDUFCH, — NPTSEF VSHCHFSH, RPFPNH, UFP CH DBMELPK uYVYTY DEOSHZY CHCHZMSDEMY HVEDYFEMSHOEE, YUEN UFPMYUOSCHE BLTEFSHCH, — Y PO, CHYDYNP, PZHPTNYM FFPF VTBL Y GETLPHOSCHN TYFHBMPN. RP LTBKOEK NETE, TPDYCHYKUS CH UYVYTY USCHO RBCHEM UYUYFBMUS BLPOOSCHN, Y OILBLYI FTHDOPUFEK, U FYN UFYN, CH DBMSHOEKYEN OE CHPOYLBMP.

139* YOFETEUKHAEEEE OBU UEKYUBU RYUSHNP CH PTYZYOBME OBRYUBOP RP-ZHTBOGHULY. h DBOOPN NEUFE CH RETECHPDE DPRHEEOB YULMAYUYFEMSHOP CHBTSOBS OEFPYUOPUFSH. JTBOGHULPE "une irréligion" (FBN TSE, U. 118) RETECHEDEOP LBL "VEECHETYE". ABOUT UBNPN DEME TEYUSH YDEF OE P VECHETYY, HRTELBFSH CH LPFPTPN tKhuUP VSHMP VSH LMENEOFBTOPK PYYVLPK, B P DEYUFYUUEULPN UFTENMEOYY RPUFBCHYFSH CHETH CHCH PFDEMSHOSHCHI TEMYZYK

140* rPUMEDOYE UMPCHB PE ZHTBOGKHULPN RYUSHNE uKHCHPTCHB RTEDUFBCHMSAF UPVPK "THUULYK" FELUF, OBRYUBOOSHK MBFYOYGEK, RTEYFEMSHOSHCHK CHPMSRAL, RETEDTBOYCHBAEYK ZHTBOGKHULHA TEYUSH THUULYI DCHPTSO.

141* uHCHPTCH HRPFTEVMSEF CHCHTBTSEOIE "loi naturelle". h GYFYTHENPN YODBOYY POP RETECHEDEOP LBL "BLPO RTYTPDSCH", YuFP RPMOPUFSHHA YULBTSBEF EZP UNSCHUM. uHCHPTCH YURPMSHHEF MELUILKH Y FETNYOPMPZYY ULPFPCHPDUFCHB, ZDE "OBFHTB" POBUBEF LBYUEUFCHP RPTPDSCH. RETECHPD UMPCHPN "EUFEUFCHEOOSHKK" CH DBOOPN YODBOYY PYYVPYEO.

UN: rBOYUEOLP b. n. UNEI LBL ITEMYEE. - h LO .: UNEI CH dTECHOK THUI. M., 1984, U. 72-153. zhKhLU e. urV., 1900, U. 20-21.

142* yZTB UHDSHVSCH RTYCHEMB CH DBMSHOEKYEN e. JHLUB ABOUT UIPDOPK DPMTSOPUFY CH RPIPDOHA LBOGEMSTYA LHFHFCHB CHP CHTENS pFEYUEUFCHEOOOPK CHPKOSHCH 1812 ZPDB. ffpf OEEBNEFOSHCHK Yuempchel RPOAIBM CH UCHPEK TSOYOY RPTPIB, YEUMY PO OE VSCHM LTYFYYUEULYN YUFPTYILPN, FP IBFP RYUBM P FPN, YuFP UBN CHYDEM Y RETETSYM.

ChPEOOPZP LTBUOPTEYUYS YUBUFSH RETCHBS, UPDETSBEBS PVEYE OBYUBMB UMPCHEUOPUFY. UPYOYOEOYE PTDYOBTOPZP RTPZHEUUPTB uBOLFREFETVKhTZULPZP HOYCHETUYFEFB SLPCHB fPMNBYUECHB. urV., 1825, U. 47. NEOPHR" 1950-1952 ZZ. Y h. MPRBFJOB (1987). OH CH PDOP YFYI YODBOYK RYUSHNP OE VSCHMP CHLMAYUEOP. NECDH FEN POP RTEDUFBCHMSEF UPVPK YULMAYUYFEMSHOP STLYK DPLHNEOF MYUOPUFY Y UFIMS RPMLCHPDGB.

. bTLBDYK DPTSYM MYYSH DP DCHBDGBFY UENY MEF Y RPZYV, HFPOKHCH CH FPN UBNPN tshchnoyle, b RPVEDH ABOUT LPFPTPN PFEG EZP RPMHYuYM FYFHM tshchnoyLLPZP.

147* NHODYT Y PTDEO CH FFPN LHMSHFHTOPN LPOFELUFE CHSHCHUFHRBAF LBL UYOPOYNSCH: OBZTBDB NPZMB CHSHCHTBTSBFSHUS LBL CH ZHPTNE PTDEOB, FBL Y CH CHYDE OPCHPZP YUYOB, UFP PFTBTSBMPUSH H NHOD YTE.

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A duel (duel) is a pair fight taking place according to certain rules, with the aim of restoring honor, removing the shameful stain caused by an insult from an offended person. Thus, the role of the duel is socially symbolic.

The duel is a certain procedure for the restoration of honor and cannot be understood outside the very specifics of the concept of "honor" in the general system of ethics of the Russian Europeanized post-Petrine noble society. Naturally, from a position that rejected this concept in principle, the duel lost its meaning, turning into a ritualized murder.

A Russian nobleman of the 18th - early 19th centuries lived and acted under the influence of two opposing regulators of social behavior. As a loyal subject, a servant of the state, he obeyed the order. The psychological incentive for submission was the fear of punishment overtaking the disobedient. But at the same time, as a nobleman, a man of a class that was both a socially dominant corporation and a cultural elite, he was subject to the laws of honor. The psychological stimulus of submission here is shame. The ideal that noble culture creates for itself implies the complete expulsion of fear and the assertion of honor as the main legislator of behavior. In this sense, activities that demonstrate fearlessness become important. So, for example, if the “regular state” of Peter I still considers the behavior of a nobleman in war as serving the state good, and his courage only as a means to achieve this goal, then from the standpoint of honor, courage turns into an end in itself. From these positions, medieval knightly ethics is undergoing a well-known restoration. From a similar point of view (which is reflected in a peculiar way both in the "Lay of Igor's Campaign" and in the "Deeds of Devgen"), the behavior of a knight is not measured by defeat or victory, but has a self-contained value.

This is especially evident in relation to the duel: danger, coming face to face with death become purifying agents that remove insult from a person. The offended person must decide correct solution testifies to the degree of his possession of the laws of honor): is the dishonor so insignificant that a demonstration of fearlessness is enough to remove it - showing readiness for battle (reconciliation is possible after the challenge and its acceptance - by accepting the challenge, the offender thereby shows that he considers the enemy equal to himself and , therefore, rehabilitates his honor) or the iconic depiction of combat (reconciliation takes place after an exchange of shots or blows of a sword without any bloody intentions on either side). If the insult was more serious, one that should be washed away with blood, the duel may end with the first wound (whose one does not matter, since honor is restored not by inflicting damage on the offender or revenge on him, but by the fact of shedding blood, including one's own). Finally, the offended may qualify the insult as fatal, requiring the death of one of the participants in the quarrel for its removal. It is essential that the assessment of the degree of insult - insignificant, bloody or deadly - must be correlated with the assessment from the social environment (for example, with regimental public opinion). A person who too easily goes to reconciliation can be branded as a coward, unjustifiably bloodthirsty - a breter.

The duel, as an institution of corporate honor, met with opposition from two sides. On the one hand, the government treated the fights invariably negatively. In the "Patent on duels and initiation of quarrels", which was the 49th chapter of Peter's "Military Regulations" (1716), it was prescribed: "If it happens that two are blown to the appointed place, and one is drawn against the other, then We command such, although none of them will be wounded or killed, without any mercy, and the seconds or witnesses, on whom they will prove, will be executed by death and their belongings will be unsubscribed.<...>If they begin to fight, and in that battle they are killed and wounded, then both the living and the dead will be hanged. K. A. Sofronenko believes that the "Patent" is directed "against the old feudal nobility." N. L. Brodsky spoke in the same spirit, who believed that “the duel, the custom of bloody revenge-revenge generated by the feudal-chivalric society, was preserved among the nobility.” However, the duel in Russia was not a relic, since nothing similar existed in the life of the Russian “old feudal nobility”. The fact that the duel is an innovation was clearly indicated by Catherine II: “Prejudices, not received from ancestors, but adopted or superficial, alien” (“Letter” dated April 21, 1787, cf.: “Instruction”, article 482) .

The statement of Nicholas I is characteristic: “I hate duels; it is barbarism; I don't think there's anything chivalrous about them."

Montesquieu pointed out the reasons for the negative attitude of the autocratic authorities to the custom of the duel: “Honor cannot be the principle of despotic states: there all people are equal and therefore cannot exalt themselves over each other; there all people are slaves and therefore cannot exalt themselves over anything ...<...>Can a despot tolerate it in his state? She places her glory in contempt for life, and the whole strength of a despot lies only in the fact that he can take life. How could she herself tolerate a despot?

Naturally, duels were persecuted in the official literature as a manifestation of love of freedom, "the reborn evil of arrogance and freethinking of this age."

On the other hand, the duel was criticized by democratic thinkers, who saw in it a manifestation of the class prejudice of the nobility and opposed noble honor to human, based on Reason and Nature. From this position, the duel became the object of educational satire or criticism. In “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” Radishchev wrote: “... you have a strong spirit, and you won’t consider it an insult if a donkey kicks you or a pig touches you with a stinking snout.”

“It happened that at least a little someone would inadvertently catch someone with a sword or a hat, if one hair on the head was damaged, if the cloth was bent on the shoulder, so you are welcome in the field ... If someone who is ill with teeth will give an answer in an undertone, if he has a runny nose, will he say something in the nose ... do not look at anything!. That and look, that the sword is on the hilt! .. Also, is anyone deaf, or short-sighted, but when, God forbid, he did not answer or did not see the bow ... is it a statosh case! Immediately swords in hand, hats on the head, and the chatter and felling began! This position is also captured in A. E. Izmailov's fable "Duel". A. Suvorov's negative attitude to the duel is known. Freemasons also reacted negatively to the duel.

Thus, in a duel, on the one hand, the narrow class idea of protecting corporate honor could come to the fore, and on the other hand, the universal idea of protection, despite archaic forms, could come to the fore. human dignity. In the face of a duel, the court shambler, the emperor's favorite, aristocrat and adjutant wing V. D. Novosiltsev turned out to be equal to the second lieutenant of the Semenovsky regiment without a fortune and connections from the provincial nobles, K. P. Chernov.

In this regard, the attitude of the Decembrists to the duel was ambivalent. Allowing in theory negative statements in the spirit of general enlightenment criticism of the duel, the Decembrists practically widely used the right to duel. So, E. P. Obolensky killed a certain Svinin in a duel; repeatedly called different people and fought with several K. F. Ryleev; A. I. Yakubovich was known as a bully. A noisy response from contemporaries was caused by the duel of Novosiltsev and Chernov, which acquired the character of a political clash between a member of a secret society who defended the honor of his sister and an aristocrat who despised the human dignity of ordinary people. Both duelists died a few days later from their wounds. Northern society turned Chernov's funeral into the first street manifestation in Russia.

A look at the duel as a means of protecting one's human dignity was not alien to Pushkin either. In the Kishinev period, Pushkin found himself in the position of a civilian young man, offensive to his vanity, surrounded by people in officer uniforms who had already proved their undoubted courage in the war. This explains his exaggerated scrupulousness during this period in matters of honor and almost bribery behavior. The Chisinau period is marked in the memoirs of contemporaries by the numerous challenges of Pushkin. A typical example is his duel with Lieutenant Colonel S. N. Starov, about which V. P. Gorchakov left memoirs. Pushkin's bad behavior during the dances in the officers' meeting, who, contrary to the demand of the officers, ordered a dance of his own choice, became the cause of the duel. It is significant that the challenge to the poet was sent not by any of the junior officers directly involved in the quarrel, but - on their behalf - by the commander of the 33rd Jaeger Regiment S. Starov, who was right there. Starov was 19 years older than Pushkin and significantly superior to him in rank. Such a challenge was contrary to the requirement of equality of opponents and clearly represented an attempt to besiege the impudent civilian boy. It was assumed, obviously, that Pushkin would be frightened of the duel and go to a public apology. Further events developed in the following order. Starov “approached Pushkin, who had just completed his figure. "You have done an impolite thing to my officer," said S.<таро>c, glancing resolutely at Pushkin, “wouldn’t you like to apologize to him, or will you deal personally with me.” “What to apologize for, colonel,” Pushkin answered quickly, “I don’t know; as for you, I am at your service." - "So until tomorrow, Alexander Sergeevich." - "Very well, Colonel." Shaking hands, they parted.<...>When they arrived at the place of the duel, a blizzard strong wind interfered with the sight, the opponents fired a shot, and both missed; another shot, and another miss; then the seconds resolutely insisted that the duel, if they did not want to end up like this, should be canceled without fail, and assured that there were no more charges. "So, until another time," they both repeated in one voice. "Goodbye, Alexander Sergeevich." "Goodbye, Colonel."

The duel was carried out according to all the rules of the ritual of honor: there was no personal hostility between the shooters, and the impeccable observance of the ritual during the duel aroused mutual respect in both. This, however, did not prevent a secondary exchange of shots and, if possible, a second duel.

“A day later ... reconciliation took place quickly.
“I have always respected you, colonel, and therefore I accepted your offer,” said Pushkin.
“And they did well, Alexander Sergeevich,” answered S.<таро>in, - by this you have increased my respect for you even more, and I must tell you the truth that you stood under bullets as well as you write well. These words of sincere greeting touched Pushkin, and he rushed to embrace S.<таро>wa." Careful observance of the ritual of honor equalized the position of a civilian youth and a military lieutenant colonel, giving them an equal right to public respect. The ritual cycle was completed by an episode of Pushkin's demonstrative readiness to fight a duel, defending Starov's honor: “Two days after the reconciliation, it was about his duel with S.<таровы>m. Pushkin was extolled and S<таро>va. Pushkin flared up, threw down his cue and straight and quickly approached the youth. "Gentlemen," he said, "how did we end up with S<таровы>m is our business, but I announce to you that if you allow yourself to condemn C<таро>wa, whom I cannot but respect, then I will take this as a personal insult, and each of you will answer me properly.

This episode, precisely because of its ritual “classicism”, attracted the attention of contemporaries and was widely discussed in society. Pushkin gave it artistic perfection by ending the exchange of shots with a rhyming epigram:

I'm alive.
Starov
Healthy.
The duel is not over.

It is characteristic that this particular episode received a complete formula in the folklore memory of contemporaries:

Colonel Starov,
Thank God, healthy.

The image of a poet composing poems during a duel is a variant of the dueling legend, which poeticizes careless absorption in extraneous activities as the pinnacle of brilliant behavior at the barrier. In The Shot, Count B*** is eating cherries at the barrier; in E. Rostand's play Cyrano de Bergerac, the hero composes a poem during a duel. Pushkin demonstrated the same during his duel with Starov.

Breter behavior as a means of social self-defense and the assertion of one's equality in society, perhaps, Pushkin's attention in these years to Voiture, a French poet of the 17th century, asserted his equality in aristocratic circles with emphatic breter. Regarding this poet's passion for fights, Talleman de Reo wrote: “Not every brave man can count as many fights as our hero had, for he fought in a duel at least four times; day and night, in the bright sun, in the moon and in the light of torches.

Pushkin's attitude to the duel is contradictory: as the heir to the enlighteners of the 18th century, he sees in it a manifestation of " secular animosity", which is "wildly afraid of false shame." In Eugene Onegin, the cult of the duel is supported by Zaretsky, a man of dubious honesty. However, at the same time, a duel is also a means of protecting the dignity of an offended person. She puts the mysterious poor Silvio and the favorite of the fate of Count B *** on a par. A duel is a prejudice, but an honor that is forced to turn to its help is not a prejudice.

It was precisely because of its duality that the duel implied the presence of a strict and carefully performed ritual. Only punctual adherence to the established order distinguished the duel from the murder. But the need for strict adherence to the rules came into conflict with the absence in Russia of a strictly codified dueling system. Under the conditions of an official ban, no dueling codes could appear in the Russian press, and there was no legal body that could assume the authority to streamline the rules of the duel. Of course, one could use the French codes, but the rules set forth there did not quite coincide with the Russian dueling tradition. Strictness in observing the rules was achieved by appealing to the authority of experts, living bearers of tradition and arbitrators in matters of honor. This role in "Eugene Onegin" is played by Zaretsky.

The role of the seconds was as follows: as mediators between opponents, they were primarily obliged to make every effort to reconcile. It was the duty of the seconds to find every opportunity, without prejudice to the interests of honor, and especially watching over the observance of the rights of their principal, for a peaceful solution to the conflict. Even on the battlefield, the seconds had to make one last attempt at reconciliation. In addition, the seconds work out the conditions for the duel. In this case, the unspoken rules instruct them to try so that irritated opponents do not choose more bloody forms of combat than the minimum requires. strict rules honor. If reconciliation turned out to be impossible, as was the case, for example, in Pushkin's duel with Dantes, the seconds drew up written conditions and carefully monitored the strict execution of the entire procedure.

For example, conditions signed by the seconds of Pushkin and Dantes, were as follows (original in French):
"1. Opponents stand at a distance of twenty steps from each other and five steps (for each) from barriers, the distance between which is equal to ten steps.
2. Opponents armed with pistols on this sign, going one on another, but in no case crossing the barriers, can shoot.
3. Moreover, it is assumed that after the shot the opponents are not allowed to change their place, so that the one who fired first will be subjected to the fire of his opponent at the same distance.
4. When both sides make a shot, then in case of ineffectiveness, the duel is resumed as if for the first time: opponents are placed at the same distance of 20 steps, the same barriers and the same rules remain.
5. Seconds are indispensable mediators in any explanation between opponents at the battlefield.
6. The seconds, undersigned and vested with full authority, ensure, each for his side, with his honor, strict observance of the conditions set forth here.

The conditions of the duel between Pushkin and Dantes were as cruel as possible (the duel was designed for a fatal outcome), but the conditions for the duel between Onegin and Lensky, to our surprise, were also very cruel, although there were clearly no reasons for a deadly enmity. Since Zaretsky separated his friends by 32 steps, and the barriers, apparently, were at a "noble distance", that is, at a distance of 10 steps, each could take 11 steps. However, it is possible that Zaretsky determined the distance between the barriers to be less than 10 paces. Apparently, there was no requirement that after the first shot the opponents did not move, which pushed them to the most dangerous tactics: without shooting on the move, quickly go to the barrier and aim at a stationary enemy at an extremely close distance. Such were the cases when both duelists became victims. So it was in the duel between Novosiltsev and Chernov. The requirement that the opponents halt at the spot where the first shot caught them was the least possible softening of the conditions. It is characteristic that when Griboedov fired with Yakubovich, although there was no such requirement in the conditions, he nevertheless stopped at the place where his shot caught him and fired without approaching the barrier.

In "Eugene Onegin" Zaretsky was the sole manager of the duel, and it is all the more noticeable that, "in duels, a classic and a pedant", he dealt with great omissions, or rather, deliberately ignoring everything that could eliminate the bloody outcome. Even at the first visit to Onegin, during the transfer of the cartel, he was obliged to discuss the possibilities of reconciliation. Before the start of the duel, an attempt to end the matter peacefully was also part of his direct duties, especially since no blood offense had been inflicted, and it was clear to everyone except the eighteen-year-old Lensky that the matter was a misunderstanding. Instead, he "stand up without explanation<...>Having a lot to do at home." Zaretsky could stop the duel at another moment: the appearance of Onegin with a servant instead of a second was a direct insult to him (seconds, like opponents, must be socially equal; Guillo - a Frenchman and a freely hired lackey - could not formally be taken away, although his appearance in this roles, as well as the motivation that he was at least a "small honest" were an unambiguous insult to Zaretsky), and at the same time a gross violation of the rules, since the seconds had to meet the day before without opponents and draw up the rules of the duel.

Finally, Zaretsky had every reason to prevent a bloody outcome by declaring Onegin to have failed to appear. “To make you wait at the place of the fight is extremely impolite. Whoever arrives on time must wait for his opponent for a quarter of an hour. After this period, the first person to appear has the right to leave the place of the duel and his seconds must draw up a protocol indicating the non-arrival of the enemy. Onegin was more than an hour late.

Thus, Zaretsky behaved not only as a supporter of the strict rules of the art of dueling, but as a person interested in the most scandalous and noisy - which, in relation to a duel, meant bloody - outcome.

Here is an example from the field of "dueling classics": in 1766, Casanova fought a duel in Warsaw with the favorite of the Polish king, Branicki, who appeared on the field of honor, accompanied by a brilliant retinue. Casanova, a foreigner and traveler, could only bring as a witness one of his servants. However, he refused such a decision as obviously impossible - insulting to the enemy and his seconds and not flattering to himself: the dubious dignity of a second would cast a shadow on his own impeccability as a man of honor. He preferred to ask the enemy to appoint a second for him from among his aristocratic retinue. Casanova took the risk of having an enemy as a second, but did not agree to call on an indentured servant to be a witness in a matter of honor.

It is curious to note that a similar situation was partly repeated in the tragic duel between Pushkin and Dantes. Having experienced difficulties in finding a second, Pushkin wrote on the morning of January 27, 1837 to Arshiak that he would bring his second “only to the meeting place”, and then, contradicting himself, but quite in the spirit of Onegin, he allows Gekkern to choose his second : “... I accept him in advance, even if it’s his livery footman” (XVI, 225 and 410). However, d "Arshiak, unlike Zaretsky, decisively suppressed this possibility, stating that "a meeting between the seconds, necessary before the duel "(highlighted by d" Arshiak. - Yu. L.), is a condition, the refusal of which is tantamount to refusing to duel. The meeting of d "Arshiak and Danzas took place, and the duel became formally possible. The meeting between Zaretsky and Guillot happened only on the battlefield, but Zaretsky did not stop the fight, although he could have done it.

Onegin and Zaretsky both break the rules of a duel. The first, to demonstrate his irritated contempt for the story, into which he fell against his own will and in the seriousness of which he still does not believe, and Zaretsky because he sees in a duel an amusing, albeit sometimes bloody, story, an object of gossip and practical jokes ...

Onegin's behavior in the duel irrefutably testifies that the author wanted to make him an unwilling killer. Both for Pushkin and for the readers of the novel, who are familiar with the duel firsthand, it was obvious that the one who wants the unconditional death of the enemy does not shoot at once, from a long distance and under the muzzle of someone else's pistol distracting attention, but, taking the risk, gives to shoot himself, demands the enemy to the barrier and from a short distance shoots him like a stationary target.

So, for example, during the duel between Zavadovsky and Sheremetev, famous for its role in the biography of Griboedov (1817), we see a classic case of the behavior of a breter: “When they began to converge on the nearest ones from the extreme limits of the barrier, Zavadovsky, who was an excellent shooter, walked quietly and completely calm. Whether Zavadovsky's composure infuriated Sheremetev, or simply a feeling of anger overpowered his mind, but only he, as they say, could not stand it and fired at Zavadovsky, not yet reaching the barrier. The bullet flew close to Zavadovsky, because it tore off part of the collar of his frock coat, near the very neck. Then already, and this is very understandable, Zavadovsky got angry. Ah! - he said. – II en voulait a ma vie! A la barriere!“ (Wow! he is trying on my life! To the barrier!)

There was nothing to do. Sheremetev approached. Zavadovsky fired. The blow was fatal - he wounded Sheremetev in the stomach!

In order to understand what pleasure a person like Zaretsky could find in all this business, it should be added that Pushkin's friend Kaverin, who was present at the duel as a spectator (a member of the Union of Welfare, whom Onegin met at Talon in the first chapter of "Eugene Onegin"; a famous reveler and Buyan), seeing how the wounded Sheremetev “jumped several times on the spot, then fell and began to roll in the snow,” went up to the wounded man and said: “What, Vasya? Turnip? After all, turnips are a delicacy among the people, and this expression is used by them ironically in the sense: “what then? is it tasty? is it a good snack? It should be noted that, contrary to the rules of a duel, the audience often gathered for a duel as a spectacle. There is reason to believe that a crowd of curious people was also present at the tragic duel of Lermontov, turning it into an extravagant spectacle. The requirement for the absence of extraneous witnesses had serious grounds, since the latter could push the participants in the spectacle, which was acquiring a theatrical character, to more bloody actions than the rules of honor required.

If an experienced shooter fired the first shot, then this, as a rule, indicated excitement, which led to an accidental pressing trigger. Here is a description of the duel in famous novel Bulwer-Lytton, carried out according to all the rules of dandyism: the English dandy Pelham and the French dandy, both experienced duelists, are shooting:

“The Frenchman and his second were already waiting for us.<...>(this is a deliberate insult; the norm of refined politeness is to arrive at the place of the duel exactly at the same time. Onegin exceeded everything permissible, being more than an hour late. - Yu. L.). I noticed that the enemy was pale and restless - I thought, not from fear, but from rage<...>I looked at d "Asimar at point-blank range and took aim. His pistol fired a second earlier than he expected - his hand probably trembled - the bullet hit my hat. I aimed more accurately and wounded him in the shoulder - exactly where I wanted " .

However, the question arises: why, after all, did Onegin shoot at Lensky, and not past? Firstly, a demonstrative shot to the side was a new insult and could not contribute to reconciliation. Secondly, in the event of an unsuccessful exchange of shots, the duel began anew, and the life of the enemy could be saved only at the cost of his own death or wound, and the Breter legends that formed public opinion poeticized the killer, not the killed.

Another important circumstance must also be taken into account. The duel, with its strict ritual, representing a holistic theatrical performance - a sacrifice for the sake of honor, has a tough scenario. Like any strict ritual, it deprives the participants of their individual will. An individual participant has no power to stop or change anything in a duel. In the description of Bulwer-Lytton there is an episode: “When we took our places, Vincent (second. - Yu. L.) came up to me and said quietly:
- For God's sake, let me settle the matter amicably, if possible!
“That is not in our power,” I replied. Compare in "War and Peace":
“Well, start! Dolokhov said.
“Well,” said Pierre, still smiling.
It was getting scary. It was obvious that the deed that began so easily could not be prevented by anything, that it went on by itself, already independently of the will of the people, and had to be done. It is significant that Pierre, who thought all night: “Why this duel, this murder?” - hitting the battlefield, fired first and wounded Dolokhov in the left side (the wound could easily be fatal).

Exceptionally interesting in this regard are the notes of N. Muravyov-Karsky, an informed and accurate witness who quotes Griboyedov's words about his feelings during the duel with Yakubovich. Griboedov did not feel any personal hostility towards his opponent, the duel with which was only the end? "quadruple duel" started by Sheremetev and Zavadovsky. He offered a peaceful outcome, which Yakubovich refused, also emphasizing that he did not feel any personal enmity towards Griboyedov and only fulfilled his word given to the late Sheremetev. And it is all the more significant that, having risen with peaceful intentions to the barrier, Griboyedov during the duel felt a desire to kill Yakubovich - the bullet passed so close to the head that “Yakubovich considered himself wounded: he grabbed the back of his head, looked at his hand ...<...>Griboedov later told us that he was aiming at Yakubovich's head and wanted to kill him, but that this was not his first intention when he took his place.

A vivid example of a change in the plan of behavior conceived by the duelist under the influence of the power of dueling logic over the will of a person is found in A. Bestuzhev's story "A Novel in Seven Letters" (1823). On the night before the duel, the hero firmly decides to sacrifice himself and looks forward to death: “I say I will die, because I decided to wait for the shot ... I offended him.” However, the next chapter of this novel in letters tells about a completely unexpected turn of events: the hero committed an act diametrically opposed to his intentions. “I killed him, I killed this noble, generous man!<...>We approached from twenty paces, I walked firmly, but without any thought, without any intention: the feelings hidden in the depths of my soul completely clouded my mind. At six paces, I don’t know why, I don’t know how, I pressed the fatal sneller - and a shot rang out in my heart! .. I saw Erast shudder ... When the smoke passed, he was already lying on the snow, and the blood rushing from the wound, hissing , froze in it.

For the reader, who has not yet lost a live connection with the dueling tradition and is able to understand the semantic nuances of the picture painted by Pushkin in "Eugene Onegin", it was obvious that Onegin "loved him [Lensky] and, aiming at him, did not want to hurt him."

This ability to duel, by drawing people in, depriving them of their own will and turning them into toys and automata, is very important.

This is especially important for understanding the image of Onegin. The hero of the novel, who removes all forms of external leveling of his personality and thereby opposes Tatyana, who is organically connected with folk customs, beliefs, habits, in the sixth chapter of "Eugene Onegin" betrays himself: against his own desire, he recognizes the dictates of the norms of behavior imposed on him by Zaretsky and " public opinion”, and immediately, losing his will, becomes a puppet in the hands of a faceless duel ritual. Pushkin has a whole gallery of "reviving" statues, but there is also a chain of living people turning into automata. Onegin in the sixth chapter acts as the ancestor of these characters.

The main mechanism by which society, despised by Onegin, still powerfully controls his actions, is the fear of being ridiculous or becoming the subject of gossip. It should be borne in mind that the unwritten rules of the Russian duel of the late 18th - early 19th centuries were much more severe than, for example, in France, and with the nature of the late Russian duel legalized by the act of May 13, 1894 (see A.I. Kuprin's "Duel") could not be compared at all. While the usual distance between the barriers at the beginning of the 19th century was 10-12 steps, and there were cases when opponents were separated by only 6 steps, for the period between May 20, 1894 and May 20, 1910, out of 322 duels that took place, not one was not conducted with a distance of less than 12 steps and only one with a distance of 12 steps. The bulk of the fights took place at a distance of 20-30 steps, that is, from a distance from which no one thought to shoot at the beginning of the 19th century. Naturally, out of 322 fights, only 15 were fatal. Meanwhile, at the beginning of the 19th century, ineffective duels evoked an ironic attitude. In the absence of firmly fixed rules, the importance of the atmosphere created around the fights by the breters, the keepers of the dueling traditions, sharply increased. These last cultivated duel bloody and cruel. A person who went to the barrier had to show extraordinary spiritual independence in order to maintain his own type of behavior, and not accept the norms approved and imposed on him. So, for example, Onegin's behavior was determined by fluctuations between the natural human feelings that he experienced in relation to Lensky, and the fear of seeming ridiculous or cowardly, violating the conventional norms of behavior at the barrier.

Any, not just "wrong" duel was a criminal offense in Russia. Each duel later became the subject of judicial trial. Both opponents and seconds were criminally liable. The court, following the letter of the law, sentenced duelists to death, which, however, in the future for officers was most often replaced by demotion to soldiers with the right to serve (transfer to the Caucasus made it possible to quickly obtain an officer rank again). Onegin, as a non-serving nobleman, most likely would have got off with a month or two of a fortress and subsequent church repentance. However, judging by the text of the novel, the duel between Onegin and Lensky did not become the subject of legal proceedings at all. This could have happened if the parish priest recorded Lensky's death as an accident or suicide. Stanzas XL-XLI of the sixth chapter, despite their connection with the common elegiac clichés of the "young poet's" grave, suggest that Lensky was buried outside the cemetery fence, that is, as a suicide.

We find a real duel encyclopedia in A. Bestuzhev's story "Test" (1830). The author condemns the duel from enlightenment traditions and at the same time describes the entire ritual of preparation for it with almost documentary detail:

“Valerian’s old servant melted lead in an iron ladle, kneeling before the fire, and poured bullets - a business that he interrupted with frequent prayers and crosses. At the table, some artillery officer cut, stroked and tried on bullets for pistols. At that moment, the door carefully opened, and a third person, a cavalryman of the guards, entered and interrupted their work for a minute.
“Bonjour, capitaine,” the gunner said to the incoming man, “are you all ready?”
- I brought two pairs with me: one Kuchenreiter, the other Lepage: we will examine them together.
“It is our duty, Captain. Did you bring bullets?
“The bullets were made in Paris, and, it is true, with special precision.
“Oh, don’t count on it, captain. I already happened once to get into trouble from such gullibility. The second bullets - and now I blush from the memory - did not reach half the barrel, and no matter how hard we tried to catch up with them to the place, it was all in vain. The opponents were forced to shoot with saddle pistols - almost the size of a mountain unicorn, and it's good that one hit the other right in the forehead, where every bullet, and less than a pea and more than a cherry, produces the same effect. But consider what reproach we would be subjected to if this buckshot smashed an arm or a leg to smithereens?
- Classical truth! answered the cavalryman, smiling.
- Do you have polished gunpowder?
- And the most fine-grained.
So much the worse: leave him at home. First, for the sake of uniformity, we will take ordinary rifle powder; secondly, a polished one does not always flare up quickly, but it happens that a spark even glides over it.
– How do we do with the Schnellers?
- Yes Yes! those damn snellers are always throwing my mind out of sight, and not one good man put in a long box. Poor L-oh died from a shneller in my eyes: his pistol shot into the ground, and the opponent laid him like a hazel grouse on the barrier. I saw how another reluctantly fired into the air when he could get the muzzle into the opponent's chest. It is almost impossible and always useless to not allow the shnellers to be cocked, because an inconspicuous, even involuntary movement of the finger can cock it - and then the cold-blooded shooter has all the benefits. Allow - how long to lose a shot! these gunsmiths are rogues: they seem to imagine that pistols are invented only for the archery club!
“However, wouldn’t it be better to ban the Schneller Platoon?” You can warn the gentlemen how to handle the spring; and the rest to rely on honor. What do you think, dearest?
- I agree to everything that can facilitate the duel; will we have a doctor, mister captain?
- I visited two yesterday - and was enraged by their greed ... They began with a preface about responsibility - and ended with a demand for a deposit; I did not dare to entrust the fate of the duel to such hucksters.
“In that case, I undertake to bring with me a doctor—the greatest original, but the noblest man in the world. I happened to take him right out of bed to the field, and he decided without hesitation. “I know very well, gentlemen,” he said, winding bandages around the instrument, “that I can neither forbid nor prevent your recklessness, and I will gladly accept your invitation. I am glad to buy, albeit at my own risk, the relief of suffering humanity! ”But, most surprising of all, he refused a rich gift for a trip and treatment.
“It does honor to humanity and medicine. Is Valerian Mikhailovich still sleeping?
- He wrote letters for a long time and fell asleep for no more than three hours. Advise, do me a favor, to your comrade, so that he does not eat anything before the fight. In misfortune, the bullet may slip and fly through without damaging the viscera, if they retain their elasticity; besides, and the hand on an empty stomach is more true. Have you taken care of the four-seat carriage? In a two-seater - neither help the wounded, nor lay down the dead.
- I ordered to hire a carriage in a far part of the city and choose a simpler cab so that he would not guess and would not let you know.
- You did the best you could, captain; otherwise the police smell blood no worse than a crow. Now about the conditions: is the barrier still at six steps?
- At six. The prince does not want to hear about a greater distance. A wound only on an even shot ends the duel - a flash and a misfire are not among the numbers.
- What stubborn people! Let them fight for the cause - so it’s not a pity for gunpowder; and then for a woman's whim and for her quirks.
- Have we seen many fights for a just cause? And then everything is for actresses, for cards, for horses or for a portion of ice cream.
“To be honest, all these duels, for which it is difficult or embarrassing to tell the reason, do us a little credit.”

The conditional ethics of the duel existed in parallel with the universal norms of morality, without mixing or canceling them. This led to the fact that the winner of the duel, on the one hand, was surrounded by a halo of public interest, typically expressed in the words that Karenin recalls: “Well done; challenged to a duel and killed” (“Anna Karenina”). On the other hand, all dueling customs could not make him forget that he was a murderer.

For example, around Martynov, the murderer of Lermontov, in Kiev, where he lived out his life, a romantic legend spread (Martynov, who had the character of Grushnitsky, apparently contributed to it), which reached M. Bulgakov, who told about it in "Theatrical Novel" : “What mournful eyes he has ...<...>He once killed a friend in a duel in Pyatigorsk ... and now this friend comes to him at night, nodding his head in the moonlight at the window.

V. A. Olenina recalled the Decembrist E. Obolensky. "This unfortunate one had a duel - and killed - since Orestes, pursued by the furies, did not find peace anywhere." Olenina knew Obolensky until December 14, but the pupil of M.I. Muravyov-Apostol, who grew up in Siberia, A.P. Sozonovich, recalls: “This unfortunate event tormented him all his life.” Neither education, nor trial, nor hard labor softened this experience. The same can be said about a number of other cases.

Conversations about Russian culture:

Life and traditions of the Russian nobility (XVIII-beginning of the XIX century)

Lotman Yu.M. Conversations about Russian culture: Life and traditions of the Russian nobility (XVIII-beginningXIXcentury) - St. Petersburg, 2000.

Questions and tasks for the text:

What role did the ball play in the life of a Russian nobleman, according to Lotman?

Was the ball different from other forms of entertainment?

How were nobles prepared for balls?

In what literary works did you come across a description of the ball, the attitude towards it or individual dances?

What is the meaning of the word dandyism?

Restore the model of the appearance and behavior of the Russian dandy.

What role did the duel play in the life of a Russian nobleman?

How were duels treated in tsarist Russia?

How was the duel ritual carried out?

Give examples of duels in history and literary works?

Lotman Yu.M. Conversations about Russian culture: Life and traditions of the Russian nobility (XVIII-early XIX century)

Dancing was an important structural element of noble life. Their role differed significantly both from the function of dances in the folk life of that time, and from the modern one.

In the life of a Russian metropolitan nobleman of the 18th - early 19th centuries, time was divided into two halves: staying at home was devoted to family and household concerns - here the nobleman acted as a private person; the other half was occupied by service - military or civilian, in which the nobleman acted as a loyal subject, serving the sovereign and the state, as a representative of the nobility in the face of other estates. The opposition of these two forms of behavior was filmed in the “meeting” crowning the day - at a ball or a dinner party. Here the social life of a nobleman was realized ... he was a nobleman in the noble assembly, a man of his class among his own.

Thus, on the one hand, the ball turned out to be a sphere opposite to the service - an area of easy communication, secular recreation, a place where the boundaries of the official hierarchy were weakened. The presence of ladies, dances, the norms of secular communication introduced off-duty value criteria, and the young lieutenant, deftly dancing and able to make the ladies laugh, could feel superior to the aging colonel who had been in battles. On the other hand, the ball was an area of public representation, a form of social organization, one of the few forms of collective life permitted in Russia at that time. In this sense, secular life received the value of a public cause. The answer of Catherine II to the question of Fonvizin is characteristic: “Why are we not ashamed to do nothing?” - "... to live in society is not to do anything" 16 .

Since the time of the Petrine assemblies, the question of the organizational forms of secular life has also become acute. Forms of recreation, communication of youth, calendar ritual, which were basically common to both the people and the boyar-noble environment, had to give way to a specifically noble structure of life. The internal organization of the ball was made a task of exceptional cultural importance, since it was called upon to give forms of communication between "gentlemen" and "ladies", to determine the type of social behavior within the noble culture. This entailed the ritualization of the ball, the creation of a strict sequence of parts, the allocation of stable and mandatory elements.. The grammar of the ball arose, and it itself formed into a kind of holistic theatrical performance, in which each element (from the entrance to the hall to the departure) corresponded to typical emotions, fixed values, behavior styles. However, the strict ritual, which brought the ball closer to the parade, made possible retreats all the more significant, “ballroom liberties”, which increased compositionally towards its finale, building the ball as a struggle between “order” and “freedom”.

Dance training began early - from the age of five or six. So, for example, Pushkin began to learn dancing already in 1808...

Early dance training was excruciating and resembled the tough training of an athlete or the training of a recruit by an industrious sergeant major. The compiler of the “Rules”, published in 1825, L. Petrovsky, himself an experienced dance master, describes some of the methods of initial training in this way, condemning not the method itself, but only its too harsh application: “The teacher should pay attention to the fact that students from strong stress was not tolerated in health. Someone told me that his teacher considered him an indispensable rule that the student, despite his natural inability, should keep his legs to the side, like him, in a parallel line ... As a student, he was 22 years old, fairly decent in height and considerable legs, moreover, faulty; then the teacher, unable to do anything himself, considered it a duty to use four people, of whom two twisted their legs, and two held their knees. No matter how much this one shouted, they only laughed and did not want to hear about the pain - until finally it cracked in the leg, and then the tormentors left him ... "

The aristocratic simplicity of the movements of people of “good society” both in life and in literature is opposed by stiffness or excessive swagger (the result of a struggle with one’s own shyness) of the gestures of a commoner ...

The ball at the beginning of the 19th century began with the Polish (polonaise), which replaced the minuet in the solemn function of the first dance. The minuet has become a thing of the past along with royal France...

In War and Peace, Tolstoy, describing Natasha's first ball, contrasts the polonaise, which opens "the sovereign, smiling and leading the mistress of the house out of time" ... to the second dance - the waltz, which becomes the moment of Natasha's triumph.

Pushkin described it like this:

Monotonous and insane

Like a whirlwind of young life,

The waltz whirl is whirling noisily;

The couple flashes by the couple.

The epithets "monotonous and insane" have not only an emotional meaning. “Monotonous” - because, unlike the mazurka, in which solo dances and the invention of new figures played a huge role at that time, and even more so from the dance - playing the cotillion, the waltz consisted of the same constantly repeating movements. The feeling of monotony was also intensified by the fact that "at that time the waltz was danced in two steps, and not in three steps, as it is now" 17 . The definition of the waltz as "mad" has a different meaning: ... the waltz ... enjoyed a reputation in the 1820s as an obscene or at least unnecessarily free dance ... Genlis in the "Critical and Systematic Dictionary of Court Etiquette": "Young a person, lightly dressed, throws herself into the arms of a young man, who presses her to his chest, who carries her away with such swiftness that her heart involuntarily begins to beat, and her head goes round! This is what this waltz is! .. Modern youth is so natural that, putting refinement at nothing, they dance waltzes with glorified simplicity and passion.

Not only the boring moralist Genlis, but also the fiery Werther Goethe considered the waltz a dance so intimate that he swore that he would not allow his future wife to dance it with anyone but himself...

However, the words of Genlis are also interesting in another respect: the waltz is opposed to classical dances as romantic; passionate, crazy, dangerous and close to nature, he opposes the etiquette dances of the old days. The “simplicity” of the waltz was acutely felt ... The waltz was admitted to the balls of Europe as a tribute to the new time. It was a fashionable and youthful dance.

The sequence of dances during the ball formed a dynamic composition. Each dance ... set a certain style of not only movements, but also conversation. In order to understand the essence of the ball, one must keep in mind that the dances were only an organizing core in it. The chain of dances also organized the sequence of moods... Each dance entailed decent topics of conversation for it... An interesting example of a change in the topic of conversation in a sequence of dances is found in Anna Karenina. "Vronsky went through several waltz rounds with Kitty"... She expects words of recognition from him that should decide her fate, but an important conversation needs a corresponding moment in the dynamics of the ball. It is possible to lead it by no means at any moment and not at any dance. “During the quadrille, nothing significant was said, there was an intermittent conversation ... But Kitty did not expect more from the quadrille. She waited with bated breath for the mazurka. It seemed to her that everything should be decided in the mazurka.

The mazurka formed the center of the ball and marked its climax. The mazurka was danced with numerous bizarre figures and a male solo constituting the climax of the dance... Within the mazurka there were several distinct styles. The difference between the capital and the provinces was expressed in the opposition of the "refined" and "bravura" performance of the mazurka...

Russian dandyism.

The word "dandy" (and its derivative - "dandyism") is difficult to translate into Russian. Rather, this word is not only conveyed by several Russian words that are opposite in meaning, but also defines, at least in the Russian tradition, very different social phenomena.

Born in England, dandyism included a national opposition to French fashions, which caused violent indignation among English patriots at the end of the 18th century. N. Karamzin in "Letters from a Russian Traveler" described how, during his (and his Russian friends') walks around London, a crowd of boys threw mud at a man dressed in French fashion. In contrast to the French "refinement" of clothing, English fashion canonized the tailcoat, which had previously been only clothing for riding. "Rough" and sporty, it was perceived as the national English. Pre-revolutionary French fashion cultivated elegance and sophistication, while English fashion permitted extravagance and put forward originality as the highest value. Thus, dandyism was painted in tones of national specificity and in this sense, on the one hand, it connected with romanticism, and on the other hand, it adjoined the anti-French patriotic sentiments that swept Europe in the first decades of the 19th century.

From this point of view, dandyism took on the color of romantic rebellion. It was focused on the extravagance of behavior that offended secular society, and on the romantic cult of individualism. A demeanor offensive to the world, "indecent" swagger of gestures, demonstrative shock - all forms of the destruction of secular prohibitions were perceived as poetic. This lifestyle was characteristic of Byron.

At the opposite pole was that interpretation of dandyism, which was developed by the most famous dandy of the era - George Bremmel. Here, individualistic contempt for social norms took on other forms. Byron contrasted the pampered world with the energy and heroic rudeness of the romantic, Bremmel contrasted the pampered refinement of the individualist with the rough philistinism of the "secular crowd" 19 . This second type of behavior Bulwer-Lytton later attributed to the hero of the novel "Pelham, or the Adventures of a Gentleman" (1828) - a work that aroused Pushkin's admiration and influenced some of his literary ideas and even, at some moments, his everyday behavior ...

The art of dandyism creates a complex system of its own culture, which outwardly manifests itself in a kind of "poetry of a refined suit" ... The hero of Bulwer-Lytton proudly says to himself that he "introduced starched ties" in England. He, "by the power of his example" ... "ordered to wipe the lapels of his over the knee boots with 20 champagne."

Pushkinsky Eugene Onegin "at least three hours / Spent in front of the mirrors."

However, tailcoat cut and similar fashion attributes are only the outward expression of dandyism. They are too easily imitated by the profane, to whom his inner aristocratic essence is inaccessible... A man must make a tailor, not a tailor - a man.

The Bulwer-Lytton novel, which is, as it were, a fictionalized program of dandyism, became widespread in Russia, it was not the cause of the emergence of Russian dandyism, rather, on the contrary: Russian dandyism aroused interest in the novel ...

It is known that Pushkin, like his hero Charsky from Egyptian Nights, could not stand the role of “poet in secular society” so cute for romantics like the Dollmaker. The words are autobiographical: “The public looks at him (the poet) as if they were their own property; in her opinion, he was born for her "benefit and pleasure" ...

The dandyism of Pushkin's behavior is not in an imaginary commitment to gastronomy, but in frank mockery, almost impudence ... It is impudence, covered with mocking politeness, that forms the basis of the behavior of a dandy. The hero of Pushkin's unfinished "Novel in Letters" accurately describes the mechanism of dandy impudence: "Men are superbly dissatisfied with my fatuite indolente, which is still new here. They are all the more furious because I am extremely courteous and decent, and they do not understand what exactly my impudence consists of - although they feel that I am impudent.

Typical dandy behavior was known among Russian dandies long before the names of Byron and Bremmel, as well as the word "dandy" itself, became known in Russia ... Karamzin in 1803 described this curious phenomenon of the fusion of rebellion and cynicism, the transformation of egoism into a kind of religion and a mocking attitude towards all the principles of "vulgar" morality. The hero of “My Confession” proudly tells about his adventures: “I made a lot of noise on my journey - by jumping in country dances with important ladies of the German Princely Courts, deliberately dropping them on the ground in the most obscene way; and most of all, by kissing the pope's shoes with the good Catholics, biting his leg, and making the poor old man scream with all his might ... In the prehistory of Russian dandyism, many notable characters can be noted. Some of them are the so-called wheezing ... "Wheezing" as a phenomenon that has already passed is mentioned by Pushkin in the versions of "House in Kolomna":

Guardsmen protracted,

You wheezers

(but your wheezing fell silent) 21.

Griboedov in "Woe from Wit" calls Skalozub: "Wheepy, strangled, bassoon." The meaning of these military jargons of the era before 1812 remains incomprehensible to the modern reader ... All three names of Skalozub (“Wheezy, strangled, bassoon”) speak of a constricted waist (cf. the words of Skalozub himself: “And the waist is so narrow”). This also explains Pushkin's expression "Protracted Guardsmen" - that is, tied in the belt. Tightening the belt to rival the female waist - hence the comparison of a constricted officer with a bassoon - gave the military fashionista the appearance of a "strangled man" and justified calling him a "wheeper". The idea of a narrow waist as an important feature male beauty lasted for several more decades. Nicholas I was tightly tied, even when his belly grew back in the 1840s. He preferred to endure intense physical suffering in order to maintain the illusion of a waist. This fashion captured not only the military. Pushkin proudly wrote to his brother about the slenderness of his waist...

Spectacles played a big role in the behavior of the dandy - a detail inherited from the dandies of the previous era. Back in the 18th century, glasses acquired the character of a fashionable part of the toilet. A look through glasses was equated to looking at someone else's face point-blank, that is, a bold gesture. The decency of the 18th century in Russia forbade the younger in age or rank to look through glasses at the elders: this was perceived as impudence. Delvig recalled that at the Lyceum it was forbidden to wear glasses and that therefore all women seemed to him beautiful, ironically adding that, having graduated from the Lyceum and acquiring glasses, he was very disappointed ... Dandyism introduced its own shade into this fashion: a lorgnette appeared, perceived as a sign anglomania...

A specific feature of dandy behavior was also the examination in the theater through a telescope not of the stage, but of the boxes occupied by the ladies. Onegin emphasizes the dandyism of this gesture by the fact that he looks "squinting", and looking at unfamiliar ladies in this way is double insolence. The feminine equivalent of "daring optics" was a lorgnette, if it was not directed to the stage...

Another feature everyday dandyism - a pose of disappointment and satiety ... However, "premature old age of the soul" (Pushkin's words about the hero of the "Prisoner of the Caucasus") and disappointment could be perceived in the first half of the 1820s not only in an ironic way. When these properties were manifested in the character and behavior of people like P.Ya. Chaadaev, they took on a tragic meaning...

However, "boredom" - the blues - was too common for the researcher to dismiss it. For us, it is especially interesting in this case because it characterizes everyday behavior. So, like Chaadaev, the spleen drives Chatsky out of the border ...

Spleen as a reason for the spread of suicides among the British was mentioned by N.M. Karamzin in Letters from a Russian Traveler. It is all the more noticeable that in the Russian noble life of the era we are interested in, suicide from disappointment was a fairly rare occurrence, and it was not included in the stereotype of dandy behavior. His place was taken by a duel, reckless behavior in war, a desperate game of cards ...

Between the behavior of the dandy and different shades of political liberalism of the 1820s there were intersections ... However, their nature was different. Dandyism is primarily behavior, not theory or ideology 22 . In addition, dandyism is limited to a narrow sphere of everyday life ... Inseparable from individualism and at the same time invariably dependent on observers, dandyism constantly fluctuates between a claim to rebellion and various compromises with society. His limitations lie in the limitations and inconsistency of fashion, in the language of which he is forced to speak with his era.

The dual nature of Russian dandyism created the possibility of its twofold interpretation... It was this duality that became a characteristic feature of the strange symbiosis of dandyism and Petersburg bureaucracy. English habits of everyday behavior, the manners of an aging dandy, as well as decency within the boundaries of the Nikolaev regime - such will be the path of Bludov and Dashkov. The “Russian dandy” Vorontsov was destined for the fate of the Commander-in-Chief of the Separate Caucasian Corps, the Viceroy of the Caucasus, Field Marshal General and His Grace Prince. Chaadaev, on the other hand, has a completely different fate: an official declaration of insanity. The rebellious Byronism of Lermontov will no longer fit within the boundaries of dandyism, although, reflected in Pechorin's mirror, he will reveal this ancestral connection that is receding into the past.

Duel.

A duel (duel) is a pair fight taking place according to certain rules, with the goal of restoring honor ... Thus, the role of the duel is socially significant. The duel... cannot be understood outside the very specifics of the concept of "honor" in the general system of ethics of the Russian Europeanized post-Petrine noble society...

A Russian nobleman of the 18th - early 19th centuries lived and acted under the influence of two opposing regulators of social behavior. As a loyal subject, a servant of the state, he obeyed the order ... But at the same time, as a nobleman, a man of a class that was both a socially dominant corporation and a cultural elite, he obeyed the laws of honor. The ideal that noble culture creates for itself implies the complete expulsion of fear and the establishment of honor as the main legislator of behavior ... From these positions, medieval knightly ethics is undergoing a certain restoration. ... The behavior of a knight is not measured by defeat or victory, but has a self-contained value. This is especially evident in relation to the duel: danger, coming face to face with death become purifying agents that remove insult from a person. The offended person himself must decide (the correct decision indicates the degree of his possession of the laws of honor): is dishonor so insignificant that a demonstration of fearlessness is enough to remove it - a show of readiness for battle ... A person who is too easy to reconcile may be considered a coward, unjustifiably bloodthirsty - a breter.

The fact that the duel is an innovation was clearly indicated by Catherine II: “Prejudices, not received from ancestors, but adopted or superficial, alien” 24 ...

Montesquieu pointed out the reasons for the negative attitude of the autocratic authorities to the custom of the duel: “Honor cannot be the principle of despotic states: there all people are equal and therefore cannot exalt themselves over each other; there all the people are slaves and therefore cannot exalt themselves over anything... Can a despot tolerate it in his state? She places her glory in contempt for life, and the whole strength of a despot lies only in the fact that he can take life. How could she herself endure a despot?"...

On the other hand, the duel was criticized by democratic thinkers, who saw in it a manifestation of the class prejudice of the nobility and opposed noble honor to human, based on Reason and Nature. From this position, the duel was made the object of educational satire or criticism... A. Suvorov's negative attitude towards the duel is known. Freemasons also reacted negatively to the duel.

Thus, in a duel, on the one hand, the narrow class idea of protecting corporate honor could come to the fore, and on the other hand, the universal, despite archaic forms, idea of protecting human dignity ...

The view of the duel as a means of protecting one's human dignity was not alien to Pushkin either. In the Kishinev period, Pushkin found himself in the position of a civilian young man, offensive to his vanity, surrounded by people in officer uniforms who had already proved their undoubted courage in the war. This explains his exaggerated scrupulousness during this period in matters of honor and almost bribery behavior. The Chisinau period is marked in the memoirs of contemporaries by the numerous challenges of Pushkin 25 . A typical example is his duel with Lieutenant Colonel S.N. Starov... Pushkin's bad behavior during the dances in the officer's assembly caused the duel... The duel was held according to all the rules: there was no personal hostility between the shooters, and the impeccable observance of the ritual during the duel aroused mutual respect in both. Careful observance of the ritual of honor equalized the position of a civilian youth and a military lieutenant colonel, giving them an equal right to public respect ...

Breter's behavior as a means of social self-defense and assertion of one's equality in society, perhaps, attracted Pushkin's attention in these years to Voiture, a French poet of the 17th century, who asserted his equality in aristocratic circles with emphatic breter...

Pushkin's attitude to the duel is contradictory: as the heir to the enlighteners of the 18th century, he sees in it a manifestation of "secular enmity", which is "wildly ... afraid of false shame." In Eugene Onegin, the cult of the duel is supported by Zaretsky, a man of dubious honesty. However, at the same time, a duel is also a means of protecting the dignity of an offended person. She puts the mysterious poor Silvio on a par with Count B, the favorite of fate. 26 A duel is a prejudice, but an honor that is forced to turn to her help is not a prejudice.

Due to its duality, the duel implied the presence of a strict and carefully performed ritual ... No dueling codes could appear in the Russian press under the conditions of an official ban ... Strictness in observing the rules was achieved by appealing to the authority of connoisseurs, living bearers of tradition and arbiters in matters of honor. ..

The duel began with a challenge. He, as a rule, was preceded by a clash, as a result of which either side considered itself insulted and, as such, demanded satisfaction (satisfaction). From that moment on, the opponents were no longer supposed to enter into any communication: this was taken over by their representatives-seconds. Having chosen a second for himself, the offended discussed with him the severity of the offense inflicted on him, on which the nature of the future duel depended - from a formal exchange of shots to the death of one or both participants. After that, the second sent a written challenge to the enemy (cartel) ... It was the duty of the seconds to find all the possibilities, without prejudice to the interests of honor, and especially following the observance of the rights of their principal, for a peaceful solution to the conflict. Even on the battlefield, the seconds had to make one last attempt at reconciliation. In addition, the seconds work out the conditions for the duel. In this case, the unspoken rules instruct them to try to prevent irritated opponents from choosing more bloody forms of duel than required by the minimum of strict rules of honor. If reconciliation turned out to be impossible, as was the case, for example, in Pushkin's duel with Dantes, the seconds drew up written conditions and carefully monitored the strict execution of the entire procedure.

So, for example, the conditions signed by the seconds of Pushkin and Dantes were as follows (original in French): “The conditions for the duel between Pushkin and Dantes were as cruel as possible (the duel was designed for a fatal outcome), but the conditions for the duel between Onegin and Lensky, to our surprise , were also very cruel, although there was clearly no reason for a deadly enmity ...

1. Opponents stand at a distance of twenty steps from each other and five steps (for each) from barriers, the distance between which is equal to ten steps.

2. Opponents armed with pistols on this sign, going one on another, but in no case crossing the barriers, can shoot.

3. Moreover, it is assumed that after the shot the opponents are not allowed to change their place, so that the one who fired first will be subjected to the fire of his opponent at the same distance 27 .

4. When both sides make a shot, then in case of ineffectiveness, the duel is resumed as if for the first time: opponents are placed at the same distance of 20 steps, the same barriers and the same rules remain.

5. Seconds are indispensable mediators in any explanation between opponents at the battlefield.

6. The seconds, undersigned and vested with full authority, ensure, each for his side, with his honor, strict observance of the conditions set forth here.

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Life and traditions of the Russian nobility (XVIII-beginning of the XIX century)

Lotman Yu.M. Conversations about Russian culture: Life and traditions of the Russian nobility (XVIII-early XIX century)

Yu.M. Lotman. Life and traditions of the Russian nobility. Ball. Yu. M. Lotman Conversations about Russian culture. Life and traditions of the Russian nobility (XVIII-beginning of the XIX century)